^^" 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


11 1.8 


111.25 

1.4      1.6 

« 6"     

► 

m 


<^ 


""P: 


^3 


V 


y 


/A 


Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CiHM/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
reproduction,  or  which  m<)y  significantly  change 
the  usual  method  of  filming,  are  checked  below. 


n 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged/ 


Couverture  endommagee 


□    Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  restaurde  et/ou  pellicul6e 


I      I    Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


□    Coloured  maps/ 
Cjrtes  gdographiques  en  couleur 

r~7   Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
I— iJ    Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

r     I    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


0' 


n 


n 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  int6rieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pages  blanches  ajoutdes 
lors  dune  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  dtait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  6t6  filmdes. 

Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppl6mentaires; 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'il  lui  a  6t6  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  m^thode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiqu^s  ci-dessous. 


D 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 


□    Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommag6es 

□    Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurdes  et/ou  pelliculees 


Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  ddcolorees,  tachet^es  ou  piqu^es 


I      I    Pages  detached/ 


Pages  d^tach^es 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


[771    Showthrough/ 


I      I    Quality  of  print  varies/ 


Quality  inegale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 


D 

0 


Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

^Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  6t6  film6es  A  nouveau  de  facon  ci 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  film^  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqu6  ci-dessous. 

10X  14X  ISK  22X 


26X 


30X 


y 

12X 

16X 

20X 

24X 

28X 

32X 

The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Ralph  Pickard  Bell  Library 
Mount  Allison  University 

The  innages  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  —^>  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


L'exemplaire  film6  fut  reproduit  grdce  d  la 
g6n6rosit6  de: 

Ralph  Pickard  Bell  Library 
Mount  Allison  University 

Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettet6  de  I'exemplaire  filmd,  et  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprimde  sont  filmds  en  commen^ant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmds  en  commenpant  par  la 
premidre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  dernidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
dernidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbole  — *•  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbole  V  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  dtre 
filmds  d  des  taux  de  reduction  diffdrents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  dtre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clich6,  il  est  filmd  d  partir 
de  Tangle  supdrieur  gauche,  de  gauche  d  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  ndcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mdthode. 


32X 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

I 


*■■'  ■  vil 


I 


'     '      '     .  'V'  A 

H: 


■:  1'  .^'i>^^.;'^.^' 


■  '  i  f  ,  'A    -<■ 
I,   ».i    I  A     " 


'l;ii" 


.■■■  vf  ii  ^ 

■■■.■■;t.,7i,!    c 

i  1  = 


M 


«.  -  y«-^    Ti  »• 


i 


Triumphs  and  Wonders 


OF  THK 


19th  Century 


THK 


I 
•<5 


TRUE  MIRROR  OF  A  PHENOMENAL  ERA 


I  A  VOLUME  OF  ORIGINAL,  ENTERTAINING  AND  INSTRUCTIVE  HISTORIC 
I  AND   DESCRIPTIVE  WRITINGS,  SHOWING  THE    MANY   AND 

MARVELLOUS  ACHIEVEMENTS  WHICH  DISTINGUISH 

AN   HVNDRBD   YEARS 

I  :  OF  - 

iMatEfial,  IntellEctual,  Social  and  ^m\  progpe^^ 

EMBRACING  AS  SUBJECTS  ALL  THOSE  WHICH  BEST  TYPE  THE  GENIUS 
SPIRIT  AND  ENERGY  OF  THE  AGE,  AND  SERVE  TO  BRING  INTO 
BRIGHTEST  RELIEF  THE  GRAND  MARCH  OF  IMPROVE- 
MENT IN  THE  VARIOUS  DOMAINS  OF 
HUMAN  ACTIVITY. 


BY 


I  JAMBS  P.  BOYD,  A.M.,  L.B., 

Assisted  by  a  Corps  of  Thirty-Two  Eminent  and  Specially  Qualified  Authors. 


Copiouoh]  aiiD  flDaomt'iccnth^  llllu6tratc&. 

LIBRARY 


'  :'^' 


^i£^BTj;rvv->'^ 


A.  J.  HOLM  AN  &  CO.,  Publishers. 

PHILADRLPHFA,   PA. 


Copyright,  .Sgg,  ,v  w.  h.  Isbister. 

^//  A'?^///.f  Reserved. 


INTRODUCTORY 


Mkasitbinu  e])ochs,  or  ems,  by  spaces  of  a  hundrfd  years  each,  that  which 
ciiiliraces  the  iiineteentli  century  stands  out  in  sublime  and  encouragiu',' 
cciitrast  witli  any  tiiat  has  preceded  it.  As  the  legatee  of  all  j)rior  ccn- 
tuiii's,  it  has  enlarged  and  ennobled  its  beipiest  to  an  extent  unparalleled 
in  liistory;  while  it  has  at  the  same  time,  through  a  genius  and  energy 
luculiar  to  itself,  created  an  original  endowment  for  its  own  enjoyment 
;!iiil  for  the  future  richer  by  far  than  any  heretofore  recorded.  Indeed,) 
witliout  permitting  existing  and  pardonable  pride  to  endanger  rigid  truth, 
it  may  be  said  that  along  many  of  the  lines  of  invention  and  progress 
wiiicli  have  most  intimately  affected  the  life  and  civilization  of  the  world, 
the  nineteenth  century  has  achieved  triumphs  and  accomplished  wonders 
c{iu;d,  if  not  superior,  to  all  other  centuries  combined. 

'rherefore,  what  more  fitting  time  than  at  its  close  to  pass  in  pleasing 
and  instructive  review  the  numerous  material  and  intellectual  achievements 
tliiit  have  so  distinguished  it,  and  have  contributed  in  so  many  and  such 
marvelous  ways  to  the  great  advance  and  genuine  comfort  of  the  human 
race !  Or,  what  could  prove  a  greater  source  of  pride  and  profit  than  to 
compare  its  glorious  works  with  those  of  the  past,  the  better  to  understand 
and  measure  the  actual  steps  and  real  extent  of  the  progress  of  mankind ! 
Or,  what  more  delightful  and  inspiring  than  to  realize  that  the  sum  of 
tliose  wonderful  activities,  of  which  each  reader  is,  or  has  been,  a  part,  has 
gone  to  increase  the  grandeur  of  a  world  era  whose  rays  will  penetrate  and 
brighten  the  coming  centuries  ! 

Amid  so  many  and  such  strong  reasons  this  volume  finds  excellent  cause 
for  its  being.  Its  aims  are  to  mirror  a  wonderful  century  from  the  van- 
tage ground  of  its  closing  year ;  to  faithfully  trace  the  lines  which  mark 
its  almost  magical  advance ;  to  give  it  that  high  and  true  historic  place 
whence  its  contrasts  with  the  past  can  be  best  noted,  and  its  light  upon 
tlie  future  most  directly  thrown. 

This  task  would  be  clearly  beyond  the  ])Ower  of  a  single  mind.     So  rapid- 
has  progress  been  during  some  parts  of  the  century,  so  amazing  have  been 
results  along  the  lines  of  discovery  and  invention,  so  vario\is  have  been  the 
fields  of  action,  that  only  those  of  special  knowledge  and  training  could  be 
expected  to  do  full  justice  to  the  many  subjects  to  be  treated. 

Hence,  the  work  has  been  planned  so  as  to  give  it  a  value  far  beyond 
what  could  be  imparted  by  a  single  mind.  J^ach  of  the  themes  chosen  to 
tyj)e  the  century's  grand  march  has  been  treated  by  an  author  of  special 


1 


u 


INTHODUCrORY 


fitness,  and  liiyh  np  in  his  or  Ikt  piofessioii  or  calling,  with  a  view  to 
securing  for  readers  the  liest  tlioughts  and  facts  relating  to  the  remarkable 
events  of  an  hundred  years.  In  tliis  respect  the  volume  is  uni(iue  and  ori- 
ginal. Its  autliorship  is  not  of  one  mind,  but  of  a  corps  of  minds,  whose 
union  assures  what  the  occasion  demands. 

The  scojie,  character,  and  value  of  tlie  volume  furtlua'  ai)pear  in  its  very 
large  number  and  practical  feature  of  subjects  selected  to  show  the  active 
forces,  the  upward  aiul  onward  movements,  and  the  grand  results  that  have 
operated  within,  and  triumpliantly  crowned,  an  era  without  i)arallel.  These 
subjects  embrace  the  sciences  of  the  century  in  their  numerous  divisi(m8  and 
conquests ;  its  arts  and  literature ;  industrial,  commercial,  and  financial  jtro- 
gress  ;  land  and  sea  prowess  ;  educational,  social,  moral,  and  religious  growth ; 
in  fact,  every  field  of  enterprise  and  achievement  within  the  space  of  time 
covered  by  the  work. 

A  volume  of  such  variety  of  subject  and  great  extent  affords  fine  o])portu- 
nity  for  illustration.  The  jniblishers  have  taken  full  advantage  of  this,  and 
have  beautified  it  in  a  manner  which  commends  itself  to  every  eye  and  taste. 
llarely  has  a  volume  been  .so  highly  and  elegantly  embellished.  Each  sub- 
ject is  illuminated  so  as  to  increase  the  i)leasure  of  reading  and  make  an 
impression  which  will  prove*  lasting. 

As  to  its  aim  and  scope,  its  number  of  sjiecially  (qualified  authors,  its  vigor 
and  variety  of  style  and  thought,  its  historic  comprehensiveness  and  exact- 
ness, its  great  wealth  of  illustration,  its  superb  mechanism,  its  various  other 
striking  features,  the  volume  may  readily  rank  as  one  of  the  century's  tri- 
umphs, a  wonder  of  industrious  preparation,  and  acceptable  to  all.  At  any 
rate,  no  such  volume  has  ever  mirrored  any  previcms  century,  and  none  will 
come  to  reflect  the  nineteenth  century  with  truer  line  and  color. 

J^ot  .only  is  the  work  a  rare  and  costly  picture,  filled  in  with  inspiring 
details  by  master  hands,  but  it  is  equally  a  monument,  whose  solid  base, 
grand  pro])ortions,  and  elegant  finish  are  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the 
era  it  marks  and  the  results  it  honors.  Its  every  inscription  is  a  glowing 
tribute  to  human  achievement  of  whatever  kind  and  wherever  the  field  of 
action  may  lie,  and  therefore  a  happy  means  of  conveying  to  twentieth  cen- 
tury actors  the  story  of  a  time  whose  glories  they  will  find  it  hard  to  excel. 
May  this  picture  and  moniiment  be  viewed,  studied,  and  admired  by  all,  so 
that  the  momentous  chapters  which  round  the  history  of  a  closing  century 
shall  avail  in  shaping  the  beginnings  of  a  succeeding  one. 


i'ith  a  view   to 

the  remarkable 

luiciue  and  ori- 

luinds,  whose 

■ar  ill  its  very 
low  the  active 
ults  that  have 
irallel.  Tliese 
i  divisions  and 
financial  pro- 
j,'ioiis  growtJi; 
s])ace  of  time 

i  fine  o]iportu- 
e  of  this,  and 
eye  and  taste. 
1.  Each  sub- 
and  make  an 

lors,  its  vigor 
ss  and  exact- 
various  other 
century's  tri- 
al!. At  any 
Hid  none  will 

th  inspiring- 
J  solid  base, 
spirit  of  the 
is  a  glowing- 
the  field  of 
entieth  cen- 
ird  to  excel. 
3d  by  all,  so 
ing  century 


AUTHORS   AND  SUBJECTS 

.JAMI'.S   I',   novi),  A.  M.,   L.  It., 

WoMlKllS   OK    ICl.KC   IKK  IIY. 

RKAK-ADMIltAL  (Ji:oU(ii;   WAM.ACK   .MDI.VIM.K, 

ChUj  <;/  lUinau  of  titmm  F.n;ii,„ti-i„;i,  yar;/  Dejxtrlmiiit,    Wdilti'iu/lun,  I).  V. 
TlIK   ('KMiriiV's    Navai,    l'lult;ltl:.sM. 

SKI.DKX   .1.  COKFLV,  A.  M,, 

Prn/e^sur  of  .Ulniiwiiii/,  LnfiiyiUe  (JulUije,  J-:aston,  I'd. 
ASTIIONUMV    DCIilNfJ    TirK    ( 'kntIIIV. 

TIKiMAS    Mi;i:iIA\, 

Vice-Prifli/iiit  Acidniiij  »/  Xiitiiral  Sclmn-f,  J'ltiladeljihin. 
Sroiiv  (ii-  I'l.A.ST  ANi>  Ki,i)\vi:if. 

MAi.'V  i:i,i/ahi;tii  mcasi:, 

Flivt   ll',//„,r«  .rri/iil,iit  ,if  K,iii.-;,s  Stale  It.mrd  of  Chnritias. 

I'i<«>(iiii:.ss  UK  \Vo:\ii;.v  within  thk  ('i:xrri!v. 

liOltKKT   I'.  MAINS, 

■J'nnajHtl  l-U<mi,i,r  of  T,.,lil,,,  fuil.d  Stohs  l;,u,u  Oj/u-,',   WiohiiK/tuu,  D.C. 

TlIK    (   KNTI  ItV's    TkXTILK   PliOGIlKSS. 

(;K()l{(iK    KDWAltl)    I!i;i:i),   S.  T.  D.,   LL.  I)., 

I'rimlnit  if  DU-khifoii  Coll,',,,;  Cnrllsl,',  I'a. 

TlIK    Cic.NTIKy's    liKI.Kllurs   pHOdUKSS. 

.lAMKS    I'.   IJ(.Vl),   A.  M.,  L.  U., 

GliKAT    (JlidWTU    <)|-    I,I|lltAI!ll:.S. 

AVrr.MAM    MAIM'IX   AIKKX,    K.  A.  F.  A, 

Formr  i'nlNd  Stole,  S„,„rrU!,>;,  Arrl<i,„;,  Tno,„r;,  /),;,ort„„nl,    ]V„,ln„„to„    /)    C 
I'ltotiltKSS    OF    TlIK   CkNTIKV    IN    A  l!(l[rn;(  TIIIK. 

IIAliVKY    W.  WILKY,  M.  I).,   I'll.  1..,   i,|..  |, 

Clu.fClnn,;st  iflVnMou  offhmUtnj,  A;im;,ltund  I >,■,,„ rl n„  nt,  ' Washi,„jton,  D.  C. 
llIK    (KNTlIltY's    l'liO(;l!KSS    IN    ClIK.MISTKY. 

lilTKli   IITZGKKAI.l),  A.  >I., 

Dramutic  Critic  "  City  Jl,m,"  r/,il„d'el,,hin. 

TiiK  rENTruY's  Music  and  Dijama. 

JAMKS   v.   JJOYI),  A.  .^[.,   I..  B., 

TlIK   CeNTUKY's    I.ITKUATIItl:. 

MOUHIS  .lASTHOW,  .H{.,  PH.  D 

Professor  of  Sewiti,'  Lo,u,u,nn-s,   Clrer.it,,  of  pl„„sylvama. 
liiK  Hi;((>i{i)s  oi-  Tin:  Past. 
MAJOK   IIKXUV   v..  ALVOIM),  ('.  K     n    I) 
Chief  of  Dairy  fii,nsi,n,,  United  States  f>,'p„rl,ae„t  of  Auriculture^  Washin.jton,  D.  C. 
Pi{o<iHi:ss  IN  Dairy  Iak.mixi;. 
SAKA   Y.   STKVKXSOX,   Sr.  I) 
Secretory  of  Department  ,f  Arcloeolony  ond  Poleontoloyy,  I'nirersity  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  C'l-NTritY's  .Moisai.  PiiooiiEss. 
CHARLES   McIXTIIM:,   A.  M.,  M.  I)., 
Lecturer  on  Sanitary  Saem-e,  Lafayette  Colleye,  'Easton.  Pa. 
PuociUKss  OK  Sanitary  Science. 
LIEUTKXANT-COLOXKr.  ARTHUR   h.  WA(JXER, 
Assistant  Adjutant  General  United  States  Army. 
The  Centuky's  Ah.mies  ani>  Arms. 


Iv 


AUTIWKS  AND  SUJiJECTS 


WAI.Do  I.  IJKoWN, 

A'/i'ii'ultiiriil  Eililiir  "  ("nichiiinli  (iii:.illi-," 
TlIK   ('KNTLIIY'h    I'llOdltKMH   l.N    AliltK'Cl.TCilK. 

\VAI,Ti;U   I.OKINC   WKUU,  r.  I.., 

AttitluHl  I'riiJ'iHi'iir  iif't'iril  h'lii/iiiiirini/,   Cnirernih/  nj' I'i'nn.'ijlr(iHi(i. 

I'UimUV.HH  IN   (,'ivii.  KnoinkkiiiNo. 

I».  K.  SALMON',  M.  !>., 

t'liief  I'f  Hiireaii  nf  Animal  iHiliitlrij,  Ai/riciilliirnl  J)i/)iirliiitiil,   Wofhimjlim,  D.  ('. 

TiiK  Cknti'uy'.s  I'mxiiiKsH  in  tiik  A.nimai.  Woiii.d. 

MA.)(»l.'  (iKXKUAl,  J(»Si;i'II   Wlir.KLKI!, 

L'liltiil  States  Ariiii),  unit  Munlnf  nf  (Jiinijffaif rum  h'.iijlitli  AIhIhiiiki  Dlslricl. 

KKAIIINO    WaIIS   Ol'    TIIK    CkNTI  l!Y. 

(JEOHdK  .1.  IIACJAU, 

Kilitiir  <i/'  Aji/intilix  III  Kniijcliiinriliii  Hillaniili'd. 

TlIK   <'i;NTIUV'.S    FaIHS    AM)    Kxl"OSITI(I.N,s, 

HON.    lUiADIOlM)   UHODKS, 

Kititii}'  iif"  /{iiiikir'n  Afai/azliii'.'" 
TlIK   CKNTI'IIY's    I'lOXiKKSS    IN    ColNAdK,    ( 'fllltKNC  Y,    ANII    ItANKINtl. 

H.    K.   VAN    DKMAN, 

Late  l'ri>J'e.wir  uj'  liatani/  ami  I'riicllfdl  //i>rliciilliiri-,  Kniimi/i  Slntf  Ai/riciillural  Colleye. 

TlIK    (,'KNTrllY's    I'lKXillKSN    IN    I''|H'IT    ClI.TI  UK. 

KMOUY    li.  JOHNSON,  A.  M., 

AiMHtant  PriiJ'ifUur  nf  Trunniuiftiiiinu  anil  i'diiiiiiircf,  I'uirtn'ilii  iij'  I'eiiiisiilraniu. 

TlIK    CkNTI'KY'.H    CoMMKItClAI,    I'ltlXiUKSS. 

I'UANKLIN   S.    KDMOXDS,  A.  M., 

Assistant  I'rofessiir  of  I'lilillrnt  Srltnce,  Central  I/ii/li  School,  Pliiladeljtliia. 

The  t'KSTi'UY'.s  Ai)van<  k.**  in  KnitATios. 

THOMAS  .1.    I.INDSKY, 

Editorial  Slajl'  J'hlhtdil/iliin  "  J-Jnnlnr/  Bulletin/' 

"TlIK    Aur    I'HKSKIIVATIVK." 

(iK01{(iK  A.  PACKAKl), 

Afetalhiri/ist  anil  Mininij  Knijineer. 
I'lKxiiiKs.s  IN  Minks  and  Minin(>. 

■JOHN    A".  SKAUS, 

Art  Critic  Philadelphia  "  Kreninij  Telei/rajih." 

AllT    I'ltOlJItKSS   OF    TIIK   ("KNTIUY. 

,r.  MADISON   TAYLOR,    M.  1).,  and 
JOHN   n.  GIBHON,  M.  1)., 

Surgeons  Oiit-Patients  Departments  of  Pennsylvania  and  Children's  Hospitals. 
TlIK  Ckntuuy's  Advance  in  SntdKUY. 
FRANK  C.  HAMMOND,  M.  D., 
Instructor  in  Gyniecoloyy,  Jefferson  Medical  College. 
I'mXlKESS  OF  Mkdicink. 

E    E.  RUSSELL  TRATMAN,   C.  E., 

Assistant  Editor  of  "  Kngineerimj  News,"  Chicago,  III. 
Evolution  of  tiik  Kailkoad. 

LL'THER   E.   HEWITT,  L.  IJ., 

Librarian  of  Philadelphia  I^nw  Association. 

Advanck  IX  Law  and  Justice. 

MICHAEL  J.   IJROWN, 

Secretary  of  liiiilding  Association  League  of  Pennsylrania. 

PROGKKSS   OF    HllI.niNO    AND   LoAX   ASSOCIATIONS. 

REV.  A.   LEFFINCaVELL, 

Rector  Trinity  Church,  Toledo,  0. 
Epoch  Makeks  of  tiik  Ckntfhy. 


U.  V. 


ANALYSIS  OF  CONTENTS 


Ii7. 


/  Colleye. 


WON'DKItS  (»!•    i;i  Ki  TUKITY 

I.   At  nil:  |)a\vn  dk  riiK  ('KNiriiv;       l'.arlii«t  Oli- Tvatidii' nii  Kli'ctririty  —  Study  iif  Ainhor  — 

Kailii'^l  ICIcciric  Mailiiiic^  —  i 'niiiliuliipii  of  I'.lcdririty       Tlir  l.iyd lar — Kraiikliii's  l»i.-.nivcrii'«, 

II.  Ni;w  \iM-.i  i:i;.N  III  (i-Mritv  I'J.kithk  iiy  :  —  lial\aiii>iii  — 'I'lic  Vultaic  I'ili'  •  l>a\y's  Arc- 
linlit  Till'  l',liclrii-iiia(;iii't  —  l'aiailay'«  lti>ciiviTii's  —  'I'lii'  Imliutidii  ('nil  —  I'iclilMif  I'lJicr.  III. 
Tin.  TisLiiiKAi'ii;  —  l''ii'*i  Siiiii'««liil  TiUjrnipliy  —  'I'lii'  Mnisc  ,Sy>lriii  —  Iiii|priivcmi'iii^  in  Tele- 
|ri„|,liv  —  ( (craii 'I'l'liKi'iijiliy.  IV.  IJKM.oI  lli;i.i.<il  —  liu  ciilion  cif  tlic  IV1c|i1iiimi' —  I'liiuipli' cjf 
till'  rclr|]|"iiii' — 'rraii>iuilli'r  ami  Uiicivci' — r«f><  of  llic  'rcli'|ili(iin' —  Tlir  l'li(pii(i>;ra|ili,  (iraiii- 
(iplKHif,  anil  (iiiipliii|p|i(nii'.  V.  I>y.\a.mii  am>  Mmuit:  —  The  l''ir>t  .Miit<ir— I'ci'tVi  lion  nt  ilio 
|l\naiiiii — ll<iw  it  Hfiicratr-*  Klictrnity  —  I'liiiciplr  ami  I'scs  uf  Ilic  .Mnlor.  VI.  "  .\.M>  iiikuk 
WAS  I.kiiit:  " — Vaiiiins  l,i;;lils  of  llir  l'a>t  —  lira  nf  ICici'liic  MnlilinK -"  -^i'' '""'  Im  amli-niit 
Laiiips  —  rrincipli's  of  JCacli  —  Vahu'  of  lllcciric  l.iplil.  VII.  I'.i.kciiik'  I.ikomoi  io.n:  —  I'a--in>{ 
of  the  IIoisc  ami  'rractioii  Car —  liitiuilmtion  of  ilir  'I'rolli'y  —  iMiilnrci  of  tlic  Klcitrir  liaihvay 
—  'rill'  Sloraj.'!'  llaltrry  ami  lloisclt'ss  Currlaifc.  VIII.  'I'liK  X  I!ay:  -^  IHscovcry  of —  What  tlio 
X  Hay  is— I'hotiittrapliinj;  li,.  M^'ans  of  the  .V  Kay.  IX.  Utiikk  Ki.kitiik.'Ai,  Wundkhm:  — 
Klcitric  Clocks— KU'i'trotyipiiiKiiii  I  I'.lcctniplatinj,',  ctf.    X.    Ki.iaritU'Ai-  LASdUAoK    .    .  Ul-'A 


tills. 


Ti'K  CENTUltVS   "    vVAI.   i'KOdKKSS 

,   Infm  KNTK  OF  Si-:a   Powkk;  —  S  a   Tuivrrs  tlironfrliont    the   World  —  Kniiincrntion   of  Ocnt 
Niival  Wars.     II.   'I'iie  Ci:ntl'i.v'>  ';i;i>\vtii  in  Xavai,  STiii;.N<irii:  —  .Vim'rican  Xavio  at  |i|f- 

fcrciit   'rae — IJiropcan   Klert S.>;iili  Anmricaii  and  Chimsi'  Xuvics.     III.   'I'lii-;  Hati  i.i'..-iiii> 

I'asT  AM)  I    .i:.si;.nt:  —  'rii.'iiid  I' i;;litiiijr  Kri^jatu  —  Kvcdiilion  of  llic  Modirn  .Man-of-Wai  —  Com- 

paii-i f  Krii;ali' with  Iniiitlad.     IV.    I'ikmikks.s  ok  Navai,  Kxiii.vKKmMi:  —  Xidxin'.^  Vi>ioii 

The  U,M1()  .Miles  Stfaininff  of  thi  ( iici^on  —  Kevolulion  in  .Mcclianisin  and  Material  -  -  Type*  of 
(ircat  Ualllesliip--  —  Introduction  and  Advantage-^  'd' Steam  —  Iiiveiitioii  of  the  Screw  l'rop(dler  — 
Iniprovenieiil  in  Hollers  and  ICnfiines  —  The  Kevolvin;;  I'Miet  —  Crniser  and  Torpedo  ('raft  — 
I'hcnonicnal  .Speed.  V.  TllK  (iuinvni  ol'  Oudnanck;  —  Description  of  Various  (inn>  ami  I'ro- 
jeitiics — Power  of  Modern  Kxpl(»ives.  VI.  'I'llK  Dkvki.iiI'MKNT  ol'  .VliMou:  —  llsXecosity 
in  N'aval  Warfare — How  it  is  made,  tested,  and  put  on.  VII.  'I'iik  I!am  am>  Toni'Kiio:  — 
Kvolutnm  of  the  Kam  —  Intnalm'tioii  of  the  Torpedo  —Various  Kinds  of  Torpedoes.  VIII.  Tiik 
rxiTKl)  SrATKS  Ki.ekt:  —  Whence  it  s]irani;  ami  how  it  has  f;rown — Its  .Ships,  Ollicers,  and 
Men  — OUk'ial  Xaval  Kuiiks  —  The  Xaval  .Vcadcniy  —  ras>a;,'e  of  the  United  States  to  u  World 
I'ower D5-8(> 


ASTRONOMY   Dl'HIXG  THE  CENTURY 

.  AsTHOXoMY  A  CENTt'iiY  A«o:  —  Discovery  of  Uranus.  II.  How  "Roue's  Law"  i'rom"TE!> 
Hksi;ai!<'|i:  —  Further  Discovery  of  Planets  —  Celestial  Photoffraphy.  III.  How  Xkpti:nk  was 
Kor.s'i>:  —  Le  Vcrrier,  "First  Astronomer  of  the  .Vi;e."  IV.  .METKoitirKs: — .Meteoric  Sliowers 
—  Various  I.nrnc  Meteorites.  V.  Do  .Metkoks  often  strike  the  Kahtii:  — The  "Fire-hall" 
of  I8li0.  VI.  AsTHoxoMlcAi.  ( )ltsEUVAT<iltiEs:  —  Their  l'',(iuipim'nt  and  Work  —  Numln'r  of  Ob- 
servatories. VII.  Imi'1{ovei>  rNSTlttJlENTs;  —  Their  I'ltTect  on  the  Science.  VHI.  I'llE  SpEC- 
thoscoi'e:  —  Its  Triumphs  —  Klenicnts  discovered.  IX.  WouK  in  .v  Lakgk  OiisEiivAToitv:  — 
Discovery  of  Comets  ami  Nehnhe.  X.  WAsiiixciToN  National  < >hsekvato|{y:  —  Its  Instru- 
ments. XI.  Stak  Mats  and  Catalooces:  —  Numlier  of  Stars  —  The  Planisphere.  XII. 
AsTKoxoMiCAi,  Hooks  ani>  Wuitehs:  —  Numlierof  Students  of  .Vstroiiomy.  XIII.  Pkacticai., 
Uses  of  .\stkono.my:  —  Its  Help  in  Navigation — Uses  in  (ieodcsy.  XIV.  Notahi.k  Astuo- 
Nomk'AI.,  Epochs:  —  (.'lock  Rcjculation — Invention  of  Chronofrraph  ami  Spectroscope  —  (ireat 
Telescopes.  XV.  Discaiided  Tiieohies:  —  .Vre  Planets  inhabited? — The  Orrery.  XVI.  Fr- 
TURE  Asthoxomicai,  Pkoule.ms:  —  How  long  will  tlie  Sun  endure? 87-104 


vi  ANALYSIS   OF  CONTEXTS 

STORY   OK   I'l.ANT   AND   I'LOWKU 

Early  Ilistdiy  of  Hotaiiy  —  The  KatlitT  nf  .Modciii  Itdtiiny  —  Holaiiy  ut  the  Ik'Riiiiiiiip  of  the  Niiic- 
tufiitli  Cfiiliiry  -  Naliiial  Sy>li'ii>  of  ( 'la.->iliialioii  —  Advance  in  Study  of  I'lant  Heliavior  — 
Illiistralioiis  from  llie  I'caiuit  and  (irapi'-vini'  —  Plant  Motions  as  rufjards  Forms — ()rif;in  and 
Di'Vi'lopnicnt  of  I'lant  Ufe  -  Tlif  Doitrini'  id  I'.vcdnlion  -Nutrition  of  Plants  -  Fertilization  (d 
Flowers -- Inseetivorons  and  Crmd  Plants —  Vc^etalde  I'livsiulo^^y — Advanee  in  Kelation  In 
Cryptopimie  I'lan's — (ieofjrapliieal  Botany  —  Ilerliarimns  and  liotanieal  (iardens  .     .     .  J(I5  IH 

PUOOKFSS   OF   WOMFN    WITHIN    TIIK   CKNTrKY 

Woman's  A[iseoin'e]itiini  id'  her  Ki;;lits  —  Former  ( (ppri'ssion  —  Cosmic  and  Moral  Processes  —  What 
Christianity  has  done  for  Women  llanlship  id'  the  Panlinc  (.inp  The  Trin'  Mission  of  Wonnin 
—  linprovemeid  in  her  ICdncalion  —  Fenmle  Oeenpations  —  Competitimi  with  Men  —  Woman  in 
the  Literary  Field  —  In  I'hilantliropy  and  Morals  —  Women's  Chilis  -Woman  in  I'olitics  -  The 
constantly  IJroadeiiing  Field  of  Woman's  Inlliieiiee 115-1:24 


TIIK   CFNTIKY'S    TFXTII.K   PKOtiUKSS 

Aiitiijuity  of  Textile    Indiislrv  —  The  jlistall',  Spindle,  and   I in   amon;j   Chinese,   Kfiyiitians,  ami 

(ireeks  —  liitrodnction  of  the  Spiniiiiij^-wlieel  —  I.imin  of  the  l'.i;;liteenlli  Century  -  The  Fly- 
shuttle  —  Textiles  at  the  Itci^iniiin};  ol  the  Nineteeiiili  ( 'eiitnry  —  Invention  of  the  Spinning;-  .lenn\ 

—  Arliwri;;hl's  Drawiiifr-roUers  —  Whitney's  ( 'iitton-;;in  —  Its  Inllnein'e  —  Invention  of  the  Spin- 
ninjj;-miile — The  Spinninfj-frame  —  Kapiil  Improvenienls  in  Spiniiini;'  Maeliiliery  ■  -  ICvolntimi  ol 
the  Spindle  —  Increase  of  Speed  Introduction  of  the  Canlin;;-niailiine  —  Cardiii.i;-conilis  —  Ad- 
vent of  Power-looms — Description  of  their  Machinery  and  Products — The  .lac(|Uard  Loom — 
Of  Pile  Fahrics  —  The  IJif^elow  Loom  —  How  Tufted  Pile  Fahrics  are  made  —  Weaviiij;  of  Faiuy 
Cloths  —  Yarioiis  Forms  of  Looms  —  Hair-cloth  Looms  —  Weaviiifj  of  Tiihular  Fahrics  -  Inlinitiide 
of  Uses  to  which  the  Loom  can  he  put  -Tiie  ('oniiiii;  Automatic  Lo.iiii  —  Advent  id'  the  Knittiiif;- 
inaehine  —  Its  Wonderful  Perfection  and  Products — I'he  Century's  Patents  of  Textile  Jlaeliiiieiy 

—  Ueautv  of  Textile  Art — Its  lullneme  on  Taste  and  (.'oinfort P2")  14ii 


THE  CENTURY'S  RELIGIOFS    PROtiRESS 

Religious  Status  in  l^ifthteeiith  Ceiilury,  in  I".ii;;land,  France,  and  on  the  Continent  —  Condition  in 
the  United  Slates  —  The  Reif^n  of  Skepticism  —  Doctrinal  Divisions  in  the  ( 'hurehes  -  The  Nine- 
teenth Century  Revival  —  Variety  and  (irowlli  of  Religions  in  the  rnited  Stales  —  Freedom  of  llu- 
Church  —  Kinship  of  Denominations  —  Iiiereiise  in  Material  anil  .Spiritual  Forces — Church  Fdi 
(ices  and  Capacities —  Reliiiious  Population  ~  Nnniher  of  Communicants —  Distrihiition  of  Coni- 
ninnieants  —  Ministers  and  Ori;anizations —  Missionary  I'.nterprises  —  .Service  of  Relif;ioii  in 
F'.ducation,  Pliilaulhropy,  and  Reform — (iifts  to  Fdneational  Institutions  —  (irowtli  of  Chari- 
table Institutions —  Religion  and  Republican  Institnliims 147-1.")S 


(iREAT  (iROWTII  OF  LI HR ARIES 

Antiiiuity  of  Libraries  —  I'.videiiees  of  Civilized  Progress  —  Character  of  Ancient  Writings  —  Rook-; 
of  Clay  —  Alesopotamian  Literature —  Egy|itian  Ilieroglyphies  —  Papyrus  Manuscripts  —  Sacred 
Hooks  of  Tlioth  —  (ireek  Libraries  — Their  Number  and  Extent  —  Roman  Libraries  —  Imperi.il 
Library  of  Coiistaiilino)ile  -  Fl'lects  of  Christianity  upon  Literature  —  Chiinh  Hook-making  ami 
Cidleeling  —  All  Hooks  written  or  copied  by  Priests  —  Fate  of  Monastic  Libraries  —  Early  Libraiii  ~ 
ill  France  —  Royal  Libraries  in  Eurojie  —  The  French  National  library  —  Introduction  of  Copv- 
right  (irowtli  and  Extent  of  l'".iiro|ican  Libraries  -  -Their  Location  and  Maiiiigcment  —  The  Hrii- 
isli  Musonin  —  Libraries  of  (Ireat  Hritain  —  Canadian  Libniries — I'.nglisli  Colonial  Libraries 
Liliraries  of  the  Latin  Ri'imhlies  —  Phenoineiml  (irowtli  of  Libraries  in  the  lliiited  States  —  Wid.' 
Kaniifiealion  of  the  .System  —  The  Oldest  United  States  Library  —  Colonial  Libraries  —  Lihraric- 
of  1800  —  Number  founded  during  the  Century  -  State  Libraries  —  School-districl  Libraries 
Library  Systems- The  Library  of  Congress  —  Its  Vast  Extent  and  New  Reposilory  — •  Copyriglii 
System  —  t'nilcd  States  Fii'e  Libraries — Noted  Libraries  of  the  Country — Libraries  of  ovn 
100,000  Volumes — Mniiiliceiice  of  Library  Founders  —  Noted  (livers  to  Libraries  —  Progress  in 
Library  Management 15'J-17il 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS 


R  of  the  Nino- 
lit  l?i'liiivi(ir — 
< —  Origin  iinil 
Kcrtiliz.itiiiM  cf 
in  Kclaticiii  l<i 
.     .     .  lOu  114 


x'csso:'  -  Wliiil 
siiin  cif  Woman 
11  —  Wiiinan  iii 
.  I'dlitii's-  Till' 
.     .     .  11&-1-J4 


Kf;y])tiniis,  iiml 
my  -  Till'  I'ly- 
Spinnint;  .Iciinv 
ion  of  llic  Spin- 
■ —  Kvolnlion  ol 
ni;-conil>s  —  Atl- 
niiiard  l-ooni  — 
s'lviiij;  of  I'amy 
-ics  -"  Inliniluilc 
of  the  Kniltin^t- 
xtile  Macliimiy 
.     .  12")  14i; 


PHOOKKSS   OK  TlIK    CKNTrUY    IN'   AKClUTKt  Tl'KK 

■  in-}iui:iin>;  oi   till'  (I'nliirv  —  Till'  (^tiiiTii  Aiiiu'  style  —  French  Arclii- 

Areliiteetnral  Styles  in  (icriiiany,    Austria,   Italy,   (ireeee,  Turkey,  ami 

'an  Styles  ami  NotiiMi'  liiiililiM;;>  —  I'.iirlv  Areliiti'ctiiie  in  the   I'liileil 


KiiL'lish   Areliiteetiire  at  the  Hefjinninf;  of   the  Century  —  Tln>  <,>m'eii   Anne  Styh 
ti'etiiie  and   Arehileets         >  -  '  :•     ■   •3.-1..   :-   ■■    > - 


tlirouj;liont  Knrolie  — ''""ixlii"!'  •  •. r- ........ 

Old  New  Kn;;laiid  and  Soiillieni  Iloim- —  The  Colonial   Styles  —  The  White   House  and 

I'rofiii'ss  ill    I'lildie    Ihiildiiif;   Areliilei'tiire  —  Nolaldi^  Cliaiijjes  alter  the 

e  ( 'olta^;^■  and  Italian  \illa        I'ln'  rii>!  Selicxd  of  An  liiteeliiri'  —  ( 'onipari- 

lnlrodiietio;i  of   Iron  —  Styles  for  lloti  Is  and  Siiinmer  Kesorls  — 

s  on  Areliitei'tnre — How  the  Cinleiinial   I'-xposilion  elmiiged 

The  Coiif^iessional  l.iiiiiiiy  and  (»tlier  Notalde  Speei- 

An  liileetnre  —  Ad'  eiil 


Stalt 

rniird   States  Ciipilo 

War  of  IH12  -  Thetiolhi 

son  (d'  Styles  in  DilTerent  Citie 

I'.lTed   of  t'liiea^'o  and    li<istoii    I'iri 

id  i.ihrarv  Arehilei'tnri 


St  vies  —  Cliiireh  am                .                                                                                     .  . 

nuns  of  Ainerieaii  An  liileetnre  —  Ad' eiil   of  the   Sky-xniper       (ieiieral  Kevii'W  of  Arihiteetiiral 
Moiiiiiiieiital  Works  the  I'oetry  of  AndiiteetiMi' 17l-l!)0 


I'.ffeet.- 


TIIK  CKNTl'in'S   I'KOtJUKSS   IN'   CHK.MISTUY 


I 


Status  of  Cheniieal  Seieiire  •  '  llei;iiiiiiiiK  <d' the  Ci'iitiiry  —  The  Century's  Main  Lines  of  I'nifjress:  T. 
iNDKtiAMC  AM)  I'llYsKAl.  Cii  KMisTl!  V  i  l.avoisier's  Canliiial  I'nipositioiis  —  Kapid  Advanee 
if  Cheiiiieiil  Scieiiee  Sir  Iliiniphrey  Kavv's  Aeliieveineiils  —  ICIemeiilary  lioilies  of  Ijglileentli 
Ceiitiirv  —  Same  in  Xineteeiith  Ceiitnrv.  II.  I'llVsicAi,  Ciikmistky  :  —  Properties  of  KliMueiiis 
-Of  Matter  ami  ICnergy  —  Kales  of  l.'eaition  —  Conditions  of  l',(|iiililiriiim.  III.  Oi!(;a.mc 
CiiKMlsTitY:  —  Of  Carlion  Coin  pounds  —  Tlieory  of  .Snli^lilntion  —  .\  loins  in  the  .Moire  iile  -  Space 
Ivelalioiis  —  The  Carhoii  Atom  —  The  Or;;aiiie  liody.  IV.  Anai.ytkai,  Ciikmistky  :  — Devilop- 
imiil  of  the  Mill « -pipe  -(Jas  Analysis  -  I'.leelriiily  as  a  I'aetor —  Discovery  cd'  Sped  ni  111  .\iialy>is. 
A'.  Sy.n TiiK'ncAl.  CllKMl.sTltY: -- linilding  lip  of  Complex  l''orins — Syulliesis  of  Colorin;^  .Mut- 
ters and  Siij,'ars  I'll  I  lire  Food  of  Man.  VI.  Mi:rAi.i.il!iiirAl,  CiiKMisritY  :  —  Oldest  Kraiicli  of 
Cliemiial  Siieiiee  -  Ueduction  of  On's  .\il\  .iiiiane  io  Af;rieiiliiire.  VII.  AiiiiK'ii.riiiAi, 
Ciii;MisriiY;  —  I'tilizatioii  of  Kcrtilizers  —  Nitnif^eii  as  .1  I'laiil  I'ood  -  Advaiilaf^cs  Io  I'niciical 
AuricMlliire.  VIII.  (iliAI'lllc  Ciikmi.stuy:  -  I'lindameiital  Principles  -  Itaiciiern'olype  ,iiid 
I'lioioijiaph.  IX.  UlDACTlc  CiiKSiisriiY;  The  Sliidi'iit  and  the  L.ilioralory  AdvanlaKcs  of 
Lalioialory  Trainiiifj:.  X.  Ciii;Misri!Y  ny  I'kkmknia  riux:  Bacterial  Action  -  Pmciss  of  Oi- 
peslioii  —  Decay  of  Meats  ami  \'eL;('l aides  —  Slerili/atioii  —  I'crnieiilalioii.  XI.  Kl,i;cri;(i-Clli:.M- 
I.stky:  —  Combination  of  Carhoii  with  Jlelals —  Uses  of  Ele'elriiily  in  Clieiiiislry.     CoNci.i  sion. 

l:il-i>IM> 


Condilioii  ill 
-  The  Niin- 
Kreedoni  of  the 
Cliundi  I'.di- 
hiition  of  Coiii- 
of  Kelinioii  ill 
iwtli  of  Cliari- 
.    .     .  147- 1.'.-* 


TIIK  CENTURY'S   MUSIC   AND   DRAMA 

.  EniiiTKr.xrii  Ci:NTi;iiY  Mi  sir:  —  Lead i  111;  Composers  -  -  Xiueteeiilh  Cenlnry  Miisii'  —  The  (ireat 
CoinpoMTs  and  their  Works  —  DilTerent  Schools  ami  Styles  of  ( 'oinposilion  — ■  Analysis  of  Operas  — 

If  Musical  (^harailerislics  of   the  Nations  —  Verdi    and   Wagner  idiiipjircd  —  The   .Vnieriean  Opera. 

'f'  II.  Tilic  Dua.ma:  —  The  TheatriMif  the  Past  —  (ireat  Modern  Impniveniciil — Scenery  and  Ap- 
poinlmeiits  —  Actors  and  Actresses  —  The  Century's  lllnslrions    Role  —  Theatres  in    the  United 

y    Slates  —  Cliaracler  of  Actors  —  Public  Kslimation  of  the  Drama 'JOT  214 


ritinps  — TJooks 

scripts  —  Sacred 

•aries  —  Imiici'i.il 

(dv-niakini;'  and 

r.arly  Uibnnii  - 

nclioii  of  Uopv- 

nelil  — The  Ihil- 

iiial    Uiliraries 

d  Stales  — Will.' 

irics  —  Uibrarie- 

rid    Libraries 

ory— <'opyrii;lil 

.ibiaries  of  ovn 

's—  Progress   in 

,    .     .  l&D-lT'i 


THE  CENTURY'S   LITERATI'KE 

Contrast  with  Eighleenlh  Century  Literature  —  Tone  of  Modern  Liliralnre  —  How  it  tvpes  Progress 

i^ — English   Lileiatnie  —  Literature  of  Oilier  Xations — \'arioin.    Anlliors — I'.nglish  Criticism    of 

Americail  Lileralnre  —  Newspaper  Lileratun'  —  Evolution  of  llie  Newspaper  —  Ncwspapc'is  of  the 

Nations — Niiieleenth   Century  .louriialisin       Iteginiiing  of  N'ew>paper   I'.ntcrprise    in  the    United 

1  Stales  —  Cidoiiial    Papers—  Papers  of  the   Ri'vidulioii  — Appear.-incc  of    the    Daily  — The   Peiiiiv 

W  Pn'ss  —  Newspaper  finiwth  up  Io  ISill       W;ir  .lonrnalisni  —  The  Sunday  Ni'wspaper  —  Illiislniled 

%  Jnurnalisin  —  K'eadiou  in  Ne«  -paper  Prices  —  Cost  of  running  a  Newspaper       Nuiiiliir  of  World's 

g  Newspapers  —  The  Comic  Paper       Evolntimi  of  the  Magazine  — <irowlli  of  Magazine  in  the  United 

3  Stales  —  Cliaraeter    of    Magazine    Literature  —  Advent    of    the    Cheap  Magazine — Eeatin-es   of 

^  Publieution 215-230 


THE   RECORDS  OK   THE   PAST 

ttonsion  of  Knowledge  into  the  Past  —Spade  of  the  An  hindogist  —(ieiieral  View  of  the  Revela- 
itlons — Doeniiients  of  Stone,  Clay,  and  Papyrus  -Assyrian  Revelalions  —  Egyptian  Exiiloratioiis 
I — Eloiiiioiice  of  Obelisk,  Toiiib,  and  Pyramid    -  Ciineiform  Scripts  of  Itabylon  —  Discovery  of  the 


Vtll 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS 


Kosctta  Stone  —  ('liiiinpollioii's  Key  —  Story  of  the  Kuiiis  in  Greece  and  Rome — Revelation  o( 
Teniplfs  and  Statues  —  I'lKeniciiin  Keniains  —  Tlie  Moabite  Stone  —  Ruins  in  Palestine  —  Revela- 
tions in  ilerusaleni  —  Hittite  Henuiins  —  Continuint;  Interest  in  Arelia'ulogieal  Discovery  —  Vast 
Importance  from  an  Historic  Point  of  View 231-24-1 


PROGRESS  IN  DAIRY   FARMING 

Requisites  for  Successful  Dairying  —  Enterprise  of  Dairying  Districts  —  Advantages  of  Dairying  - 
Dairying  Areas —  Dairying  at  the  Heginningof  the  Century  —  Early  Methods  —  The  Great  Cliangi 
midway  of  the  Century  —  Improvement  in  Milch  Cows  —  tJrowth  of  (,'heese-Making  —  Institution 
of  Creameries  —  A])plication  of  Jleclianics  to  Dairying  —  Dairy  Associations  —  Best  Dairy  Breed- 
—  Invention  of  the  Separator  —  lis  Operation  and  Advantages  —  The  Kaf-test  for  Milk  —  Growth 
in  llutter-making  lUu.strated  —  Labor  in  Dairying — Dairy  and  Food  Commissions  —  Dairying; 
Publications  —  City  Milk  Supplies  —  Annual  Production  of  Cheese  —  Character  of  Cheeses  — 
Annual  Butter  Product  —  Butter  and  Cheese-producing  States  —  Number  and  A'alue  of  Cows — 
Dairy  Values  as  compared  with  Value  of  Other  Products  —  Necessity  for  guarding  Dairy  Interests. 

2-15-2G0 

THE  CENTURY'S  MORAL  PROGRESS 

Morals  among  the  Ancients  —  Moral  Prece])ts  common  to  all  Communities  —  Evolution  of  F'thies  — 
Early  Christian  Morals  —  Sjjirit  of  the  Reformation  —  Low  Moral  Condition  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  —  Birth  of  a  New  Moral  Ejjoch  — A  National  Conscience  —  Abolition  of  Slaverv  —  Larger 
Application  of  the  Principles  of  Right  and  .lustice  —  How  Women  are  atTected  —  Effect  of  Inven- 
tion and  Education  on  Social  and  Moral  Conditions  —  Broadening  of  Woman's  Sphere —  Increasi' 
of  Self-respect  —  IiiHueiice  (d' Women  on  Moral  Status  —  Legislation  and  Morals — How  to  meet 
Ethical  Prciblems  —  Unsiness  Success  and  tlie  Moral  State  —  Rights  and  Duties  of  Ca]pital  am! 
Labor  —  Cruellies  of  War  and  Hlessings  of  Peace  —  The  Century's  Moral  (iain  —  Changed  Treat- 
nu'Ut  of  Vice  and  Poverty  — The  Principle  of  Well-doing—  Growth  of  Tolerance  and  Altruism  — 
A  Higher  Individual  and  Public  Conscience 201-27O 


pr(k;ress  OF  SANITARY  scii:nce 

Hygienic  Code  of  Closes  —  Hippocrates  and  Disease  —  Sanitation  and  Sanitary  Science  —  Founda- 
tion RuN's  —  Spirit  of  Scieiitilic  Investigation —  Effect  of  Act  of  Parliament  ot  18.'i7  ^ — Value  of 
Ollicial  Figures  ^  The  Riddle  of  Samson  —  Health  Reports  in  I'nited  States — Duty  of  Separalr 
Slates  —  Mortality  in  London  of  Filth  Diseases   -  Progress  of  Sanitation  —  Diminution  of  Scourgi  - 

—  Effect  of  Sanitation  upon  the  Weak  and  Helpless  —  Value  of  Culture  Tubes — Discovery  u\ 
Disease  Causes — Of  Trichina'  in  Pork  —  Communie.diie  Diseases  caused  by  Living  Organisms  — 
Infectious  and  Contagious  Diseases — I'ses  of  Hiology  in  Sanitary  Science  —  Piirilication  "I 
Waters  —  Of  Consiiin])tion  and  Cholera  —  Effects  of  Filtration —  Wliat  Haeteria  arc — Of  Isolii- 
tion  and  Disinfection  —  Modern  (Jiiaraiitines  —  Fumigation  of  Ships — Lowering  of  D";;th  Ka!.- 

—  Intluenee  of  tlie  Sanitarium — Iiu|)roved  Coiistrueliori  of  Dwellings  —  Care  for  Paving  and 
Sewage —  Disposal  of  Refuse —  Of  Food  Inspection  —  State  Boards  al  Health  —  Care  of  Employe^ 

—  Of  Play  and  Athletic  Grounds  —  Public  Hreathing  Spaces — Duty  of  Caring  for  Personal 
Health  —  Bearing  cd' Public  Health  on  Community  and  Nation 271-282 


THE  CENTURY'S  ARMIES  AND  ARMS 

Armies  and  Anns  of  the  iMghteentli  Century—  Alteration  in  War  Methods  —  European  Army  Sy— 
tems  —  Changes  made  by  Napoleon  —  Battle  Weapons  and  Tactical  Movements  —  (irowing  Use  of 
Cannon — The  Congi'eve  Itocket  —  Infantry  Formations  —  The  Intiodiictiiui  of  the  Ritle — Tlu' 
Crimean  War  and  Itilled  Siege  (inns — The  Italian  War  and  Ritled  Cannon  —  Advent  of  \Ur 
Breech-loader  -  Introduction  of  Heavy  (Jiiiis  —  Anns  and  Tactics  in  the  Civil  War  —  Use  I't 
Steam  and  Electricity  in  War  —  Advantage  of  Railroad  ami  Telegra|ili  —  Introduction  of  Arinon  il 
Vessels  — Siege  Artillery  — Advent  of  the  Maeliine  Gnu  — New  System  of  Entrenehment  — -  (iir- 
inan  Military  System  —  Coming  of  the  Needle  Gnu  —  French  Military  System  —  Comparison  ■  I 
Russian  and  Turkish  Methods  Strength  id'  the  World's  Annies  —  United  States  Army  ()rgani/:i- 
tioti  —  Steel  (inns  and  Smokeless  Powder  —  Improvenieiit  in  Mortars — The  Dynamite  (inn 
Modern  Shrapnel  —  Sea-Coast  (Juns  —  Perfecti(m  of  .Modern  Ritles  —  Their  (ireat  Rangi'  aii'l 
Power  —  The  (iatiing  (inn — The  Maxim  Automatic-  Inlroduction  of  the  Torpedo  —  (iener:il 
Review  of  the  Increase  in  Militarv  Etlicienev       283-.!ini 


■fc<M 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS 


IX 


me  —  Revelation  ot 

Palestine  —  Kevela- 

i  Discovery  —  Vast 

..."  2;tl-24J 


ages  of  Dairying  - 

-  The  Great  Cliangi 
[living  —  Institutidii 

-  Best  Dairy  Breed- 
for  Milk  —  Growtli 
lissioMs  —  Dairyinj/ 
I'ter  of  Cheeses  — 
I  Value  of  Cows  — 
ng  Dairj-  Interests. 

245-260 


)lution  of  Ethios  — 
of  the  Kigliteentli 
f  Slavery  —  Larger 

—  Kffect  of  Iiiven- 
Sphere  —  Iiureasr 
als —  How  to  nieel 
ies  of  t'a]iital  am! 

—  Chaiigetl  Treat- 
ce  and  Altruism  — 

....  2(J1-27I> 


THE  CENTrUY'S  PRiKiUESS    IX   ACiHICl'LTlRE 

I.  VlcissiTl'DES  OF  Eahly  Farmin(i:  —  First  National  Road— Canal  Building — Coming  of  Rail- 
r,,j„is  —  Karniiiig  Conditions  before  the  50's-- Hardships  of  Marketing.  H.  Imi'Uovements  in 
l''AiiM  iMri.KMKSTS  AND  MACHiNKiiV :  —  Fanners'  Draft  upon  Nature  —  The  Sickle,  Flail,  and 
(Cradle  —  Coming  of  Harvesters—  Improvement  iu  Threshers  —  Portable  and  Traction  Engines  — 
Sipaiatiir>  and  Stackers  —  Improvements  in  Other  Implements.  HI.  Imi-hovk.mknt  in  St<ick: 
—  Various  Breeds  of  Cattle — Breeding  of  Horses,  Sheeii,  and  Swine  —  Best  Breeds.  IV.  Im- 
I'KiiviMKNT  IS  Fakming  Mktikids:  —  In  Drainage  —  Care  of  Animals  —  Barns  and  Stabling  — 
rruiicr  Food  Rations — Fencing.  V.  Homk  iMritovEMKNTs:  —  Home  Architecture  —  The  Yard 
ami  (ianlen — Maintaining  Soil  Fertility  —  Proper  Manures  —  Soil  Analysis  —  Use  of  Modern 
Iniilizers.  VI.  I.mi-hovkmknt  in  Aiiiiui'i.TiitAL  KM>wi,i;i>(iK:  —  Agricultural  Literature  — 
l:irinii>"  Clubs  and  Institutes  —  (iranges  —  Agricultural  ( 'ollcgcs  —  Kxperimenlal  Stations  —  Tlie 
lici.arlmcnt  of  Agriculture  —  Bureau  of  Aninuil  Industry  —  Agricultural  Newspapers  and  I'eri- 
,„lli.„|^_Summary  of  Agricultural  Progress ;it)7-3y8 


PROGRESS  IN   CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

I.  An  Intiiouictokv  Vikw:  —  Antiquity  of  Engineering  —  Ancient  Roads  and  Bridges  —  Nine- 
tiiiilli  Century  Advances,  H.  BmiXiEs: — Primitive  Bridges  —  Iron  and  Steel  Bridges  —  The 
Hnioklvn  Ibidge — Niagara  Suspension  Bridge—  Pecos  River  Viaduct  —  The  Forth  Bridge  — Re- 
niarkulilf  Arches  —  Stone  Pridgcs.  HI.  Caissons:  —  Invention  of  the  Caisson  —Its  Principle 
and  IVc  Caisson  Adventures.  IV.  Caxai.s:  —The  First  Sue/.  Canal  —Nicaragua  and  I'ananni 
Canals  Miidern  Suez  Canal —The  Manchester  Canal  —  ('hicago  Drainage  Canal— What  it  is 
bir.  V.  liKoDKsv:  —  Ancient  Methods  of  Farth  Measuremenls — The  Century's  Advance  iu 
Mithdds  of  Measurement.  VI.  Rah, itoAiis;  —  Their  Invention  and  Development  —  Imnniise 
V.iliie.  VH.  TrNNKi.s:  —  Ancient  Origin  of —  Tunnels  of  I'.gypt,  Babylimia,  and  India  —  Roman 
liiniiels  — Of  the  Jloderu  Tunnel  —  Advance  in  Machinery  and  Cimstrnctive  Processes — Mount 
(■(■ni~  Tunnel  —  Tunnel  Survi^ying  and  Excavating  —  'The  HiMisac  Tunnel  —  St.  (iothard  Tnnnid 
St.  Clair  Tunnel  —  Its  Construction  and  Commercial  ElTects ;wy-;t(iO 


Science  —  Fcninda- 
)t  1837  — Value  of 
Duty  of  Se|)arali- 
nution  of  Scourge- 
es  —  Discovery  ol 

ving  Organism: 

—  Purilication  of 
ia  are  — Of  Isola- 
ngof  D;::t!i  Rai.  - 
>  for  Paving  anil 
Care  of  F,ni|)loyc- 
iring  for  Personal 
.     .    .  271-:28;i 


ro|)ean  Army  Sy>. 
(irowiiig  I'se  of 
if  the  Ririe—  The 
Advent  of  tlic 
vil  War  —  L'se  ci 
uctiiui  of  Armoriil 
renchment  —  (b  i- 
1  —  Cmnparison  if 
s  Army  Organi/a- 
Dymimite  (iun 
(ireat  Range  ami 
Torpedo  —  (iencr:fl 
.    .    .  28;J-*k; 


THK  CENTl'RY'S   PROGRESS  IN  THE  ANIMAL  AVOI.'LD 

I.  Ok  Animal  Diskasks;  —  KtTect  of  Na|)ole(niie  Wars  —  Various  Animal  Diseases  —  How  con- 
irolled.  H.  Ln(I!KAsic  in  Xi-.mhki!  in-  Animals:  —  Showing  in  I'.urope,  I'nited  States,  and 
Otlnr  Countries.  HI.  Imi-kovkmknt  ok  Hukkds:  —  Shortening  the  Tinu'  of  (irowth  —  Devidop- 
ment  of  Dairy  and  Heef  Rreeds  -  Improvenniit  in  Wool  (irowing —  Poultry  Ibeeds  —  Thorongh- 
brcd  Horses  —  'The  American  'Trotter  —  Animal  Exports —  Foreign  Aninnil  Im]ports — Displace- 
nhiit  of  Horses  by  .Mechanical  Motors  —  Prices  of  .Vninuil  Products  —  American  Command  of 
World's  Animal  .Markets .till  ;)74 


LEADINt;   WARS  OF  THE  CENTURY 

.  Waks  ok  tmk  I'nitki)  Statkn:  —  First  War  with  Barbary  States  — Indian  Wars  —  War  of 
181'2  —  Battles  by  Land  and  Sea — Exploits  on  tlu'  Lakes — Victory  of  New  Orleans — Se<dnil 
War  with  Barbary  States  —  'The  Mexican  War  (ieiieral  'Taylor's  Victori<'s  —  .Siege  of  Vera 
Cruz  — (ieneral  Scott's  March  and  Battles  —  Capture  (d'  Mexico  —  Results  of  the  War  —  The  Civil 
War,  1861-0.")  —  Secession  of  States-  Calling  out  the  Armies  —  Building  of  the  Navies  —  'The 
First  Battles  —  0|)erations  in  lSt;2  Battles  of  1X63 —  The  Emancipation  Proclamation  —  'The 
'Turning  Point  at  (ieitysburg  —  Opening  of  the  Mississippi  — Chickamanga  and  .Missionary  Ridge 
—  Battles  of  lSO-4  —  Apjionnittox  iind  Surrender  —  'The  Spanish-Ann'riian  War  —  Its  Causes  - 
Destruction  of  Spanish  Fleet  in  Manila  Bay  —  Destruction  of  (.'ervera's  Fleet  —  Capitulation  of 
Santiago — Invasion  of  Porto  Rico.  H.  FouKHiN  Wais.s:  —  Wars  of  Nap(deon  —  Battle  of  Ma- 
rengo—  Treaty  of  Amiens  —  'Third  Coalition  against  France  —  Battle  of  Austerlitz  —  N(dson's 
Victory  at  Trafalgar  —  Wars  of  the  Fourth  Coalition  —  Wars  of  the  Fifth  Coalition  —  Wars  of  the 
Sixth  Coalition  —  Battle  of  Waterloo  —  Final  Defeat  of  Nap(deon  —  Greek  Wars  for  Imlepeiulence  — 
Battle  of  Navarino  —  Greek  Iinlependence  —  French  Revolution  of  1830  -  Polish  Insurrection  — 
England's  Wars  in  Iinlia  —  French  Republic  of  1848  —  Hungarian  Wars  tor  Indepemlence  —  Italian 
Wars^  The  Crimean  War  —  Sebastopol  and  Balaklava —  Peace  of  Paris  -The  Indian  Mutiny  — 
Wars  of  the  Alliance  against  Austria  —  Battle  of  Solferimi — Danish  Wars  —  Wars  for(!ernwin 
Unity — Verdict  of  Sndowa  —  'The  Fram'o-Priissian  War  —  Siege  and  Capture  of  Paris  -'The  French 
Republic  —  The  'Turco-Russian  War  —  (.'hino-,laimnese  War  — (ireco-Turkish  War  —  Interfereiu'e 
of  the  Powers  —  Wars  in  the  Soudan  —  Review  of  the  Centurv's  Martial  Results      .     .     .     37."»  420 


I   ! 


X  ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS 

THE  CKXTUKY'S   TAIUS  AND  EXPOSITIONS 

The  Primitive  Fair  —  (iniwtli  and  Inlliifiice  of  Fairs  —  Tlioir  History  in  Different  Countries  —  O 
Af,'ri(  iiltnral  Fairs,  ScK'ii'lies,  anil  Institutes  —  Tlieir  Origin  and  Purpose  —  National  and  Stat 
Agricnltnral  Deparlnii'Mts  —  Sanitary  Fairs  —  Sjiecial  Exliibitions  —  Evolution  of  International 
lC,\iio>ilioiis — Tlic  First  World's  Exposition  at  l<ondoii  —  Ivxpositions  at  Dublin,  Paris,  Nev. 
York  —  ContincMital  Exiio>ilions  —  Serond  and  Third  ExiK)sitions  at  London  and  Paris — Tli. 
Vienna  lCxi)osition  —  The  Centennial  at  Philadelphia  —  Deseriplion  i>(  Sul)sei|Uent  ICxjiositions  a 
Atlanta,  Louisville,  New  (»rlean>,  Chiea^'o,  Nashville,  and  Onniha  —  The  Anieriran  Coniniereia 
Museums 421  44_' 


THE  CENTl'KY'S   PlIOfiUESS    IN   COINACE,    (TIIKENCY,    AND   HANKINtJ 

I.  Hanks  axi>  Haxkixc;  ItivsouitcKs: — Itani^s  as  (ian^es  id  Wealth —Civilization  relleeted  i; 
Jlonetary  Maihinery  —  Features  of  United  States  Fiuaueial  Poliey  —  Cold  Store  of  Varioii 
Countries —  liauUiug  Uesonrees  —  Number  and  llesourees  of  lianks.  II.  C<>lNA<iK  and  Pmiiifi  - 
TIDN  <»i-  Piii:<l()L'.s  iMiiTAi.s:  —  AVhy  (iold  is  a  Standard  —  Primitive  Pleasures  of  Value  —  His- 
tory of  Coinage  —  First  I'nited  States  Mint  —  Coin  Patios  —  (iold  and  Silver  Produetion  aUi! 
Mintage  —  Exports  and  Imports  of  Preeions  Metals  —  Cireulation  per  Ca]iita  —  Coinage  Aet  ci 
IsT^i.  III.  Eai'.ly  Hankim;  in  tiik  Umtkd  Statics;  —  First  Hanking  Associations—  First  l.'uite.i 
States  liaiik  and  its  Itrauihes  —  I'.arly  Stale  Pauks  —  Seiond  I'nited  States  liank  —  How  it  fell- 
State  Itauks  and  Independent  Treasury.  IV.  Histdkv  ok  l,|-.<iAl,  TknukI!  Ndtks:  —  Tie 
Treasury  Keserve  —  Treasury  Notes  —  Manner  of  Issue  and  Kedemption.  V.  Tiik  Nathixal 
pANKiNii  Sv.sTioi:  —  Fornuition  of  National  Hanks  —  Laws  and  IJegulations  —  Nundier  an. I 
Cireulation.  VI.  FoiiKHiN  Hankis*;  and  Financk:  —  Hanks  of  England  and  the  Contiiu'nt  i.i 
Europe  —  Their  Strength  and  Methods.  VII.  I'nitki)  Statks  (ioviiltXMKNT  Dkut  sinck  IS.')7; 
—  Gross  Iteeeipts  and  Expenditures — Interest  Charges,  VHl.  Postal  Savings  Haxks:  — \\'h\ 
they  are  not  adopted  in  the  I'liiled  States.  IX.  SAViNfis  Haxivs  in  tiik  I'nitkk  Statks: - 
Their  Number  and  Strength.  X.  Tiik  Cleakini;  IIoisk:  —  How  eondueted  —  Its  Eeonomii 
Uses.    XI.    Panus  of  tiik  CKNTruv  and  Tiikik  Causks 443-47ii 


THE  CENTCIJY'S   PKOtiUESS  IN   FIU'Il"  CULTUHE 


Early  Cultivation  of   Fruits— Heauty  and  Uses  of   Fruits 

Heiriuniuir  of  the  Century  —  Early  Fruit   Distriets  — The  Experimental   Stage 


Fruits   brought  to  the  NewAVorld- 


THE  CENTURY'S  COMMERCIAL  PROCRESS 

.   Woiii.n's  Co:\iMKii('K  AT  End  of  I'.iuiitkkntii  Cknukv:  —  Methods  of  Traflic  —  Volume  of 
Trade.     II.    Rkvomtiox  in  ('o>imki!(k: — Change  fnun  Sails  to  Steam  —  First  (h'ean  Steamer- 

Steamship    Lines  —  Change  from    Wood   to   Iron  —  The  Comiiound  Engine  —  Advent  of   Stei  I 

Vessels  — The  Twin  Serew  —  Innueuse  Size  of  Ships  — Their  (ireat  Velocity  —  Appointment  aihl 
Service.  III.  Imi'kovkmknt  in  Commkhcial  .\rxii  iaimks:  —  Hetternu'nt  of  Waterways  — Shu. 
Canals— Harbor  Ini|irovements  — Cable  and  Hanking  Facilities.  I^Y.  Expansion  of  Intki; 
national  Tkadk:  —  European  (,'ommereial  (irowlh — Food  Importations.  V.  Thadk  of  riii 
Uniti.I)  Statks;  —  Extent  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  —Vast  I'.xtension  —  Imports  ami  Exports 
<'haraeterof.  VI.  Tiik  Asikkkan  Makink;— •  Former  Carrying  Trade —  Modern  Carrying  Trad- 
—  Deilineof  United  States  Maritime  Importance.  AMI.  .Vmkijkan  Sllll-litill.OlNt;.  Y'lII.  Caisi- 
Foit  TIIK  CKXTriiv's  CoMMKiM'iAi.  Pi{o(;nEss:  —  Economic,  Political,  and  Social  Causes.  1\. 
Tiik  Twkntiktii  Centl-uv  Phosi'k»:t 44*1-514 


l^'VUv 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTEiXTS 


XI 


lit  Countries  —  O 
tatioiiiil  mill  Stat 
II  (if  Iiitcrnatioii^i 
iililiii,  I'aris,  Nl■^ 
anil  Taris  —  Tlr 
ii'iit  Kx|iiisitiiins  ii 
I'rican  ( 'nninicrri;! 
.     .     .     .     4:21   44  ■ 


HANKIN(; 

nation   ri'tlt'ctril  ii. 
Store    of    Varion 
UiK  ANI>   I'ltoHl'l  - 

's  of  Value  —  lli-- 
r  I'loiluetioii  aii'i 
—  Coinafii'  Act  ci 
oils  —  I'irst  I'liiteil 
k  —  How  it  fell  - 
Kl!  NoTKs:  —  Tie 
TiiK  Natikn.m. 
lis  —  Niiiiilier  aiel 
(1  the  ('iintiiieiit  <il 
l>Kirr  si.NCK  IS.'iT: 
IS  Hanks:  — \\•ll^ 
NiTi-.i)  Statks:  - 
■il  —  Its  ICrominii. 
.     .     .     .    443-4711 


EDUCATION    DL'KIN(i    TIIK  CKNTLUY 

iducation  a   IIuiulii'il   Years  a^o  —  I'cstalozzi's   Iiillueiue  —  I'roeliel's   Kinilerfjarten  System  —  Its 
nntroiluitiou   into  the  United  States  —  Kii>;lish  ami  (ieriiiaii  Schools  —  (ireat   Kiiiopeaii   IVaihers 

'i  l.'ounihition  of  I'lililie  School  Systems  in  the  Uiiitcil  States  —  The  IJattles  for  I'lililic  Schools  — 

'  Iniiiieiisitv   of   ('oiiimou    School    SysliMiis  —  Xunilier   of   Schools   ami    I'lipils  —  llxpenditiire    lor 
u^.),,,,,!^  _1  I'riiiiitivc  Sclioolhoiises  —  Olil-tiine  Teaclicrs  ami   Methods  — The  Modern  Schoolhoiiso 

liiiprovcimiits  ill  Teachers  and   Metliods — Of  the   lli^h   School — (  (dh^e   and   University  — 

•T  •!<  hers'  Institutes  —  Stale  Associations  —  School  l'nhlicatioii>  —  Xaiional  Hiircaii  of  Kdncatioh  — 
^Normal  Seliools  —  Teachers'  Salaries  —  (iirls'  Seminaries —  Change  to  I'einale  Teachers  —  Modem 

'*Sch("il  l'unn>liinf;s  —  Tcxt-lmoks  —  University  (  oiirses  of  I.ecinn': Schools  of  Manual  Trainiiif; 

^?and    Iiiisi]ie>s -- Uiliieatioii  of  the   Nefjro  Kaee — ICxperiiueiit  of   Honker   T.  Wasliiiif^tou — Scliool 
funds  — Compulsory  Kducation ."il.j  ,j42 


"Tlir,   AUT   I'lJKSKKVATlVi:" 

[Tiii-:  I'liixTiNii  I'ltKss:  —  I'riiitiiiji  Art  in  the  l',ii;liteenth  Century — I'laiiklin's  Inlluenee  —  Tlie 

Sllaml   I'ress  —  Various   Iiii;>roveil  Tresses  —  Coiiiiiif^  of  the  Tower  Tress  —  Order  of  the  Countries 

;fin   Triiitiii"  Trojrress — Impetus  to  Triiitin;;  in  the   United   States  —  Wonderful  Improvement  in 

*l'res-es    "  llnw  a   Swift-motioned   Tre>s   operates    -t^liiadriiple    Tresses — Triiitiiiff,    I'oldiii),',  and 

J'astiiu;  —  CoiinliiijJ  iiml  Deliveriiij;  —  The  Sextuple  Tre>s  —  Its  Wonderful  Aehievemeiits  —  ( 'olor 

Printiii"  Tresses.    II.   Tiik  Skttim;  oI'  'Tvi'K: — The  .\rl  at  the  l!ei;iiiiiiiif;  of  the  Ceiitiiry   -  Dawn 

of  .Mecliaiiical  ('oiiiiio>itiiin  —  First   Type-~ettiiiic   .Machines  —  'The   Linotype  —  How  it  sets  Type. 

Jll.     ()Mii:it   KvDNT.s   IX  TIIK   TiMNTiNii    l.ixi; :  —  ( Mil   ^letliods  of  spreading  News — ^  Modem 

Eleilrie    Methods  —  Ciililes  and  tlverland  Wires  —  \'ast  I'.xteiil  of  .\ews|)apers  —  Code   Systems. 

IV.  Tvi'i>MAKixK,  Stkhkiityimxi:,  and  TicriKK-MAKixii:  —  Trom  Wood  to  Metal  Type  —  liilro- 

diii  tioli  of  the  Type  Koiimlrv  —  'The  Stereotypiiif;  Troeess —  How  il  lueserves  Type —  Introiliietioii 

of  KlectrotvpiiiK  —  1'^  Advantages  in   Trinting  —  Disappearance  of  Wood  Ijigraving  —  'The  .\rt  of 

Illustration  —  'iriumph  of  Mechanieal  Troeesses  in  Triiiting  —  ■Temlency  of  the  Tiiture    .    543-570 


the  New  AVorld- 
iineiital  Stage  - 
.\ge  of  Triumph 
Kriiit  (irowing  — 
with  Implemeiit- 
—  Apple  Ciiltnrr 
)rcliarils  —  Apple 
History  and  I'm- 
ir  Great  Value  tn 
.    .    471-41H) 


PKOGHKSS   IN    MINT.S   AND   MINING 

SMrch  for  American  Mines  —  Trogress  of  M'liing  prior  to  1800  —  Methods  at  neginning  of  the  Cen- 
tuiv  —  Coal  Mining  Methods — Hoisting  and  Ventilation  —  Introdiictiim  of  Steam — Kiiropean 
•mi  Soiitli  American  Mines —  .Mining  in  the  United  States  —  Opening  of  Mines—  Various  Work- 
ing .\ppliaiices  —  Invention  of  Davy's  Safety  Lamp  —  The  Safety  Fuse  —  Mine  I'.levators  — 
Ibliiiiiig  at  the  Middle  of  the  (,'eiitiiry  —  (iold  and  Copper  Mines  of  United  Slates  —  Uses  of  Man 
Engine  —  Hoisting  Machines — Tnmpiiig  Kngines  —  Introdiiclioii  of  Machine  and  Dynamiti!  — 
Uses  of  Coinpresscd  Air  —  Mine  Ventilation  —  Iniproved  Tans —  Coal-cutting  Machines — TIacer 
Biid  llvilraiilic  Mining  fur  (iold  — The  'Timliering  of  Mines  —  Take  .Sniierior  Iron  Mining  —  lioom 
lliniiig  —  liise  of  Mining  Schools  and  Societies  —  Mining  Laws  in  I'.nglaiid  and  United  States  — 

Jjpnwise  Action  of  Congress — Mining  Claims  and  Tights  —  Miners' (Jnalilieations    .    .    .    571-588 


allic  —  Volume  of 
t  Ocean  Steamer- 
■  Ailvent  of  Ste.  1 
Appointment  aiel 
Vaterways  —  Shiii 
NsioN  oi'  Intki; 
Thakk  ok  rill 
•ts  and  Kxports 
11  (^irrviiig  'Trad' 

<i.     Vlil.   CAtsl- 

eial  Causes.     IX. 
.     .    •4ai-514 


AKT   TKOGKKSS  OK  TIIK  CKNTUK'V 

I.  pAiNTixu:  —  ICffect  of  the  French  Kevolntion  on  Fine  Art  —  Tapid  Advance  of  I''reiicli  Art  — 
Artists  and  their  Works  —  Kevoliitioii  of  IS.'tO  —  Knglish  .\rt  and  -Artists  -  Landscape  Art  —  Mil- 
let's '•  .\ngeliis"'  —  The  Landseer  Family  —  Ifiiskin's  Iiitliieiice  on  I'.nglish  Art  —  Kihviii  .\liliey  as 
jiColnrist  -  Works  of  Ro.sa  Bonheiir — Later  Iviglish  Masters  —  Continental  .\itists  —  .Vineriean 
Masters  —  Kise  of  American  Art  Schools  —  Their  Iiitliieiice  on  .\rt  — Some  Distinguished  Schools 
*—  Kra  of  lOxcessive  Coloring  —  American  Landscapes  —  Women  .Artists  of  America  —  'Their  Style 
lid  Inlliiciice  —  Scaiidinaviim  Artists —  Modern  Art  in  Scotlaiiil  — .Masterpieces  in  Kiiropean  (ial- 
feries  —  Masters  of  Current  Art  in  America  —  Some  of  their  (ireat  Works.  II.  Scii.I'TUKK:  — 
Jid  World  Sculptors  at  lleginning  of  Century — (.'entres  of  the  .Art -^Advance  in  Difi'ereiit  Coun- 
tries—  Masterpieces  —  American  Sculpture — Notable  .Artists  and  their  Works  —Characteristics 
of  Sculptors — Kftect  of  the  Columbian  I'^xposition  —  Names  uiiil  Works  of  .Modern  Sculptors, 

587-<Jl4 

M  THE  CENTURY'S  ADVANCE  IN  SUI{(H:RY 

(^gery  at  the  Dawn  of  the  Century  —  Methods  In  Early  Part  of  the  Century  —  Discovery  of  Ami's- 
liesiu  —  Its  Great  Advantages  — Antiseptic  Surgery  —  Healing  by  First  Intent  —  Setting  of  Frae- 


xu 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS 


tures  —  Modern  Troatment  of  Hoiic  Diseases  —  Of  Amputation^' —  Control  of  Hemorrhages  —  \(1.^ 
Vance  in  Wound  Treatment  —  Surgery  of  tlie  Alimentary  Canal  —  Stomach  Surgery — Kidney  iii;;j| 
Bladder  Surgery  —  Hernia  or  Hupture  —  Of  Diseases  of  Female  Organs  —  Modern  Urain  Surj  irvf 
—  Its  Wonderful  Ailvanee  —  Astounding  Operations  —  The  Huntgen  or  X  Kays —  Their  Valu    i  jjj 
Surgery —  General  Keview  of  Surgical  I'rogress 615- tj*, 


PROGRLSS  OF  MEDICINE 

Early  Medical  Seienee — Progress  to  Ueginning  of  Nineteenth  (,'entury — Famous  Ancient  I'li.-i. 
cians  —  Noted  Schools  of  Medicine  —  Medical  Charlatans — -  Evcdution  of  Medicr.l  Hemedii  ~  - 
Important  ("hanges  in  Treatment  —  First  American  Schools  of  Medicine  —  Advance  in  Mat  r ; 
Medica  —  (irowth  of  Medical  Associations  —  Medical  Literature  —  High  Standard  of  Modern  Ji.  ■ 
ical  Education  —  Students  and  Colleges  —  Tendency  to  Special  Practice  —  Great  Importani 
Modern  Medical  Discoveries — Use  of  Ana'sthetics  in  Medicine  —  Advance  in  Physiology  ai 
Anatomy  —  Importance  of  Trained  Nurses  —  Review  of  Medical  Progress G.'il  i;;. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  RAILWAY 

First  Railways  —  Vast  Development  —  Cses  of  Railways  —Importance  to  Farmers  and  Produce: ■;- 
Various  Railway  Systems  —  (iovernmeut  Ownership  and  Operation  —  Mileage  of  Railways—  1! 
World's  Great  Railways — >Ietho(ls  of  l)uilding  and  operating  Railways  in  DilTerent  Countri  -- 
Bridge  Structures — I'se  of   Steel  Rails  —  Railway  Signals  —  The   Block   System  —  Single  ,i: 
Douhle  Tracks  —  First  Steam  Locomotives — Weight  and  Power  of  Modern  Locomotives— T 
Old-fashioned  Passenger  Car —  Luxury  of  the  Modern  Palace  Car  —  Improvement  in  Freight  (  ,i 

—  The  Modern  Air-brake  —  Advance  in  Train  Ei|uipmeut  and  Service  —  Rates  of  Spee<l  —  Raiiu  , 
Mail  Service  —  Passenger  and  F'reight  Rates  —  Railway  as  compared  with  Water  Traiis|)orl.iii 

—  Railway  Labor  —  Relief  Associations  and  Insurance  —  Mountain  Railways  —  Rapid  Transit 
Military  Railways — Portable  ami  Ship  Railways 64iJ-i;' 


ADVANCE  IN  LAW   AND  Jl'STICE 

Progress  in  International  Law — Its  Subdivisions  —  Law-making  Bodies  —  Powers  ami  Dutiis 
Legislators  —  Courts  of  .lustice — Duties  of  .ludges  —  Of  .lurors  —  (»f  Civil  Procedure  —  Codili. 
tioii  of  Laws  —  (Jrimiiial  .liiris))riidence  —  Piii'.ishments  for  Crimes  —  Capital  Punishment-  I 
lice  Powers — Rights  iif  Married  Women  uiuler  Law  —  Laws  regarding  Parents  and  Childiin - 
Transfer  of  Real  Estate  —  Copyright  Laws — Their  I'.lfect  on  Puldication  —  Admiralty  Laws  i 
Seamen  and  Shipping  —  Advance  in  Corporation  Laws  —  Laws  relating  to  Religion  —  Of  Reli^'i. 
Freedom  —  General  Review  of  Legal  Progress fifi.j-i' 


EVOLUTION  OF  BUILDING  AND  LOAN  ASSOCIATIONS 

.  Geserai.  PniNTirLKs:  —  Olijectsand  Uses  of  Building  Associations —  Explamition  of  the  Sv-I.: 
—  The  Various  Plans  of  Operation—  Loan  Series  —  ^laturity  ami  Payment  of  Shares  —  ('■.-! 
Shares  and  Loans — Early  History  of  These  Associations  —  Their  Character  abroad — Ili-l- 
of  American  Associations  —  The  First  Founded  —  Eulogies  of  Building  Societies  —  Vast  Memhi  r-i 
and  Capital  —  Management  in  Respective  Slates  —  Amounts  retunu'd  to  Members  —  Teacln  r> 
Practical  Thrift  —  Value  of  One's  Own  Home  —  Comfort  for  Those  of  Modest  Means  —  5I:ik 
of  Better  Citizens  —  Duties  of  OIKeers  and  Members  —  Respimsibilily  of  Members  —  Si/c  and  ('. 
of  Houses  usually  built  —  Typical  Houses  —  The  Social  Features  of  Building  Societies     .    077 


EPOt^H-JlAKERS  OF  THE  CENTURY 

Statesmen.  Orators,  and  Jurists  —  Great  (Jeiu'rals  —  Naval  Heroes  —  Noted  Preachers  and  Tia.li 
—  Imminent   Historians —  Distinguished    Editors  —  Noted    Scientists —  Leading   Philanthropi-i-- 
Famous  Inventors  —  Popular  Novelists  —  Greatest  Poets  —  Best  Actors  and  Lyric  Dramaii- 

tiiu-:. 


YJtkes 


f  Heniorrhageg  —  \(i, 
urgery — Kidney  m 
loileiu  Uruin  Sur(.ir 
lays — Their  Valu  j 
615-  ij:; 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


mous  Ancient  l*li.-.. 
Jledici'.l  Kcnit'dii  ~ 
-Advance  in  Ma!  i  ; 
idard  of  Modern  Mi-  ■ 
■Great  Important 
:e  in  Physiolojiy  ;ii; 
0^)1  m. 


ners  and  Producii s - 
P'  of  Railways—  11, 
DitTerent  Countri.  -- 
System  —  Single  mi 
I'll  Loi'omotives  —  Ti 
ement  in  Frei^flil  (  ;i 
[>s  of  Speed  —  Kail»:, 

Water  Transportaii 
ys  —  Uapid  Tran-ii 

(i4;j-ii'- 


Powers  and  Duties 
Procedure  —  Codili. 

ital  Punisliment— r 

irents  and  Cliildien 
Admiralty  Laws     i 

leligion  —  Of  KeliL'i' 

.....    (i(;.-i-.; 


[OXS 

lanation  of  the  Sy-|i: 
It  of  Sluires  —  Cn-t 
I'ter  aliroad  —  lli«l  • 
ies  — Vast  Sremliev-l 
lemljers  —  Teacliers 
i)dest   Means  —  Jlak 
inil)ers  —  Size  auii  (V 
g  Societies     ,    (iTT  ' 


Preachers  and  Te.uli 
ling   Philantliropi-i-- 
and  Lyric  Draiiinii- 

tiMi-:. 


1  Ocean  (jrcyhouiid  — Steamship  St.  Louis 

|ek  

Kninklin  Klectrical  Machine 

Hj'deu  .lar 

inklin  Institute,  Philadelphia 

Auction  (.'oil 

Ignetic  Fiehls  of  Force    .... 


prse  Telegraph  and  Battery     .... 

mud  Finley  Ureesc  Morse  ... 

jrrus  W.  Field 

C^an  (.'able 

Gi^at  Kastcrn  laying  an  (_»cean  Cable 

A  String  Teleiihone 

Thomas  Alva  FMison.    Full  page 

AiGraplui])honv 

A't'yiiaMio  ....... 

TOe  (iiilden  Ondlcstick  .... 

An  Ancient  Lamp 

A  Tallow  Dip 

dern  Lamp 

Metric  Arc  Light 

ctric  Locomotive.     From  Electrical  Ai/e 

ictric  Kaihvay  — Third  Kail  System 

CkBlssler's  Tubes 

Sflagiiiph  or  Shadow  Picture  ... 

(August  Morning  with  Farragut     . 

|tish  Battleship  Majestic     .... 
fipnch  Battleship  Magenta         .... 

Oifrman  Battleship  Woerth 

Itllian  Battleship  Sardegna       .... 

N(ilson's  Flagship  Victory 

C<ftistitution  (181'2)  under  Sail.     Permission  of  the  artist 
Spe  View  of  Constitution.     Full  par/e  .... 
TOe  r.  S.  Steamship  Oregon.     Copyright  by  W.  H.  Kau 
"tion  i)et ween  Monitor  and  Merrinuic 

I  Turbinia —  F'astcst  (Jraft  atloat.     Permission  of  S.  S 


^ine  of  C.  S.  Steamship  Powhatan,  A.  i>.  184!).     Full pai/e 
jine  of  V.  S.  Steamer  l'>iccson      .... 
^tle  "f  Trafalgar.     Full  pa  ye       .... 
I  (irowth  of  Ordnance.     F'our  cuts.     Full  page    . 

Distribution  of  Armor.     Twelve  cuts.     Full paye 
I  Crowth  of  .-Vrmor.    Eight  cuts.     Full pai/e 
Movement  of  Uranus  and  Neptune 

Bi^fossor  James  IL  Coffin 

Tjle  Lick  Observatory,  Mount  Hamilton,  Cal.     Full  page 

Tlpe  Spectrosco|)e 

Ylfrkes  Telescope,  University  of  Chicago.    Fullpaye   . 

pfessor  William  Harkness 

Bith  Telescope,  made  for  University  of  Pennsylvania 
^ee-inch  Transit.    By  Warner  &  Swasey       .        . 

Mollis  Linna'us  of  Sweden 

!  Green  Kose , 

fid  of  White  Clover,  with  Brunch  from  Centre         . 


Full  page 
Full  page 


McC 


!ure  Co. 


Fi 


PAOB 

nntinpiece 
1!> 
20 

2:1 
25 
2)i 
27 


28 
28 
2!» 
M 

;i2 

32 


a? 
:t<) 
;(» 

40 
40 

4:1 
45 
47 

4!) 
50 
5(i 
57 
57 
58 
5!( 
(iO 
61 

6;t 

65 
66 
67 
68 
til) 
71 
7.3 
78-7it 
81 
8lt 
!tl 

m 

'.(4 
'J5 
i)7 
100 
10.'J 
105 
106 
107 


XIV 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


\\ 


Tho  rcnMiit-I'dd  ^rH(,'nilii'(l li,,  Slinrlu 

(MitliiU!  (if  White  I>of{W(iiM|  Klowcr .         .  In  ■Ml'ciics 

Ycllciw  Toad-Klax  ill  I'l'loria  Stiilr II  -St'oini 

(iraiiu'd  ('orii-'l'assi'l II  'wbIiii  ( 

Hiiiiaiia  KJowiTs II  Alfred 

The  Cruel  Plant 1 1  ([ciiry 

Old  I'dtatii  iH'iu'tratcd  h\  Hdotli't ^  ,         ,        .  \\  Benjaii 

Fiiiifjus  j^niwiiif;  from  Head  (pf  ('ati'i'pillar II,  l|orar( 

^lary  Kll/alictli  Lease w  Mhn  \ 

Kiiiiiia  Willard \\  Ascpli 

(ieciifjo  Kliiit |.j  Jfee()nl 

KraiK't's  Willard Ij  fte  '' 

Distaff  and  S|)iiidlc I;  aP'' •^'' 

S|piiiiiiiif;  Wheel I .  Hl>i>i>  ' 

Primitive  Hand  I.iKiin  I;-  ■-cii'li 

Karly  Snimiiiif;  .leiiny \-u  jKiU'if( 

(iiiiiiiiif;  ('(jttiiii.     Old  way  prior  til  1800 |k  .|^ch  ol 

(iiiiiiiiig  Cotton.     New  way   .         .         .         .         • Ij  i|Bttite 

The  Modern  Mule                 l"  MTypi 

Hand  Coiiil)  of  the  Ki),'hteelith  Century I;  l|Dderii 

N.dde  Comb  of  18!)()    .         .         .         ." 1^  ATypi< 

Plain  I'ower  Loom,  1840 |.  Owifiifi 

Weaving.     The  Old  Way I  Milk  Ti 

Weaving.     The  New  Way |.,  Btttter-i 

Loom  of  18il0       .         .       " I.,  Kitfer-i 

iJaeqiianl  Maehiiie 1  •  lie  Da 

Smith  and  .Skinner  Loom  for  Mo(|iiette  Cariiets I  OVRr  Al 

('irenlar  Loom         ................  |;  BbIvIh 

The  First  Knitting  .Maehine,  Lee I;  OffP'i'i'i 

Knitting  in  the  Old  Way I,  Moitalil 

Knitting  in  the  New  Way I,  Mtp  .Sli 

Aiieient  Hirmingham  Meeting-house li  Liborat 

P.  K.  Cathedral  of  St.  .John  the  Divine 1  8«id  I'i 

Father  Daiiiieii,  Missionary  to  Leper  I'oloiiy         .         .         .         ,         .         .         .         .         ,         .1  AQiiari 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  England.    Fall jxit/e ],.  CHd  Sly 

Young  Jlen's  Christian  Association,  Philadelphia 1  Congre\ 

Bajitist  Mission  .Sehool,  .lapan I  Mlnid  li 

Methodist  Kpisidiial  Hospital 1  ■  United 

The  New  Liliiary  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C.     Full  jxtije I'  Afmstni 

Kiilgway  Branch  of  Philadelphia  Library.     Full /wi/v           '. 1  Kodmaii 

Public  Library  of  the  (Mty  of  Boston.     By  permission  (d' librarian.     Fiilljmi/e       ...  i  General 

John  KussellVouiig          "...." 1  Old  Snii 

Carnegie  Free  Lihrarv,  Pittsburgh.     Full  jxii/v 1  Spencer 

Aicdel'ttoile,  Paris       ....'. ]■  Metallic 

Natural  History  Museum,  Kensington,  London.     Full /xK/e r  Pnwnati 

The  White  TlotVsc,  Washington,  D.  C.     Full  jmrie        .     ' T  Mortar 

Glass  Covered  Arcade,  Milan I"  Modern 

United  SliitcsCapilcd,  "Washington.  D.  C.     Full pur/e r  K»g-Ic 

Library  Building,  University  of  Virginia Iv  P^etrat 

Trinity  Church,  New  York.     Full  page         .         .         .         .       ' I-  Q*tling 

St.  George's  Hall,  Philadelphia •         •        •  1"  If^'li'"' 

Trinity  Church,  Boston i-  f^^'"\ 

American  Surely  Com|)any's  Building,  New  York !•  Columbi 

Sir  Humphrey  i)avy        ." 1 .  I"»pr<ivi 

Michael  Farailav     " 1  -Atttonial 

William  Crookes,  F.  U.  S.        .        .         i o  DKc  Hai 

Sir  Henry  Bessemer -1.  AOnie  Hi 

Louis  .Jacques  Dagucrre '!■  Double  ( 

Louis  Pasteur J  Modern  i 

Beethoven  in  His  Study.     Full piiye :  Horeford 

Giuseppe  Verdi  .        ." ^  OWup  of 

Grand  Opera  House,  Paris :;  W^^^  ^ 

Metropolitan  t»pera  House,  New  York -'  PoIancl-< 

William  Richard  Wagner .':  J^''""  ^ 

Edwin  Forrest t.  Dibble  ( 


i    I 


k>' 


iL: 


^ 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XT 


li.  jjBlmrliittc  Saiimicrs  Ciishnian 

Ill  «'ciic«  fnmi  Slmkt'>pt'Hre'.'<  Koiiico  ami  .liilict.     Fulljmyt 

II  'ftudifji'  Ilam-i'oft 

II  foliii  (i.  WliilliiT 

II.       j^lficd  Ti'miysdii 

II         Hciiry  W.  I.oiiufcUdW 

1]         Beiijaiiiiii  Fiaiikliii 

I|.        Horaic  (iii'i'lry    ......... 

ir        John  \V.  I''cirmy 

II         J9!<c|'li  Mi'ilill 

1:;         Beoml  KuildiiiK,  I'liiladt'lpliia.     Full  juuji-  . 
1 1        ^e  '•  Itlaik  I  »ljili>k  "  iif  SlialinaiieMT  II. 

I:'         Bl«'  Miialiiti'  Sidiic.     Full /)iii/e 

1;         l^iiiM'f  I'liihi',  Kfiypt.     Fiill/xi;/!- 

i  ■        JSo-calKil  Sancpliafi'iis  "f  Alcxaiulcr  the  Great 

I;;,  Ooiieili'iiii  Letters  friim  I^aehish 

\2  Jir<li  "f  Titus,  Uiiine 

[■>  iB'tili'  Inseriptiiin  fmiii  Jeraliis.     Full  jmi/t' 

).;  A  Tyjiieal  Dairy  Farm.     Full /lai/e        .... 

).;  Hodeni  Creamery  and  Clieese  Kaetory       .... 

1.  A  Typical  Dairy  Ciiw  — Ayrshire 

1.  Ceiitrifii;;al  Cream  Separator  ill  Oporatidii.     Full pa<je    , 

\-:  Milk  Tester  (dpelll 

|,;  Butter-makiiif;  1)11  Farm  —  The  Old  Way.     Fulljxuje 

\:,  Butter-maliiiifC      Till' New  Way 

\~  Bie  Dairy  Maid.     Full /lai/e 

]  C«ar  Ali'xaiider  II.,  id  liiissia 

I;  Sftf  Fdwiird  liiihver 

I;  CSiptaiii  Alfred  Dreyfus 

I;  Mortality  Cliart 

I,  M»p  Shdwiii^r  "l{ef;istratiim  States  "    .... 

]■,  Liboratciry  of  tlie  I'niversity  of  I'eiiiisylvaiiia.     l''ullji(iijv 

I  £hMid  Filter  lied      .         .       "  .         .        ". 

I  AQiiaraiiline  Station 

]:  (M  Style  Slirapiud         ..-.,.. 

I'  Congreve  KdeUet 

i;  Uhtid  Hall        .         • 

1  ■  UiBJted  States  Kitle  Jfusket,  1855 

\,  Annstrdiif;  Field  (inn     ....... 

I  BAdmaii  (inn 

|.  General  Wiiilleld  Scott.     Full paye       .... 

I-  Old  Sniootli-bore  M(ntar 

.  Spencer  Carliine 

|-  Metallic  Cartridf^e  of  18(i4-G5 

|-  Prismatic  I'owder 

I'.  Mortar  dii  IJevolviiif,' Hoist.     Full paye    .... 

|-  Modern  Shrapnel    .         • 

l"  Kfag-ddi-gensen  IJiHe 

jv  Penetratiiift  Power  of  (inns  and  Hullets.     Full  paye     . 

|,  OttliiiK  (inn 

I>  Ndrdenf  Idt  Rapid  Fire  Onn 

1,-  Sojl  Pnl'erizer.     Furnished  by  author      .... 

I„  Coluniliia  "r-'"saT  and  Hinder.     Furnished  by  author 

]  Improved  Thresher,  with  Blower  and  Self-feeder.     Furnished  by 

I  Anioniatie  Stacker  with  Folding  Attaehnient.     F'nrnished  liv 

^1  Wic  Harrow.     H.  V.  Denocher  \-  Co.,  Hamilton,  Out.     .      "  . 

■J  A<Hne  Harrow.     I''urnished  by  author 

.,  Dabble  Corn  Cultivator,     Long-Alstatten  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ont. 

.,  Modern  Clover  Hnller.     (iaar.  Scoot  &  <;o.,  Kichmond,  Iiid. 

_,.  Befef(nd  Cow,  "  Lady  Laurel."     Furnished  bv  author    . 

.  Qfoup  of  Aberdeen-Angus  Cattle.     Courtesy  of  D.  Bradford  & 

.1  JWTBcy  Cow,"  Ida,"  of  .St.  Lambert.     Miller  &  Siblev,  Franklin 

.  Poland-China  Hog.     Furnished  by  author    .        .     '. 

■V  Merino  Sheep.     John  Pow  &  Son,'  Salem,  O 

■r  Double  Corn  Planter.    H.  P.  Denocher  &  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ont. 


author 


author 


on,  Aberd 
Pa.      . 


212 
2111 


217 

21» 

211) 

22;i 

224 

22."> 

22l> 

227 

2;i2 

2;12 

2;t5 

23D 

241 

242 

24;{ 

247 

24!> 

2.-.  I 

2:).{ 

2.H 

2o.5 

2:.7 

2."i!» 

2(i.-. 

2(i(i 

2li!> 

27;t 

275 

277 

27!> 

281 

2«4 

285 

28r» 

28(i 

287 

2.S8 

28H    ■ 

28!) 

2!tl 

2112 

2!  18 

2!M) 

•■it)  I 

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;ii4 

.•iI5 

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;t20 

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.125 
326 


xvi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


HiiikI  (ianlt'ii  Plow,     H.  I>,  Dt'iiiiclii-r  iS:  Co.,  Iluinilton,  Out. ''2*^1 

.Siu'ci'.ss  Aiiti-<'lo>;  Wi'iidtT.     I>.  Y.  Iltillock  &  Co.,  York,  I'u I'll^HC'i' 

A^piiiwull  potato  I'luiilcr.     Furiii>lic(l  by  uiitlior W^Hpiu 

Itrooklyii  .Siis|iciisioii  liriclf{L',     Full /laijt I'll  111'"'' 

'I'liv  NiuKiira  Kailwuy  Arch,    Coiirtt'sy  uf  (iraiid  Trunk  K.  I>,     Full  pa  gt      .        ,         ,        ,  -U-,  ^!^C)ia 

Till' Firth  of  Korlh  Briclj,'*',  (ft'iieral  Vii'W,     CriMlit  "  Uriilges,"  Chifugo.     Full pnijt         .        ,  ^Ui  'Boiiv 

Pfi'os  River  Viaduct 14:,  Mpiii. 

Formal  Opt'iiiiig  of  iSut'/ Canal M'  "Ba  C 

Manchvater  Sl>i|>  Canal 14'.  VHnK 

Conipli'ti!  Kock  Cut  Chicago  Drainage  Canal.     Courtesy  of  Lidgcrwoiul  Man.  Co.     Full pnije  .  Vi\  tHtIj'' 

An  "  Athi!*  "  Powder  Blast  under  Cableway,   Copyright  by  (Charles  Stadler,  Chicago,  Full  pay  e  IV  ^.S.  1 

American  Portal  of  .St,  Clair  Tunnel,     Courtesy  of  Urand  Trunk  R,  H :i.'i<  X'l  1,. 

Interior  of  .St.  Clair  Tunnel.     Courtesy  of  Urand  Trunk  R.  R :i.Vi  J.s 

Thoroughbred.     Full  jxtye :!i;.l  jHlJ.u 

Watering  the  Cows :ji;;  fl] 

A  Temperance  Society,     (Herring) :|i;:  S} 

Art  Critics,     ((iebler) lii;.  »l)i'. 

French  Coach-Morse  "dladiator" :ii[.  iBam 

Pacing  Horse  "Star  Pointer."     Time  Ini,  59  l-4s ii;;  Ssdi 

Automobile  or  Horseless  Carriage,     Courtesy  of  Electric  Automobile  Co :i;i  JHliit> 

<'onnn(>dore  .Ste|)heu  Decatur :i>,  Wciiil 

Commodore  Perry  at  Rattle  of  Lake  Krie .        ,  't:;  '9l)r.  ( 

Sclioolship  Saratoga.     Courtesy  of  Philailelphia  Bourse  Book .'i;>  ■■Will 

Robert  K.  Lee  at  Rattle  of  Chapultcpec.     Full  piiye :iM       Mdc 

Castle  William.     Military  Prison,  New  Y'ork  Harbor :i\  ,»ut;: 

Generals  Robert  K.  Lee  and  Stonewall  Jackson ;Ki  \^ft<>'" 

General  L'lysses  S.  (Irant.     Full  jxiye 'M;  9ir- 

Sherman's  March  to  the  Sen.     Full paye      .        • ;W.  Si""' 

Lee's  Surrender  at  A))pi)mattox :t!i;  ^^^B'r- 

Morro  Castle,  Santiago  Harbor :||«  ;»;iirli 

Admiral  George  Dewey.     Full  paye •I!';  nP''" 

Main  Deck  of  Cruiser  Chicagi :i!ii        »V,i-l 

Dewey's  (inns  at  Manila.     Full pnye '1'/  ii»"''  ^ 

General  Joseph  Wheeler .'ill'  'JB)(hiI 

The  Trnce  before  Santiago :ili>  jBir-t 

Aguinaldo,  the  Tagal  Leader ;j|r  iSi'our- 

Napoleon,  1814.     (Meissonier.)     Full  ptiye 4ii;  B"''''" 

Admiral  Horatio  Nelson 411  apuml 

Napoleon's  Retreat  from  Waterloo.     Full  paye 4ii:  .-jB''""' 

Capture  of  the  Malakoff.     Full  jxiye 4i''  ^^^DcIiji 

Battle  of  Magenta.     Full  paye 411  JB)uili 

Louis  Adcdphe  Thiers K  :^^HiiiKi 

Cavalry  Charge  at  (Jravelotte,     Full  paye 41'  u^Kir  ' 

Battle  of  Y'alu  River.     Full  page 41'  -^P"'"'  ' 

Munich  Exposition,  1854 4i  ^teaii 

New  Orleans  Expositi(ui,  1884.     Full  page 4i'  :a)rivi 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris  Exposition,  1888  .      ' 4J-        :»traij 

<'(uirt  of  Honor,  Chicago  Exjxisif ion,  189.'! 4J'  ^"I'l' 

Wtuiu'n's  Building,  Chicago  Exposition,  ]8i).3 41:  »|P''''''' 

Agricultural  Building,  Atlanta  F^xposition,  1895 44  ;'^''''' 

Machinery  Hall,  Atlanta  Exposition,  1895 4!,  Wowe 

AVomcn's  Building,  Nashville  Exposition,  1897 4i  ;»■'«'  ' 

Art  Building,  Nashville  Exposition,  1897 41"  igp'''"' 

<;raiid  Court,  Omaha  Exposition,  1898.     Photograph  by  H.  C.  Hersey 41'  '|»l"'i-' 

National  Export  Exposition,   Philadelphia,  Sept.  14  to  Nov.  30,  1899.     FMectro  supplied  by  "S*" '  ** 

(Commercial  Musetuii.     Full  page 441  fjj;*'"'' 

Old  United  States  Mint,  Philadelphia 44'  »'"^'  ' 

New  I'nited  Stales  Mint,  Philadelphia.     Courtesy  of  Philadelphia  Bourse  Book.     Full  page  Vt[  -^^  "" 

Carpenter's  Hall,  Philadelphia,  First  Site  of  First  United  States  Bank.     Full  paye    .        .        .  4'  ,«f*l'"' 

(lirard  Hank,  Philadelphia,  .Second  Site  of  First  United  States  Bank      .         .      '  .         .         .  4'  aptatu( 

Second  United  States  Bank,  Philadelphia,  now  Custom  House 4"  ^afhc  V 

Bank  of  England,  London 4ii  ^^^f  hoto 

German  Hank,  Bremen 4'-  ^^^^^^' 

The  Bourse,  Paris.     Full  paye V-  »linic 

New  Y'ork  Clearing  House 4i''  «B*""' 

'Mt-Ra' 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


U  pnye 


(,"().     Full  page  , 
liicago.  Fulljmye 


tro  supplied  by 
k.     Full  pnge 


■'in; 
■K 

■■):i 
■•i:ii 

:|N1 
.■1.1, 
•!«■ 
■K 
:H' 
■». 

■■Ill; 

:iir 
.■ill- 

:)!<• 
iv- 
411: 
411. 
4ii- 
4ir, 
41: 
4|: 
41' 
4|- 
4:' 

K 

4: 

4:1: 

4.i 
4.;, 
4:1: 
4:1: 
4:1'- 

44; 
K 

4.V 
4.-: 

4:0     ' 
41;.     , 
4.;.    ■• 
4.;. 
4,;. 


[(■.  caiiiit  Tri'i',  I'lilin  Hcuih,  Kill.     I'liotofrcnph  hy  niitlii.r.     Full jinr/e 

I'.nki""  Apples  (di-  Kxport,  St.  CuthcriiicH,  One.     Full /im/f 

!  l.ady  III' Ciivcrly  (iriipcs,  Mary  villc,  Cnl,     l'lii.tiif;nipli  hy  iiutlior.     Full  pnye  . 
()i:iii^;i(lRliiinl,  Saiitord,  Ma.     I'liotn^niph  liy  aiillKir  . 

1  OliM' I  iriliani,  .San  Jom'',  Cal.     I'liotoKi'apli  liy  aiitlmr 

,  Till,  aii'lc  I'ii'lil,  I'alm  Ik'Uili,  Kla.     riiotoj^nipli  l.y  author     . 

jA  (I'll"!' Ship.     IVrnu.-ittioii  of  W'liittakcr  kV  Ci). 

fli,,!.i  rl  I'ultol 

iiiHiit,  Kultou'.s  First  .Stoauilioat 

I.s.  t  I   ^nd.  KiiiiMdcr  of  First  ((ci'au  I'aikct  I.iuc.     < 'mirtesy  of  Cuiiard  S.  S.  Co. 

,  aiii<',  IHDlt  — Largest  Ship  .VHoat.     Courtesy  of  White  Star  Liue.     Full j,i,,/e 
1  I  ■ani|>auia,  of  Ciinaril  IJiic.     Courtesy  of  C'uiiard  S.  S.  Co.     Full  /im/r 
|(    .  -     -■  Shipyard  on  the  Delaware.     Full /iiiye  .... 

|I>,  -   i  n//i,  (d  Vverduu        .         .         .         .      ' 

I  il,  I'oiiuder  of  Kiudergarteus 

Dr.  TliHiiias  .Vnudd,  HuKhy,  Kiif,'land 

Ail  ((ill  l.oj;  .Sthoolhouse 

Ihoii'e  at  Sleepy  Hollow 

iitcnnr  of  Sleepy  Hollow  Sehoojliousc  .... 

hild's  (iiiiile.     Full jiaye  .         ....... 

r.  Cliarlo  W.  Kliot,  I'resideiit  of  Harvard  riiiversity 

illiaiii  T.  Harris 

deal  Silmolliouse  and  (irounds 

ujrj.'! ■^li"||■'  for  ])lautiiifr  a  Si'hoolftrouud 

ew  lliL;li  School,  I'hiladelphja.     Full  pni/e 

r.  W  illiaiu  H.  Ma.xwell,  Su|ierinteii(lent  "(ireater  New  York"  Schools 

iiok'r  T.  Washinfjton,  rriuei|)al  Tuskej,'eo  Institute 

r,  1;  Heiij.  Aiulrews,  Superintendent  of  Sehools,  C'hiengo,  III. 

arly  Hand  I'rintin),'  I'ress 

he  rolunihian  Press 

l\'asliiiit;ti>n  Hand  Press 

I  Wdodi'ii  Frame  Adams  Press 

lonlilc  Cylinder  Press 

rsl  rerfectinfj  Press 

our-iollir  Two-Kevolution  Press  ... 

itlii'Ltraphie  I'ress 

iinilicrinf;  Card  Press 

iiiiilipe  (Type-setting)  Jlachinc — Front  View 

ietnpl.'  Stereotype  Perfeetiiif;  Press  aiul  Folder.     Full  pnye 

inline  of  Type-settiuf;  Maehiue '       ,         _ 

inkin;;,  Driftinrr,  and  Sloping  in  Mining  

ir  ( 'oriipressor  .......... 

he    'Sergeant"  Roek  Drill 

Bte.iHi-Driven  Air  Compressor 

runnel.     Full  pnye 

m  pressor 

uplex  .Vir  Compressor  ........ 

trie  Coal-Mining  Jfaehine.    Full  pnye 

Dredging  on  Swan  Kiver,  Colorado.     Full pnyt  . 


KJI<(iiii'i'it)i.ii    ..111     \    VI 

J)ri\  ing  a  liaihva.v  T 
jBtraiglit  Line  Air  Ci» 


yower  Plant  at  .lerome  Park 

,     'he  H(d_v  Women  at  the  Tomb 

lU^^hisjiers  (if  Love.     (Honguercau.)     Full  pnye 
Ihrisimas  Chimes.     (HIashlield.)     Full paye 
reek  tiirls  playing  at  Ball.     (Lcighton) 
ndseer  and  his  Favorites.     (By  himself.)     Full  pnye 
'he  Horse  Fair.     (Rosa  Bonheur.)     Full pnqe  . 
.1  the  Shrine  ( f  Venus.     (Alma  Tadcnia)     '.        .         .        . 

apoleon  I.     (Canova) 

Itatue  of  lienjamin  Franklin.     (Boyle)  .... 

'he  Washington  Monument,  Fairm'ount  Park  . 

'hotogrnphie  View  of  New  York  City 

lurgieal  Operating  Room,  Howard  Hospital,  Philadelphia 
'linieal  Amphitheatre,  Pennsylvania  Hospital.     Full pnqe 
Pennsylvania  Hosi)ital,  Philadelphia.     F>om  its  "  History." 
'.-Ray  Photograph  of  a  Compound  Fracture  of  Forearm  '  . 


Full  pnye 


XVII 

47;i 
477 

4h;i 

4h: 

48« 
4)SII 

4!);i 

4!)4 
4!l.j 
4!t7 
4!))) 
SOU 
512 
517 
.5IU 
oJ() 
.VJl 
524 
52.") 
5-27 
5;Jl 

rm 
5;u 

5.16 

5:17 
5;i8 

5;!!) 

541 

54:1 

.545 

n4ti 

547 

54» 

.551 

55;j 

555 

557 

559 

500 

.501 

57:1 

574 

575 

570 

577 

578 

579 

,581 

58;i 

.585 

589 

.591 

592 

.59.3 

595 

597 

001 

ti();t 

005 

007 

Oil 

017 

021 

024 

028 


XVIIl 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


X-|{a_v  Pii'tiiro  of  (1  Dinliicntcd  Klliiiw,     Full /)ii;it .'■ 

I»r.  Oliver  Wciiili'll  llol »    .       .       ,       .    ' .i:        ,:' 

l>r.  Niitliiiii  Siuitli  l)avi>,  III' Cliii'ii^M,     CniirlrMy  nf  lli.  liavin ■\:f: 

StuiiiiiK  Mi'iliiitl  Ciilli'p'  and  St.  rraiiiis  lli»|iiial,  Ciiliiiiiliiis,  Oliio.     CoiirtcM'  iif  Spuhr  & 

(■li'iin.     Full /xii/r         ....,,.,.,,,..  '>4i> 

.1,  Marion  Siiii.x,  A.  H.,  M.  !>.,  New  York,     <  oiirtf^y  of  Win.  Wood  vS;  Co || 

Tile  Old  .Sta^i' <'o<it'li '. U  . 

First  Train  of  Steam  Cars U', 

A  Itailway  Train  in  Kel^'iiini '>4; 

Loop  in  the  fiflkirkH,  >liowin){  I'our  Tracks.     Full  pit ijt       ........  'il'i 

Kntraiue  to  St.  (iotliard  Tunnel,  Switzerlanil il.'il 

liuilway  Sif^nalN ^mI 

All  Anieriean  Kxpress  l.oeoinotivu li.'i,; 

All  Aiiierieaii  Freifflit  Loeoinotivu l.'i'. 

Kxterior  of  Latest  SleejiiiiH  <'"r i         .         .  il.'ii; 

Interior  of  rnllinan  Sleeping  ('ar l.'i; 

liailway  .Sns])eiisioii  Hridfie,  N'ianarn  KalU.  From  AiiU'rican  Sueicty  of  Civil  KiiKiiieers.  Full  fiiige  H.Vi 

IlaKerinan  I'aHs  (III  (.'olorado  Midland  K.  It liill 

View  ni'ar  Vernijjas,  on  linu  of  Oroya  Railway,  I'erii       ........  liii.;   - 

Ilidependenee  Hull  and  Scinaro —Winter  Scent' iliii, 

Hon.  Melville  Fnller,  Chief  .lustice  U.  S.  Supreme  Court W' 

State,  War,  and  Xuvy  Ituildiii^',  Wastiiiifiton,  I).  C liT, 

Portia  anil  Hassaiiin.     Trial  Scene  from  "  Alerchaiit  of  Venice."     Full  jiiii/e  ,        .        .        .  n;: 

I'ayiiif;  their  Dues.     Full /Ku/e i);'. 

First  llnildiii^  and  Loan  Association  Advertisement il''l 

Kow  of  .51400  Honses ;m;  ;' 

Plan  of  *1400  Houses lih?  ; 

Hnildin^  Association  I)aiii|net.     Full  pnye i;s<  ^ 

Aliraliain  Lincoln >\V.  '"■ 

ilelTeisiiii  Davis .  .  ill.' 

William  L.  (ilailsloiie il'.'., 

Thomas  .lefTerson i;!i'< 

Otto  K.  L.  Von  IJismarck illi'  ^ 

William  McKinley lill^  ffi 

(irant's  Toinli,  Itiverside  Drive,  New  York  City li'/  'v 

Duke  of  Wellington 7i' 

Count  Von  .Moltke 7i : 

(icneral  (iinseppc  Garibaldi T' 

Charles  H.  Spiirncon Vi 

William  Willierforcc 7i 

Till, mas  H.  .Macaulay 'y 

Florence  Xif^htiiifjale '.'.. 

(Mara  Uartoii 71 

Sir  Walter  Scott 71 

Charles  Dickens  ...............  71' 

Lord  Hvrun • '\' 


1 1 

I! 


|y^ 


jSi 


if  Spalir 


«c 


'1411 
'>4I 

'i4; 

1:4; 


Full  iKiye 


PICK. 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


I.       AT    TIJK    DAWX    OK    TlIK    (  KNTl'KY. 

AViiK.N,  ill  his  ••^lidsuininor  Night's  Dream,"  Sliukespeare  placed  in  tiie 
mpiitii  ul'  I'lick,  prince  of  fairies,  the  phiyfiil  speech, — 

"  I'll  put  n  if'wiWv  roiiiiil  abdut  tin,'  i.irtli 
III  fcii'ty  iniiiiitf."," 

he  liiiil  no  tiionj^ht  that  the  nndertakinj,'  of  a  boastfnl  and  ])rankish  sprite 
OOVilil  rvcr  lie  ontdone  by  hiunan  a<^ency.  (.'oiUd  the  immortal  bard  have  lived 
tftwitiicss  tlie  time  when  the  girdlinjj;  of  the  earth  by  means  of  the  electric 
CTJffrcnt  became  easier  and  swifter  than  elfin  promise  or  possibility,  he  nuist 
hiive  speedily  remodeled  his  splendid  comedy  an<l  denied  to  the  world  its 
deli^'litful,  fairy-like  featnres. 

An  old  and  charming  story  runs,  that  Aladdin,  son  of  a  widow  of  Uagdad, 
became  owner  of  a  magic  lamp,  by  means  of  whose  remarkable  powers  he 
oonld  bring  to  his  instant  aid  the  services  of  an  all-helpful  genie.  Wlien 
Aladdin  wished  for  aid  of  any  kind,  he  had  but  to  rub  tlie  lamp.  At  once 
the  genie  ai)])eared  to  gratify  his  desires.  By  means  of  the  lamp  Aladdin 
conld  hear  the  faintest  whisper  thousands  of  miles  away.  He  could  annihi- 
late both  time  and  space,  and  in  a  twinkling  could  transfer  himself  to  the 
t<^s  of  the  highest  mountains.  How  the  charm  of  this  ancient  story  is  lost 
in'the  iiresence  of  that  marvelous  realism  which  marks  the  achievements  of 
motlern  electrical  science ! 

The  earliest  known  observations  on  that  subtle  mystery  which  pervades  all 
nature,  that  silent  energy  whose  phenomena  and  possibilities  are  limitless, 
and  before  which  even  the  wisest  must  stand  in  awe,  are  attributed  to 
Thales,  a  scholar  of  Miletus,  in  Greece,  some  (500  years  b.  c.  On  rubbing  a 
piece  of  amber  against  his  clothing,  he  observed  that  it  gained  the  strange 
property  of  at  first  attracting  and  then  repelling  light  objects  brought  near 
to  it.     His  observations  led  to  nothing  practical,  and  no  historic  mention  of 


I 


^i|! 


20 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


t'! 


V   1 

'I 


n 


electrical  i)lien()mcnii  is  tnuiul  till  the  time  of  Theoplirastus  (».<■.  .'>41),  v  hn 
wrote  that  amber,  when  rubbed,  attracted  "  straws,  small  sticks,  and  <>  ci; 
thill  pieces  of  copper  and  iron."  l>oth  Aristotle  and  i'liny  speak  of  the  e  Me- 
tric eel  as  having  ])ower  to  benumb  animals  with  whieh  it  comes  in  conta(  t. 
Thus  far  these  simple  jjhenomena  only  had  been  mentioned.  There  was  im 
study  of  electric  force,  no  recognition  of  it  as  su(di,  or  as  we  know  it  and  t  ii:. 

it  to  practical  account   to-(iiiy, 
This  seems  (piite  strange  win;, 
we    consider    the    culture    an- 
power  to  investigate  of  the  K,uv|i. 
tiaiis,   riuenicians,  Greeks,  an 
J{oniaiis.     True,  a  few  fairy-lik- 
stories  of    how    <'ertaiu    j)er.soi|. 
emitted   sjiarks  fnmi  their  Inn; 
ies,  or  were  cured  of  diseases  Iv 
shocks    from    electric    eels,   ,u 
found  scattered  tlirough  their  In. 
eratures,  but  they  failed  to  lo', 
low  the  way  to  electrical  scicno 
pointed  out  to  them  by  Thalr- 
Even  in  the  ^Middle  Ages,  win: 
a  few  scientists  and  writers  mi 
fit  to  si)eak  of  electrical  phciuin, 
ena  as  observed  by  the  ancient- 
and  even  ventured  to  sjieculm 
uiion  them   in  their  crude  wnv 
there  were  no  practical  additin; 
made   to    the    science,    and   t! 
ground  laid  as  fallow  as  it  Im 
done  since  the  creation. 

After  a  la])se  of  more  than  tw 
thousand  years  from  the  expri 
ment  of  Thales,  Dr.  (Jilbert,  jili; 
sicinu  to  Queen   Elizabeth  (a.i 

ir.;{;!-](;(»;i),  took  up  the  stuilv. 

amber    and    various   other    mi 
stances  which,  when  suLjeetril  ■ 
friction,  acquired  tlie  j)roperlv 
first  attracting  and  tlien  repcUi:. 
light  bodies  brouj  lit  near  tlici 
He  ]mblished  his  observations: 
a   little   book    called  "De    M.. 
nete,"  in  the  year  a.  n.  KiOO,  and  thus  became  the  first  author  of  n   wn: 
upon  electricity.     lu  this  uiii(iue  and  initial  work  upon  siii>])le  electrical  i 
fects,  the  author  added  greatly  to  the  number  of  substances  that  couM  ;• 
electrified  by  friction,  and  succeeded  in  establishing  the  different  degrc- 
force  with  which  they  could  be  made  to  attract  or  re})el  light  bodies  biiu^ 
near  them. 

Fortunately  for  electrical  science,  and  for  that  matter  all  sciences,  ali- 


OLD    KUANKMN    KI.KCTUICAI.   MA<  IIINK. 
(Hy  permission  of  Krankliii  Instiliite.) 


^ 


'-*SW(« 


KSTURY 

(it.c.  ;j4i),  vh. 

sticks,  and  t'  en 
[wak  of  the  e  oc- 
mes  in  contac  l. 
1.    There  was  iii 
know  it  and  t  ir: 
account   to-i'uy. 
te  strange  win- 
he    culture    an- 
nate of  the  Eiivi- 
ins,  Greeks,  an 
,  a  few  fairy -lit 
certain    j»ersiii. 
from  their  \»k 
ed  of  diseases  li 
idectric    eels,   ai 
through  their  li- 
hey  failed  to  lo', 
electrical  s(nruo 
them  by  Thah- 
Liddle  Ages,  win: 
i  and  writers  mi 
electrical  pheuon, 
1  by  the  ancient- 
Lired  to  specula! 
their  crude  wav 
)ractical  additio!; 
science,   and   t!. 
fallow  as  it  li;i 
creation, 
of  nu)re  than  tw 
1  from  the  exiiti 
,,  ])r.  (Jilbert.  iili; 
Elizabeth  (a.i 
V  \\\i  the  stuil.N ' 
.rious   other    su 
when  snbji'ctril' 
il  tlie  properly 
uid  then  vepelli;. 
)U!  iit  near  llai 
i,!  observatioii> : 
ealled  "De    M  . 
i\uthor  of  a  wi': 
leple  electrical  > 
■es  that  co\ilil  ■ 
fferent  degro-  ■ 
it  bodies  bn  lu 

dl  sciences,  alf 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTIUCITV 


21 


this  time  the  infliience  of  Lord  Jiacon's  Inductive  riiilosophy  began  to  be  felt 
by  investigators  and  scientific  men.  Uefcu'c  that,  the  causes  of  natural 
plieiioniena  had  not  been  backed  up  by  repeated  experiments  amounting  to 
practical  jiroofs,  but  had  been  accounted  for.  if  at  all,  by  sheer  guesses  or 
whimsical  reasons.  Uacon's  method  introduced  hard,  cold,  constant  ex{)eri- 
ment  as  the  only  sure  means  of  finding  o\it  exactly  the  causes  of  natural 
phenomena:  and  not  oidy  this,  but  tiie  necessity  of  series  upon  series  of 
experiments,  each  based  upon  the  residts  of  the  fornu'r.  and  so  eontiiniing, 
link  liv  link,  till,  from  a  comi)arison  of  tin-  whole,  some  general  ])rineiple  or 
truth  could  be  drawn  that  applied  to  all.  This  itidudirr.  method  of  scientitic 
research  gav«'  great  impetus  to  the  study  of  every  branch  of  science,  and 
esiieciallv  to  the  unfolding  of  infallible  and  practical  laws  governing  the 
phenomena  of  nature. 

For  verv  numy  years  electrical  experiments  followed  the  lines  laM  down  by 
Dl'.  (Jilbert ;  that  is,  the  finding  of  substances  that  could  be  excitiHl  or  elec- 
tritied  bv  friction.  Hy  and  by  such  substances  came  to  be  called  e/trfrirs, 
and  it  becanu'  a  ])art  of  the  crude  electrical  science  of  tlie  time  to  conii)Ute 
f||e  force  with  wliich  these  electrics,  when  excited,  attracted  or  reiielled  other 
robstances  near  them.  Among  the  ablest  of  these  investigators  were  JJobert 
B0yle.  author  of  "  Ex|)eriuu'nts  on  the  Origin  of  I'Hectricity,"  Sir  Isaac  New- 
tj^,  Otto  von  (iuericke,  and  Francis  Hawksbee,  the  last  of  whom  (tommuni- 
oited  his  experiments  to  the  English  Royal  Society  in  170").  Otto  von  (iue- 
rfeke  used  a  hard  roll  of  sidphur  as  an  electric.  lie  caused  it  to  revolve  rap- 
ly  while  he  rubbed  or  excited  it  with  his  hand.  Xewton  and  Hawksbee 
a  revolving  glass  globe  in  the  sanu'  way.  and  thus  became  tht>  parents  of 
t!|e  modern  and  better  ecpiipped  electrical  machine  usv'd  for  school  purposes. 
jThe  next  step  in  electrical  discovery,  and  out;  which  marks  an  ei)ocii  in  the 
Jj^tory  of  the  science,  was  made  by  Stephen  0  ray,  of  England,  in  17L".>.  To 
1^  is  due  the  credit  of  finding  out  that  electricity  from  an  excited  glass 
ttiilinder  could  be  conducted  away  from  it  to  objects  at  a  remote  distance. 
!||bough  he  used  only  a  pa(!kthread  as  a  conductor,  he  thus  carried  electricity  to 
a^jdistaiu'c  of  several  hundred  feet,  and  his  novel  discovery  opened  u])what, 
iil^  the  time,  was  a  brilliant  series  of  exjierinuMits  in  England  and  through- 
c|lt  Erance  and  (Jermauy.  Out  of  these  ex])criments  cami!  the  knowledge 
iat  some  substances  were  natural  conductors  of  electricity,  while  others  were 
|)n-conductors  ;  and  that  the  lum-conductors  were  the  very  substances  — 
iss.  resin,  sulphur,  et<;.  —  which  were  then  in  popular  use  as  electrics, 
jre  was  laid  the  foundation  of  those  after-dis(!overies  which  led  to  the 
lection  of  eop])er,  iron,  and  other  metals  as  the  natural  and  therefore  best 
luluctors  of  electricity,  and  glass,  etc.,  as  the  best  insulators  or  non- 
iductors. 
|Up  to  this  time  an  excited  electric,  such  as  a  glass  cylinder  or  wheel,  had 
lirnished  the  only  source  whence  electricity  iiad  been  drawii  for  p\irposes  of 
Iperiment.  liut  now  another  great  step  forward  was  taken  by  the  nu)nn'ntous 
BfBcovery  that  electricity,  as  furnished  by  th(>  excited  but  (piickly  exhausted 
Ectric,  could  be  bottled  up,  as  it  were,  and  so  accumulated  and  preserved  in 
rge  quantities,  to  be  drawn  upon  when  needed  for  exi)erinu'nt.  It  is  not 
^own  who  made  tliis  important  discovery;  but  by  common  consent  the 
>rage  ajjparatus,  which  was  to  play  so  consjiiciujus  a  part  in  aiter-investiga- 


#^ 


43 


k«l 


22 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX™  CENTURY 


tions,  was  named  the  Leyden  Jm-  or  Filial,  from  the  city  of  Leyden  in  HoUand. 
It  consisted  of  a  simple  glass  jar  lined  inside  and  out  with  tinfoil  to  within 
an  inch  or  two  of  the  top,  the  tinfoil  of  the  inside  being  connected  by  a  con- 
ductor passing  up  through  the  stopper  of  the  jar  to  a  metallic  knob  on  toj). 
This  jar  could  be  charged  or  filled  with  electricity  from  a  conuiion 
electric,  and  it  had  the  power  of  retaining  tlie  cliarge  till  the  knob 
on  top  was  tiniched  by  the  knuckle,  or  some  unelectrified  substance, 
wiien  a  spark  ensued,  and  the  jar  was  said  to  be  discharged.  l>y 
conductors  attached  to  the  knol),  guns  were  tired  oft'  at  a  distance 
by  means  of  the  spark,  and  it  is  said  that  J)r.  Benjamin  Franklin 
ignited  a  glass  of  bran-ly  at  the  house  of  a  friend  by  means  of  a 
wire  attached  to  a  Leyden  jar  and  stretched  the  full  width  of  the 
Schuylkill  i{iver  at  riiiladeli)hia. 

At  this  stage  in  the  history  of  eighteenth  century  electricity  theiv 
enters  a  character  whose  exi)erinients  in  electricity,  and  whose  writ- 
ings upon  the  subject,  not  only  brought  him  great  renown  at  home 
and  abroad,  but  perhaps  did  more  to  systematize  the  science  and  turn  it  to 
])ractical  account  than  tliose  of  any  contemi)orary.  This  was  the  celebrated 
]3r.  IJenjamiu  Franklin,  of  ]'hiladelphia,  I'a.  He  showed  to  the  world  that 
electricity  was  not  created  by  friction  \\\n)\\  an  electric,  but  that  it  was  merely 
gathered  there,  when  friction  was  applied,  from  surrounding  nature ;  and  in 
proof  of  his  theory  he  invaded  the  clouds  with  a  kite  during  a  thunder-storm, 
and  brought  down  electricity  therefrom  by  means  of  the  kite-string  as  a  con- 
ductor. The  key  he  hung  on  the  string  became  charged  with  the  electric 
fluid,  and  on  being  touched  by  a.;  unelectrified  body,  emitted  sparks  and 
produced  all  the  effects  commonly  witnessed  in  the  discharge  of  the  Leyden 
jar. 

Franklin  further  established  the  difference  between  positive  and  negative 
electricity,  and  showed  that  the  sj^ark  ])henomenon  on  the  discharge  of  the 
Leyden  jar  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  inside  tinfoil  was  positively  elec- 
trified and  the  outside  tinfoil  n^^gatively.  When  the  inside  tinfoil  was 
suddenly  drawn  upon  by  a  conductor,  the  spark  was  simply  the  result  of  an 
effort  upon  the  ])art  of  the  two  kinds  of  electricity  to  maintain  an  eq\ulib- 
riura.  ]iy  similar  reasoning  lie  accounted  for  the  phenomenon  of  lightning  in 
the  clouds,  and  by  easy  steps  invented  the  lightning-rod.  as  a  means  of  break- 
ing the  force  of  the  descending  bolt,  and  carrying  the  dangerous  fluid  safely 
to  the  ground.  Here  we  have  not  only  a  practical  rt^sult  growing  out  of  elec- 
trical experiments,  but  Ave  witness  the  dawn  of  an  era  when  electricity  w;is 
to  be  turned  to  profitable  commercial  account.  The  lightning-rod  man  has 
been  abroad  in  the  world  ever  since  the  days  of  Franklin. 

Thus  far,  then,  electrical  science,  if  science  it  could  yet  be  called,  had  gotten 
on  at  the  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Xo  electricit}*  was  really  kno\\  ii 
but  that  produced  by  friction  upon  glass,  or  some  other  convenient  electrii'. 
Hence  it  was  called  frictiotuil  electricity  by  some,  and  ufati'c  electricity  by 
others,  because  it  was  regarded  as  electricity  in  a  state  of  rest.  Thougli  ;i 
thing  fitted  for  curious  experinu'nt,  and  a  constant  invitation  to  scienti'ii' 
research,  it  had  no  use  whatever  in  the  arts.  An  excited  electric  could  fi:i- 
nish  but  a  trivial  and  temporary  supply  of  electricity.  It  exhausted  itself  in 
the  exhibition  of  a  single  s[)ark. 


Ian 

•tr(J 

•ilv 

•epi| 

|ttc 

preij 

lionl 
.fJ»ow| 

fpeij 

1 


n  Holland. 
[  to  within 

by  a  con- 
ob  on  top. 
a  conn  ion 
1  tlie  Icnob 
L  substance, 
ivgt'd.     i»y 

a  distance 
in  Franklin 
means  of  a 
,vidth  of  the 

stricity  there 
I  whose  writ- 
ijwn  at  home 
ud  turn  it  to 
lie  ceh'hi-ated 
le  wt)rld  that 
it  was  merely 
iture ;  and  in 
lumder-storm. 
;rin^  as  a  cou- 
h  the  electric 
,d  sparks  and 
)f  the  Leydeu 

and  negativ(> 
large  of  the 
sitively  elec- 
tinfoil  was 
result  of  an 
lin  an  equilih- 
f  lightning  iu 
eans  of  break- 
j  fluid  safely 
ug  out  of  elei'- 
4ectricity  was 
g-rod  man  has 

lied,  had  gotten 
s  really  kuo^\u 
■enient  electri.'. 
electricity  I'V 
rest.  Though  ;i 
on  to  scienti'K' 
'ctric  could  fi'i- 
lausted  itself  '" 


WONDERS  OF  ELECTRICITY 


23 


II.       THK    NKW    NIXKTKKN'TII    CENTURY    KI.KCTRICITY. 

By  a  happy  accident  in  1790,  Galvani,  of  liologna,  Italy,  while  experiment- 
ing upon  a  frog,  discovered  that  he  could  produce  alternate  motion  between 
its  nerves  and  muscles  through  the  agency  of  a  fluid  generated  by  certain 
dissimilar  metals  when  brought  close  together.  Tliough  this  mysterious 
fluid  came  to  be  known  as  the  galvanic  fluid,  and  tliough  galvanism  was  made 
to  perpetuate  his  name,  it  was  not  until  1800  that  Volta,  another  Italian, 
showed  to  the  scientiflc  world  that  really  a  new  electricity  had  been  found. 

A'olta  constructed  what  became  known  as  the   galvanic  pile,  but  more 


FKANKMN    INSTITI  TK,    rHILADK.MMIIA. 
(From  plioto  furnished  by  Institute.) 

irgely  '.  "nee  as  the  voltaic  jJile,  which  he  found  would  generate  electricity 
Itrongly  and  continuously.  He  used  in  its  construction  the  dissimilar  metals 
■  lilver  and  /inc.  cut  into  disks,  and  i)iled  alternately  (Jiie  upon  the  otlier,  but 
lejiarated  by  pieces  of  cloth  moistened  with  salt  water.  Tliis  simple  gener- 
|ltor  of  electricity  was  the  forerunner  of  the  more  powerful  batteries  of  tlie 
present  day.  and  wliich  are  still  pojiularly  known  as  voltaic  cells  or  batteries. 
I  l)Ut  the  importance  of  Volta's  discovery  did  not  lay  more  in  the  construe- 
on  of  liis  electrical  generator  than  in  the  great  scientiflc  fact  that  chemistry 
iOW  became  linked  indissolubly  with  electricity  and  electri(!al  effects.  The 
o  novel  and  cliarming  sciences,  hitherto  separate,  were  henceforth  to  co- 
iperate  in  those  majestic  revelations  and  magniflcent  possibilities  which  so 
lignally  distinguish  the  nineteenth  century,     liy  means  of  greatly  improved 


24 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


i\ 


|i  I 


voltaic  cells  or  batteries,  that  is,  by  jars  containing  acid  in  which  were  sns 
ponded  dissiniihir  metals,  electricity  could  be  produced  readily  and  in  some 
what  continiU)US  current.  I»y  increasing  the  number  of  tiu'se  cells  or  jars  oi 
batteries,  and  connecting  them  with  conductors,  the  current  could  be  madi 
stronger  and  more  effective.  In  contradistinction  to  the  old  frictional  oi 
static  electricity,  the  new  became  known  as  chemical  or  current  electricity. 

As  was  to  have  been  expected,  Volta's  invention  and  discovery  excited  thi 
whole  domain  of  electrical  science  to  new  investigation,  and  brought  in  their 
train  a  host  of  wonderful  results,  growing  more  and  more  practical  each  year, 
and  pointing  the  way  nu)re  and  more  clearly  to  the  commercial  value  of  elec- 
tricity as  a  familiar,  inexhaustible,  and  irresistible  ])ower.  Thu.s,  in  LSOl,' 
Nicholson  sliowed  that  an  electric  current  from  a  voltaic  j)ile  would,  when 
passed  through  salt  water,  decompose  the  water  and  resolve  it  into  its  twu 
original  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  In  tS07,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  carry- 
ing electri(;itv  further  into  the  domain  of  chemistry,  showed,  by  means  of  tin' 
electric  current,  that  various  metallic  substiinccs  embraced  in  the  earth's 
crust,  and  before  his  time  sui)posed  to  be  elementary,  wi-re  really  dissolubli' 
and  easily  resolved  into  their  component  parts,  whe^  M-r  solids,  or  gases,  oi' 
both.  Two  years  later,  in  l<SOi>,  he  made  tl.  (|uaily  nu)mentous  discovery 
of  something  which  was  to  prove  a  veritable  sh  lux,  "  Let  there  be  light,"  fcir 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  illuminate  it  beyond  all  others.  Tliough  it  liinl 
been  known  almost  from  the  date  of  the  first  voltaic  pile  that,  when  the  ends 
of  its  two  conducting  wires  were  brought  close  together,  a  spark  was  seen  Id 
leap  in  a  curved  or  arc;  line  from  one  wire  to  the  other,  which  phenomenon 
was  known  as  the  voltaic  arc,  it  remained  for  Davy  to  exhibit  this  arc  in  all 
the  beauty  of  a  brilliant  light  by  using  two  charcoal  (carbon)  sticks  or  elec- 
trodes, instead  of  the  wires,  at  the  point  of  close  approach.  Here  was  tlic 
first  principle  of  the  after-evolved  arc  light  to  be  found  by  the  end  of  tlu' 
century  in  every  large  city,  and  to  prove  such  a  source  of  comfort  and  safety 
for  their  millions  of  inhabitants.  This  principle  was  simply  that  a  strciim 
of  electricity  pouring  along  a  conducting  wire  will,  when  interru])ted  by  ;i 
substance  such  as  carbon  (charcoal),  which  is  a  slow  conductor,  throw  off  a 
bright  light  at  the  point  of  interruption.  The  phenomenon  has  been  veiv 
aptly  likened  to  a  running  stream  of  water  in  whose  bed  a  stone  has  been 
jdaced.  The  stone  obstructs  the  How  of  water.  The  water  remonstrates  liy 
an  angry  ripple  and  excited  roar.  In  Davy's  experiment  with  the  pieces  df 
charcoal,  both  became  intensely  hot  while  the  electricity  was  making  its  bril- 
liant arc  leai)  from  one  to  the  otiier,  and  would,  of  course,  soon  be  consuniiil. 
He.  therefore,  in  siiowing  the  princijde  of  a  i)ermanent  luminant,  failed  In 
demonstrate  its  practical  possibilities,.  These  last  \yere  not  to  be  attaiiii'il 
till  the  nineteenth  centur}'  was  well  along,  and  only  after  very  numerous  and 
very  battling  attempts. 

Uetween  1810  and  IS.'JO,  many  important  laws  governing  electrical  ]i1ip- 
nonu^na  were  discovered,  which  tended  greatly  to  render  the  science  nn in- 
exact, and  to  give  it  commercial  direction.  Oersted,  of  Denmark,  discoveivil 
a  means  of  measuring  the  strength  and  direction  of  an  electric  current, 
Ampere,  of  France,  discovered  the  identity  of  electricity  and  what  had  bel'i'ic 
been  called  galvanism.  Kitchie,  of  England,  made  the  first  machine  liv 
which  a  continuous  motion  was  produced  by  means  of  the  attractions  iiiui 


'i  I' 


M 


rURY 

it'll  wei'o  sus 
ami  ill  some 
3lls  or  jars  or 
luld  be  madt 
frictioual  oi 
:  electricity, 
•y  excited  the 
night  ill  their 
,cal  each  year, 
value  of  ehn  - 
•liiis,  in  ISOl.' 
Avould,  wluMi 
it  into  its  two 
:  ]\ivy,  cariv- 
,'  means  of  tin' 
in  the  earth's 
ally  dissoluble 
Is,  or  f,nises,  or 
itous  discovery 
a  be  light,"  fur 
riiough  it  had 
when  the  ends 
u'k  was  seen  to 
h  phenomenon 
t  this  arc  in  all 
I  sticks  or  elco- 
llere  was  the 
the  end  of  the 
fort  and  safety 
y  that  a  stream 
iterru])ted  by  ii 
tor,  throw  off  :i 
L  has  been  very 
,  stone  has  befi 
enionstrates  liy 
th  the  jneces  nt 
making  its  bril- 
)!!  be  ('(insnnuMl. 
inaiit,  failed  to 
t  to  be  attaiiii'il 
y  numerous  ami 

r  electrical  ]ilie- 
lie  science  niun 
nark,  discover,'!! 
electric  currtnt, 
what  had  bef^n 
irst  machine  li.\ 
attractions  nm 


WuyDEHS   OF  ELECriilCITY 


'J5 


repiil.dons  between  Hxed  magnets  and  electro-magnets.  This  machine  was 
an  early  suggestion  of  the  dynamo  and  motor  ui  the  coming  years  of  the  cen- 
tury. It  meant  that  electricity  was  a  source  of  power,  as  well  as  of  other 
phenomenal  things. 

In  speaking  of  the  electro-magnet  in  connection  with  Kitchie's  machine, 
it  is  proper  to  say  that  the  tdectro-magiiet  was  probably  discovered  lietwei'ii 
'  IcSlT)  and  iSoO,  but  precisely  by  whom  is  not  known.     It  differs  from  the 
natural  magnet,  or  the  iiermanent  steel  horseshoe  magnet,  and  consists  sim- 
ply of  a  round  piece  of  soft  iron,  called  a  core,  around  which  are  wrapped 
.several  coils  of  line  wire.     When  an  electric  current  is  made  to  pass  through 
this  wrapping  of  wire,  called  the  helix,  the  iron  core  becomes  magnetized, 
and  has  all  the  power  of  a  permanent  magnet.      I>ut  rs  soon  as  the  electric 
;current  ceases,  the  magnetic  power  id'  the  core  is  lost.     Hence  it  is  called  an 
■electro-magnet,  or  a  temiiorary  magnet,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  iiermanent 
magiHtt. 

While  the  discovery  of  the  electro-magnet  was  very  important  in  the 
respect  that  it  afforded  great  magnetic  jujwer  by  the  use  of  a  limited  or  eco- 
nomic galvanic  force,  or,  in  other  words,  by  the  use  of  smaller  and  fewer 
Voltaic  batteries,  it  was  not  until  Faraday  began  his  splendid  series  of  elec- 
■^rical  discoveries,  in  IM.'U,  that  a  new  and  exliaustless  wellspring  of  electri- 
city was  found  to  lay  at  the  door  of  science.  Faraday's  i)rinie  discovery  was 
that  of  the  induction  of  electric  currents,  or,  in  other 
words,  of  manufacturing  electricit}'  directly  from  mag- 
netism. He  began  his  experiments  with  what  became 
known  as  an  induction  coil,  which,  tlwjugh  then  crude 
in  his  hands,  is  the  same  in  principle  to-day.     It  con- 


I^UL■cTIo.^  coll.. 


26 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX™  CENTURY 


! 
II 


II 


sists  of  an  iron  core  wrapped  with  two  coils  of  insulated  wire.  One  coil  is  ol 
very  lengtliy,  thin  wire,  and  is  called  the  secondary  coil.  The  other  is  ol 
short,  thick  wire,  and  is  called  the  i)rimary.  When  a  magnetic  current  is 
passed  through  the  primary  coil,  with  frequent  makes  and  breaks,  it  induces 
an  alternating  current  of  very  high  ttMision  in  the  secondary  coil,  thus  power 
fully  increasing  its  effects.    In  Faraday's  further  study  of  electric  induction. 

he  showed  that  when  a  conductor 
carrying  a  current  was  brought  near 
to  a  second  conductor  it  induced  o: 
set  up  a  current  in  this  second.  Sd 
magnets  were  found  to  have  a  sim- 
ilar effect  upon  one  another. 

The  secret  of  these  phenomena 
was  found  to  lie  in  the  fact  that  a 
magnet,  or  a  conductor  carrying  a 
current,  was  the  centre  of  a  Held  ol 
force  of  very  considerable  extent. 
Such  .a  Held  of  force  can  be  famil- 
iarly shown  by  placing  a  piece  ol 
glass  or  wliitc  paper  sprinkled  with 
line  iron  filings  upon  the  poles 
of  a  magnet.  The  filings  will 
be  drawn  into  concentric  circles, 
whose  e.\tent  measures  the  maj;- 
net's  field  of  force.  So  also  the 
extent  of  the  field  of  force  sur- 
rounding a  conductor  carrying  a 
current  may  be  familiarly  shown. 
In  these  instances  the  lilin,i;s 
brought  within  the  fields  of  forci' 
are  magnetized.  So  would  any 
other  conducting  substance  be,  and 
would  become  capable  of  carryinj; 
away  as  an  independent  current 
that  which  had  been  induced  in 
it.  Here  we  have  the  essential  principle  of  the  modern  djaianio-electiic 
machine,  commonly  called  simply  dynamo.  Faraday  actually  constructed  a 
dynamo,  which  answered  very  well  for  his  experiments,  but  failed  in  com- 
mercial results  because  the  only  source  of  energy  he  could  draw  upon  in  liis 
time  Avas  that  supplied  by  the  rather  costly  voltaic  cells. 

During  Faraday's  time  and  subsecpiently,  electricians  in  Europe  and  the 
ITnited  States  were  active  in  formulating  further  laws  relative  to  the  natuiv, 
strength,  and  control  of  electrical  currents,  and  each  year  was  one  of  prepara- 
tion for  the  coming  leap  of  electrical  science  into  the  vast  realm  of  comnici- 
cial  convenience  and  profit. 

III.      THK    TELKORAPH, 

From  the  date  of  the  discovery  that  electricity  could  be  conducted  to  a 
distance,  dreams  were  indulged  that  it  could  be  made  a  means  of  comnnmi- 


MAGNETIC   FIKLDS  OF   FORCE. 


^ 


UUY 

ne  coil  is  ot 
other  is  ol 
c  current  is 
s,  it  induces 
thus  power- 
ic  iudiK'tion. 
a  conductoi 
brought  near 
it  induced  or 
s  second.    Si> 
J  have  a  sini- 
lother. 

3  phenomen;i 
le  fact  tliat  ;i 
jr  carrying  ;i 
e  of  a  tiehl  ol 
n-able  extent. 
can  be  fanni- 
ng a  piece  ol 
prinkled  with 
on   the    poh's 
1    tilings    will 
entric  circles, 
ires   the   nui^- 
So  also  tho 
of  force  sur- 
n-   carrying  a 
iliarly  shown, 
the    filings 
fields  of  for(T 
would    any 
)stance  be,  and 
e  of  carryin;,' 
ntlent   current 
■n   induced  in 
ynanio-electvic 
constructed  a 
failed  in  coni- 
,w  upon  in  hi'^ 

i^urope  and  tin' 
)  to  the  natuiv. 
one  of  prepa la- 
in of  comnu'i- 


3onducted  t<i  a 
s  of  eoinninui- 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


27 


DAXtKI.I,  S   (  KI.I.S. 


m  eating  intelligence.    In  the  eighteenth  century,  many  attempts  were  made  to 
*  carry  intelligent  signals  over  electric  wires.     Some  of  these  were  quite  ingen- 
ious but  in  the  end  failures,  because  the  old-fashioned  frictional  electricity 
was  the  only  kind  then  known  and  em- 
ployed.    Even  after  the  discovery  of  tlie 
voltai«!  cell  or  battery,  which  affonhnl  an 
ample  supply  of  chemical   electricity  to 
;-operate  a  telegraphic  apparatus,  the  time 
was  not  ripe  for  successful  telegraphy,  for 
,  up  till  l.So()  no  battery  had  been  produced 
vthat  was  sutticiently  constant  in  its  opera- 
■tiou   to   supply  the   kind   of  current  re- 
Jquired.     For  ti'asible  telegraphy,  two  im- 
portant  steps  were  yet  necessary.     One 
was  the  discovery  of  tlie  electro-magnet, 

18L'."»-.">(».  The  other  was  tlie  discovery  of  the  Daniell's  battery  or  cell,  in 
183(5,  bv  means  of  whicli  a  constant  electric  current  could  be  sustained  for  a 
long  time. 

r>ut  even  before  tliose  two  iudispensalile  recpiisites  had  been  supplied  by 
hinnan  "'enius,  nuich  liad  l)een  done  to  develop  the  mechanical  metliods  of 
Conveving  intelligence.  In  181(i,  Konalds,  of  England,  constructed  a  tele- 
graph by  nu'iins  of  which  he  operated  a  system  of  pith-ball  signals  which 
Could  be  understood.  In  ISliO,  Ampere  suggested  that  the  detlection  of  the 
magnetic  needle  by  an  electric  current  might  be  turned  to  account  in  impart- 
ing intelligence  at  a  distance.  In  181.'8,  Dyar,  of  New  York,  perfected  a  tele- 
8ra[)h  by  means  of  which  he  made  tracings  and  spaces  upon  a  piece  of  mov- 
ing litmus  paper,  which  tracings  and  spaces  could  be  intelligently  interjireted 
Ihrough  a  prearranged  code.  A  little  later,  IN.'M),  l>aron  Schilling  constructed 
4  telegraph  which  imparted  motion  to  a  set  of  needles  at  either  end. 
ir  From  this  time  uj)  to  1837,  which  last  year  was  a  memorable  one  in  the 
listory  of  telegraphy,  the  genius  of  such  distinguished  men  as  ]\Iorse  in  Amer- 
Ba,  Wheatstone  and  Cooke  in  England,  and  Steinhill  in  ]\Iunich,  was  brought 
bear  on  the  further  evolution  of  the  telegraph.  While  all  these  names  have 

been  associated  with  the  invention  of 
the  first  ])ractical  telegraph,  it  is  impos- 
sible, with  justice,  to  rob  that  of  Morse 
of  the  distinguished  honor.     Morse  con- 
ceived his  invention  on  board  the  shi]) 
Surry,  while  on  a  voyage  from  Havre  to 
New"  York,  in  October,  183L'.      It  con- 
sisted, as  conceived,  of  a  single  circuit 
of  conductors  fed  by  some  generator  of 
electricity.      He   devised   a    sj'stem    of 
jpgns,  which  was  afterwards  improved  into  the  Morse  alphabet,  consisting 
dots  or  jwints,  and  spaces,  to  represent  numerals.     These  were  impressed 
ion  a  strip  of  ribbon  or  paper  by  a  lever  which  held  at  one  end  a  pen  or 
encil.     The  paper  or  ribbon  was  made  to  move  along  under  the  pencil  or 
en  at  a  regular  rate  by  means  of  clockwork.     In  accordance  with  these  con- 
Bptions,  Morse  completed  his  instrument  and  publicly  exhibited  it  in  1835. 


MOIISK    TELEGRAPH   ANU    BATTERY. 


■i' 


I 


If  ill 


i 


28 


TIUUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XI Xf"  CENTURY 


■v". 

..w*^ 

mk 

Atf' 

^Wii 

1' 

X^^^^K^^ 

flv 

^^^H^". 

-^^K'^^^^Wr 

^ 

^^^H-^' 

'^^ 

/jj 

B 

/aKH 

!^ 

Bi 

d 

W^^^K^'*^^mJ^M 

1^ 

^r 

^m 

m 

'^ 

SAMUEL   FINI,KY    HUKESK    MOUSE. 


He  gave  it  furtlier  i»iil)lic:ty,  in  much  improved  form,  in  1837.     In  this  form 
it  was  entirely  or igiual  in  the  important  respects  tliat  the  ribbon  or  paper  was 

made  to  move  by  clockwork,  wliile  a 
pen  or  i)encil  gave  the  impressions,  tims 
preserving  a  permanent  record  of  the 
message  conveyed. 

Tliough  under  systems  less  original 
and  cU'ective  than  that  of  Alorse,  a  tirst 
actual  telegraph  had  been  opei'ated 
between  Paddington  and  Drayton,  Eng- 
land, a  distance  of  1.'5  miles,  in  1831). 
and  one  at  Calcutta,  India,  for  a  dis 
tance  of  21  miles,  it  was  not  until  1841 
that  the  world's  era  of  practical  tele 
graphy  actiuilly  set  in  under  the  ]\Iorsc 
system,  which  speedily  superseded  all 
others.  In  that  year,  amid  the  jeers  of 
coiigressnu'ii  and  the  adverse  i)redictions 
of  the  ])ress.  ^AForse  erected  the  first 
American  telegraph  line  in  America, 
between  Haltimore  ami  Washington,  ;i 
distance  of  40  miles,  and,  to  the  con- 
fusion of  all  detractors,  sent  the  first  message  over  it  on  May  27  of  that  year. 
From  that  date  the  fame  of  ^Morse  was  established  at  home,  and  soon  becann' 
world-wide.  Plis  system  of  telegraphy,  with  slight  modiiications,  became  thiit 
of  all  civilized  (!ountries. 

As  was  to  be  expected  in  a  century  so 
full  of  enterprise  as  the  nineteenth,  a 
science  so  attractive,  so  useful  to  civili- 
zation, so  commercially  valuable,  so  full 
of  possibilities,  as  telegraphy,  could  not 
remain  at  rest.  Everywhere  it  stim- 
ulated to  improvement  and  new  inven- 
tion and  discovery ;  and  as  the  century 
progressed,  it  witnessed  in  steady  succes- 
sion the  wonders  of  what  became  known 
as  duplex  telegraphy,  that  is,  the  send- 
ing of  different  messages  over  the  same 
wire  at  the  same  time.  Again,  the 
century  witnessed  the  invention  of 
(juadrujilex  telegraphy,  that  is,  the  send- 
ing of  four  sei)arate  message's  over  the 
same  wire,  two  in  one  direction  and 
two  in  another.  This  was  followed  by 
the   invention  of  Gray's   haniwiile  si/s- 

teui,  by  means  of  which  a  immber  of  messages  greater  than  four  are  trans- 
mitted at  the  same  time  over  the  same  wire:  and  this  again  by  Delane\"s 
si/nr/n'oiiuKs  inuff!/)lex  s>/stein,  by  means  of  which  as  nuiny  as  72  sepamtr 
messages  have  been  sent,  over  the  same  wire  at  the  same  time,  either  all  in 
one  direction,  or  some  in  one  direction  and  the  rest  in  an  o[)posite. 


OYKI'S    W.    KIEr,D. 


in 

irhi 


41 


URY 


WOXDEIiS  OF  ELECriilVirY 


29 


In  this  form 
or  \ii\\)in-  was 
)rk,  while  ii 
essions,  thut- 
>cord  of  thi' 

less  original 
Morse,  a  lirsl 
en     operated 
)raytun,  Kng 
lies,  in  18;V.I. 
ia,  for  a  clis 
,ot  until  1S4I 
iractical  tele 
er  the  ]\lorHc 
uperseded  all 
d  the  jeers  of 
rse  predictions 
sted  the    first 
in    America, 
^Vashington,  a 
d,  to  the  coii- 
!7  of  that  year, 
id  soon  became 
IS,  became  that 


IIKI.U. 


four  are  trans- 
in  by  Delane\"s 


tiimifil 


'  as  (. 


sepal 


;iti' 


ine,  either  all  in 
)osite. 


For  a  time  suoeessful  telegraphy  was  limited  to  overland  sjiaces,  the  conduct- 
4irs  or  wires,  consisting  of  iron  or  copper,  being  insulated  where  they  ])assed 
the  supporting  i)oles.  In  the  cities,  sui)i)orting  poles  proved  to  be  unsightly 
and  dangerous,  ami  they  were  succeeded  by  uiKh'rground  conduits  carrying 
insulated  wires.  In  \K\\),  we  read  of  what  may  be  reckoned  the  lirst  success- 
ful experiment  in  telegraphing  under  water  l)y  means  of  an  insulated  wire,  or 
cable,  as  a  conductor.  Tlie  experiment  was  tried  at  Calcutta,  and  under  the 
river  Hugli.  In  1S4-,  Morse  experimented  at  New  ^'ork  with  an  under-water 
cal)le,  and  .showed  that  a  successful  submarine  telegrapiiy  was  ])ractical.  In 
•  iSlS,  a  cable,  insulated  with  gutta-jjcrcha,  was  laid  under  water  between  New 
York  and  Jersey  City,  and  successfully  operated.  In  iSol,  a  submarine  cable 
:'  was  laid  and  siu'cessfully  operated  under  tiie  English  (/'iiannel.  An  enterpris- 
ing American,  Cyrus  W.  Field,  of  New  York,  now  took  up  the  subject  of  sub- 
marine telegraphy,  and  suggested  a  cable  under  tlie  ocean  between  Ireland 
and  Newfoundland.  One  was  laid  in  IS;")",  but  it  unfortunately  parted  at  a 
distance  of  three  hundred  miles  from  land. 
A  second  was  laid  under  Mr.  Field's  aus- 
pices in  18r»S,  but  the  insulation  ]n'oved 
faulty,  and  after  working  im])erfectly  for  a 
month,  it  gave  out  entirely. 

These  disasters,  though  furnishing  much 

'  valuable  experience,  checked  the  enterprise 

of  submarine  telegraphy  for  a  number  of 

'years.     Not  until    1<S()1,  when  a  deep-sea 

cable  was  successfully  laid  and  o[)erated  be- 
tween .Afalta  and  Alexandria,  and  in  1<S()4, 

.when  one  was  laid  across  the  I'ersian  (Julf, 

did  enterprise  gain  sufficient  courage  to  dare 

another  attempt  to  cable  tiie  Atlantic.     In 

18(!ri,  that  attempt  was  made.     Again  the 

cable  broke,  but  this  did  not  dissuade  from 

another   and   successful   attempt   in    18(5(5. 

This  signal  triumpli  was  the  forerunner  of 

others,  ecpially  important  to  international 
.commerce  and  the  world's  diplomacy.    Coun- 

■Jtries  far  apart,  and  isolated  by  oceans,  have, 

by  means  of  deep-sea  cables,  been  brought 

,into  intinuite  relation,  and  made  sharers  of 

one  another's  intelligence,  enterprise,  and 

civilizing   instincts.      What    the    overland 

telegraph  has  done  toward  bringing  local 

States  and  communities   into  contact,  the 

mibmarine  cable  has  done  for  the  remote 

'nations. 

''I  In  form,  an  ocean  cable  differs  much 
,|rom  the  simple  wire  which  constitutes 
;^e  conductor  of  an  overland  or  even  underground  telegrajdi.     It  is  made 

Jpi  many  ways,  but  mostly  with  a  central  core  of  numerous  copper  wires, 
rhich  are  more  flexible  than  a  single  wire.     These  are  thickly  covered  with 


OCEAN   CAHI.E. 


nM 


I    ' 


l.M 


!• 


Ill 
'I  |: 
•'III 


30 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


an  insulating  material,  sucli  as  guttca-percha,  after  Hrst  being  heavily  wrapjied 
in  tarred  canvas  or  like  material.  The  central  cores  may  be  one,  two,  threi . 
or  even  more  in  number.  Where  a  cable  is  likely  to  be  subjected  to  tli<' 
abrasion  of  ship-bottoms,  rocks,  or  anchors,  it  has  an  outer  covering  or 
guard  composed  of  closely  united  steel  wires.  In  submarine  telegrii}:hy,  the 
instruments  used  in  sending  and  receiving  the  message  are  very  much  mori' 
ingenious,  delicate,  and  costly  than  in  overland  telegraphy. 

Whereas  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  electric  telegraph \ 
was  an  unknown  science,  and  even  up  to  the  middle  of  the  century  was 
of  limited  use  and  doubtful  commercial  value,  nevertheless  the  end  of  th" 
century  witnesses  in  its  growth  and  application  one  of  its  most  stujiendous 
marvels.  From  the  few  miles  of  overland  wires  in  1844,  the  total  mileage  of 
the  century  has  exi)anded  to  approximately  5,000,000,  and  the  submarine  in 
170,000.  A  single  company  (the  Western  Union)  in  the  United  States  oper- 
ates 8(I0,()(K)  miles  of  wire,  conveying  00,000,000  messages  per  year,  wliili' 
throughout  the  world  more  than  200,000,000  messages  per  year  serve  tin- 
purposes  of  enlightened  intercourse.  The  capital  employed  reaches  many 
hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

The  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  opened  possibilities  in  telegraphy  that 
may  be  classed  as  startling  in  comparison  with  its  previous  attainments.  It 
would  seem  that  the  intervention  of  the  familiar  conducting  wire  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  transmission  of  intelligence.  The  old  and  well-estaii- 
lished  princii)le  of  induced  currents  has  lately  been  turned  to  account  in 
what  is  termed  '' telegrajihy  without  wires."  As  an  instance,  a  telegrajili 
Avire,  when  placed  close  alongside  of  a  railroad  track,  will  take  up  and  con- 
vey to  and  from  the  stations  the  induced  pulsations  of  a  nuigneto-telephonc 
placed  within  a  passing  car,  and  connected  to  the  hietallic  roof  of  the  ear. 
This  system  has  been  put  to  practical  use  on  at  least  one  railway,  and  pm- 
nounced  feasible. 

lint  a  greater  marvel  than  this  springs  from  the  discovery  of  Hertz,  aboiit 
1800,  that  every  electrical  discharge  is  the  centre  of  oscillations  radiating 
indefinitely  through  space.  The  j)henonuMion  is  likened  to  the  dropjjing  of  n 
stone  in  a  placid  lake.  Concentric  undulations  of  the  water  are  set  up,  — 
little  waves,  —  which  gradually  enlarge  in  diameter,  and  ail"ect  in  greater  (ir 
less  degree  the  entire  surface.  Could  an  apparatus  be  invented  to  detect  ami 
direct  the  oscillations  made  in  space  by  an  electric  generator,  —  to  perceive, 
as  it  were,  the  ether  undulations,  just  as  the  eye  notes  those  on  the  lake's 
surface  ? 

In  1891,  Professor  Uranley  found  that  the  electric  vibrations  in  ether  could 
be  detected  by  means  of  fine  metallic  filings.  No  matter  how  good  a  con- 
ductor of  electricity  the  metal  in  mass  might  be,  ■when  reduced  to  fine  filings 
or  powder  it  offered  powerful  resistance  to  a  i)assing  current;  in  otlnr 
words,  became  a  very  poor  cpnductor.  An  electric  discharge  or  spark  mar 
the  filings  greatly  decreased  their  resistance.  If  the  filings  were  jarred,  thrir 
original  resistance  was  restored.  Ih-aidey  ])laced  his  filings  in  a  tube,  intu 
either  end  of  which  wires  were  passed.  These  were  connected  with  a  gal- 
vanometer. Ordinarily,  the  resistance  of  the  filings  was  such  as  to  prevent  a 
current  passing  through  them,  and  the  galvanometer  remained  unaffectnl. 
But  when  an  electric  spark  was  emitted  near  the  tube,  the  resistance  was  sn 


TUHY 

ivily  wvapin'i 
le,  two,  three. 
(JL'cted  to  til'' 
•  covering  oi 
■legriqihy,  till' 
ry  much  more 

L'ic  telegraphy 
5  century  was 
he  end  of  th" 
)st  stupendous 
)tal  mileage  of 
B  submarine  tn 
id  States  opei- 
ler  year,  whili' 
year  serve  the 
reaches  many 

;elegra\)hy  thiit 
;tainments.  It 
ire  is  not  absn- 
and  well-estab- 
l  to  account  in 
^.e,  a  telegraph 
ike  up  and  con- 
jneto-telephoiu' 
oof  of  the  car. 
ilway,  and  pro- 

)f  Hertz,  abo\it 

ions  radiatini; 

dropping  of  ;i 

are  set  ui),  — 

in  greater  or 

to  detect  ami 

—  to  perceive. 

on  the  lake's 

in  ether  couM 
low  good  a  cou- 
d  to  fine  tilin;4s 
ent ;    in   otlur 

or  spark  near 
re  jarred^  their 

in  a  tube,  intu 
ted  with  a  gal- 
as to  prevent  a 
ned  unaffected, 
sistance  was  sn 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


81 


Imuch  decreased  that  the  current  passed  readily  through  the  tilings,  and  was 
\  detected  by  the  galvanometer.  This  is  simjjly  ecpiivalent  to  saying  that  the 
discharge  of  the  electric  spark  made  the  Hlings  to  cohere  and  become  a  better 
conductor  than  when  lying  loosely  in  tlm  tube.  Here,  then,  was  opportunity 
;for  an  instrument  which  liad  but  to  regulate  the  niunber  of  sparks  and  indi- 
cate the  j)resence  of  tin;  electric  waves  in  order  to  jiroduce  dots  and  dashes 
similar  to  those  used  in  the  common  telegraph.  Such  an  instrument  was 
brought  nearest  to  perfection  by  Signor  Marconi,  a  young  Italian,  in  iJSiM}. 
With  it  he  succeeded  in  sending  electric  waves  through  ether  or  space,  and 
without  the  use  of  wires,  a  distance  of  four  miles,  ;ipon  Salisbury  IMain,  Eng- 
land.     Later,  he  transmitted  messages  by  means  of  space  (wireless)  tele- 


:'  TiiK  <;reat  easteun  layixo  an  ocean  caulk. 

_^aphy  across  liristol  Channel,  a  distance  of  8.7  miles,  and  subsequently 
lieross  the  English  Channel,  a  distance  of  18  miles.  Mr.  W.  J.  Clarke,  of 
America,  has  improved  upon  Marconi's  methods  of  space  telegraphy,  and 
Ij^own  some  remarkable  results.  Whether  space  telegraphy  will  eventually 
4|persede  that  by  wires  is  one  of  the  jtroblems  that  time  only  can  solve. 
liilt  such  are  the  i)ossibilities  of  electrical  science  that  we  may  well  be  pre- 
p^ed  for  more  wonderful  revelations  than  any  yet  made. 

■  IV.     hello!    hello! 

Telegraph  (Gr.  tele,  far,  and  f/rajj/ie!n,  to  Avrite)  implies  the  production  of 
lr|;iting  at  a  distance  by  means  of  an  electric  current  upon  a  conductor, 
^ilephone  (Liv.  tele,  iar,  and  phone,  sound)  implies  the  production  of  sound  at 
f|aistance  by  the  same  means,  though  the  word  telephone  was  in  early  use 
^^describe  the  transmission  of  sound  by  means  of  a  rod  or  tightly  stretched 
#ing  connecting  two  diaphragms  of  xvood,  membrane,  or  other  substance, 
"ifis  last  ])lan  of  transmitting  sound  came  to  be  known  as  the  string  telephone, 
it  retained  this  name  until  the  invention  of  the  electric  telephone. 


I,>  I 


')    i 


82 


TIUUMPIIS  AM>    WOMUC/iS   or   THE  X/X'"  CKSTIItY 


Like  tilt'  cloctric  t('l('j,M';i|)li,  tlu'  t'lt'ctric  tt'h'iilioiic  Wiis  iiii  t-VDliitioii.  Tl  .■ 
striiij;  tclcplioiic,  ill  the  liaiids  of  Wlicatstoii*',  sliowcd.  as  early  as  ISI'.J,  lli  t 
tlic  vibrations  of  tlif  air  iirodiu'cd  liy  a  musical  iiistriiiiuiiit  wcrti  very  iiiiiuil  , 
and  could  be  transmitted  hundreds  of  yards  by  means  of  a  string  armed  \vi  Ii 
delicate  diaphragms,  lint  while  the  string  tolcphone  served  to  confirm  t  .c 
fact  that  sounds  are  vil)rations  of  tlie  atmos|»hore  which  affetit  the  tympaiiiiiii 
of  the  ear,  it  remained  but  a  toy  or  experimental  device  till  after  eleotiii 
telegraphy  became  an  accepted  science,  that  is,  in  the  year  1S,')7  and  sub c- 


A    srniNO    TKI.KPHOXE. 

quontly.  One  of  the  earliest  steps  to- 
ward the  evolution  of  the  electric  tcle- 
])li()ne  was  taken  by  ^Ir.  Tage,  of  Salem, 
Mass.,  in  IH.'J",  who  discovered  that  a 
magnetic  bar  could  emit  .sounds  when 
rapidly  magnetized  and  demagnetized; 
and  that  those  sounds  corresponded  with 
the  number  of  currents  which  ])roduced 
them.  This  led  to  the  discovery,  be- 
tween 1847  and  LS;")!',  of  several  kinds  of 
electric  vibrators  adapted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  musical  sounds  and  their  trans- 
mission to  a  distance.  All  this  was 
woiulerful  and  monu'utous,  but  a  little  while  had  still  to  elapse  before  om 
arose  bold  enough  to  admit  the  possibility  of  transmitting  human  speech  ly 
electricity.  He  canu'  in  j<sr)4,  in  the  person  of  Charles  IJourseul,  of  J'aris. 
who,  though  as  if  writing  out  a  fanciful  dream,  said,  "We  know  that  sound- 
are  produced  by  vibrations,  and  are  adapted  to  the  ear  by  the  same  vil)ni 
tions  which  are  reproduced  by  the  intervening  medium.  ]>ut  the  intensity  o: 
the  vibrations  diminishes  very  rapidly  with  the  distance,  so  that  it  is,  cvci 
with  the  aid  of  speaking-tubes  and  trumpets,  impossible  to  exceed  somewliir 
narrow  limits.  Suppose  that  a  man  sjieaks  near  a  movable  disk,  sufliciciitl; 
flexible  to  lose  none  of  the  viln-ations  of  the  voice,  that  this  disk  alteriKitd 
makes  and  breaks  the  current  from  a  battery,  you  may  have  at  a  distain- 
anorlun  disk,  which  will  at  the  same  time  execute  the  same  vibrations.'' 

Uoui'seul  further  showed  that  the  sounds  of  the  voice  thus  reproduci 
Mou'd  have  the  same  pitch,  but  admitted  that,  in  the  then  present  state i 
acoustic  S(!ience,  it  could  not  be  atiirmed  that  the  syllables  uttered  by  tl. 
human  voice  could  be  so  rejiroduced,  since  nothing  was  known  of  thei: 
except  that  some  were  utt(>red  by  the  teeth,  others  by  the  lips,  and  so  u: 
The  status  of  the  telephone  then,  according  to  r.ourseul,  was  that  voice  iitu! 
be  reproduced  at  a  distance  at  the  pitch  of  the  speaker,  but  that  sonicilii: 
more  was  needed  to  transmit  the  delicate  and  varied  intonations  of  luiiiij 
speech  when  it  was  broken  into  syllables  and  utterances.     To  transmit  si;. 


m 


TlliV 

Liliition.  'I'l '' 
us  1H1«»,  til  t 
i  vory  ininui  ■, 
ig  luiut'd  wi  li 
()  coiitinn  t  ic 
ihv  tymiKiiuiii 
iifttM-  elect  111 
».",7  unci  svib  !•• 


ilapse  beiV)re  m 
luinian  Hpeedi  k 
imrseiil,  of  \'.m<. 

.now  that  somid. 

the  same  vilmi- 
it  the  intensity!'; 
o  that  it  is,  "'Vh 

exceed  soniewliu' 

disk,  sufhci.Mitl; 
disk  alteniiitil;. 

ave  at  a  distiUK- 

vibrations.'' 
tims  repvoduiv 

n  present  state  > 

es  ntteved  b>  tl. 
known  of  thin; 

e  lips,  and  so  i; 

as  that  voice  hiu. 

lit  that  sometlii; 

inations  of  hmiu 
To  transmit  si;; 


THOMAS    AIA'A   EDISON. 


U 


I 


m 


i;    i! 


i: 


r    > 


L 


WOND\iRS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


S3 


%y  voice  was  one  thing ;   to  transmit  the  timbre  or  quality  of  speech  was 

inotlier. 

'-  liourseiil  made  plain  the  problem  that  was  still  before  the  investigator, 
^^d  now  comes  one  of  the  most  remarkable  episodes  in  the  history  of  elec- 
ilicity,  —  a  chapter  of  mingled  shame  and  glory.  In  the  village  of  Eberly's 
llills,  Cumberland  County,  Pa.,  lived  a  gci.ius  by  the  name  of  Daniel  Draw- 
ISlugl'i,  who  had  made  a  study  of  telei)hony  uj)  to  the  very  point  Bourseul 
i^d  left  it.  He  had  transmitted  musical  sound,  sound  of  the  voice,  and  other 
iOimds  in  the  same  pitch.     He  had  said  that  this  was  all  that  could  be  done 

fl  some  means  was  discovered  of  holding  up  the  constant  onward  flow  of 
B  electric  current  along  a  conducting  wire  by  introducing  into  such  flow  a 
friable  resistance  such  as  would  impart  to  simple  i)itch  of  voice  the  (piality 
%  timbre  of  human  speech.  Drawbavigh  achieved  this  in  his  simple  work- 
iiop  as  early  as  IS^O-fiO,  according  to  evidence  furnished  to  the  United 
l^tes  Supreme  Court  at  the  celebrated  trial  of  the  cases  which  robbed  him 
^  the  riglit  to  his  prior  invention.  He  did  it  by  introducing  into  the  circuit 
»|mall  (piantity  of  powdered  chanjoal  coiiHned  in  a  tumbler,  through  which 
IIb  current  was  passing.  The  charcoal,  being  a  j)Oor  conductor  and  in  small 
^ins.  oifered  just  that  kind  of  variable  resistance  to  the  current  necessary 
tO;  reproduce  tiie  tones  and  syllables  of  speech.  He  transmitted  speech 
iM^tween  his  shop  and  house,  and  jvi-oved  the  success  he  had  met  with  before 
*^ieiiees  in  \ew  York  and  Philadelphia.  l>ut  he  neglected  to  care  for  the 
<Jtl(nmercial  side  of  his  discovery,  though  many  of  his  jiatents  antedated 
tl^se  which  contributed  to  deprive  him  of  deserved  honor  and  proiit. 
'  In  liS()l,  Keis,  of  (Jerinany,  vime  into  notice  as  the  inventor  of  a  telephone 
which  transmitted  sound  very  clearly,  but  failed  to  reproduce  syllabified 
gpieech.  }I()wever,  the  principle  and  shape  of  his  transmitter  and  receiver 
vtiste  a('ce])ted  by  those  who  followed  him.  Two  men  now  came  upon  the 
so^ne  who  had  reached  the  conclusion  already  arrived  at  by  Drawbaugh,  and 
who  became  rivals  over  his  head  for  the  honor  and  i)rotit  of.  an  invention  by 
means  of  which  the  quality  of  the  voice  in  speaking  could  be  transmitted. 
These  two  were  Eli.sha  Gray,  of  Chicago,  and  Alexander  Grahaia  Hell,  of 
Bciston.  Tlieir  respective  devices  seem  to  have  l)een  akin,  and  to  have  been 
presented  to  the  patent  office  almost  simultaneously ;  so  nearly  so,  at  east, 
au  to  make  them  a  part  of  that  long,  costly,  and  acrimonious  legal  contention 
over  priority  of  invention  which  did  not  end  till  1.S.S7. 

Both  IJell  and  (Jray  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  transmission  of  articu- 
la^p  spC'^h  was  impossible  unless  they  could  ])roduce  electrical  undulations 
0OJ.Te.-"  .  ''l/)g  exactly  with  the  vibrations  of  the  air  or  sound  waves.  They 
bioiiglit  this  similarity  about  by  introducing  a  varial)le  resistance  into  the 
f  ?3tric  current  by  means  of  an  interposing  liquid,  just  as  Drawbaugli  had 
Jjlie  vears  before  with  his  tumbler  of  powdered  charcoal.  l>ell  exhibited 
liS '.nstrument  with  comparative  m  >  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1S7() 
i'.  Philadi'lphia;  but  much  had  yet  to  be  done  to  perfect  a  telephone  of  real 
oaimercial  value. 

Jhe  years  1S77-7»S  were  years  of  great  activity  among  electricians,  whose 
pli|tne  object  was  to  perfect  a  telei)hone  transmitter  and  receiver,  by  means  of 
WnOso  nnitual  operiitions  ?.t  'ipposile  ends  of  a  circuit  all  the  modulations  of 
splfech  could  be  preserved  and  lu-s^ed.     To  this  end  P)erliner  introduced  into 

T      ;j 


■» 


^11  !■ 


I    I 


III  I 


'II 


34 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


a  transmitter  or  sender  the   then  well-known  principle  of  the  niicroplu.  k 
(Gr.  mi/i-rus,  small,  plionc,  sound),  which  magnified  the  faint  sounds  by  t  ic 
variation  in  electrical  resistance,  caused  by  variation  of  pressure  at  loi  sc 
contact  between  two  metal  points  or  electrodes.     Edison  (juickly  follo^\^Ml 
with  a  similar  transmitter  or  sender,  in  which  one  of  the  electrodes  was  m 
soft  carbon,  the  other  of  metal.     Then  came  (liS78)  Hughes  and  Blake  w  tli 
senders,  in  which  both  of  the  electrodes  were  of  hard  carbon.     Subsequen  h 
came  other  and  rapid  modifications  of  the  sender,  both  in  the  United  Sta  i> 
and  Europe,  till  the  form  of  telephone  now  in  popular  use  was  arrived  at, 
and  which,  strange  to  say,  is,  in  its  method  of  securing  the  necessary  v;  li 
able  resistance  in  the  circuit,  (piite  like  that  employed  by  !Mr.  Drawbauwli; 
to  wit,  the  introduction  of  fine  carbon  granules  into  a  small  metal  cup  j  ist 
behind  the  vibrating  diaphragm  or  disk  of  the  sender.    The  circuit  goes  iut" 
the  diaphragm  in  front,  passing  through  th^  cnrbon  granules  and  out  throi-li 
the  back  of  the  instrument.    The  action  of  talking  into  the  sender  causes  t  li.- 
granules  to  be  agitated,  thus  opening  and  closing  the  circuit  and  produc.ii;.' 
the  conditions  necessary  to  the   transmission   of   articulate    si)eech.      'i'li.- 
diaphragm  or  disk  is  the  very  thin  covering  of  the  cup  (!ontaining  the  gian- 
ides.     It  is  sometimes  made  of  carbon,  but  generally  of  hard  metal,  as  sticl. 
On  being  struck  by  the  sound  waves  of  l\i'^-  •.  ol^^e,  it  vibrates  to  corresp(piiil. 
The  same  vibrations  are  reproduced  'v,  the  '.     o'ver  at  the  opposite  end  of  tli' 
circuit,  and  thus  one  listens  to  the  ]'lii>;i.o.iu!noj   of  transmitted  human  speich 
The  current  for  telejihonic  purposes  is  :  ^nisher   by  one  or  more  batteries  c 
cells,  whose  effect  is  heightened  ')y  the  --n-esen^'e  of  an  induction  coil.     Th. 
tendency  now  is  to  make  "bipolars'"  — two  contacts  at  the  diaphragm  —  i:. 
])lace  of  a  single  contact.     This  stViC  i';  becoming  more  in  vogue  in  order  t- 
meet  the  demands  of  long-distance  work.     To  each  telephone  is  attachei]  ;; 
generator  or  device  for  ringing  a  little  '^ell  as  a  signal  that  some  one  wislu- 
to  communicate.     To  such  perfectioi.  ha  -e  telephones  been  brought  that  it  - 
quite  possible  to  converse  intelligibly  at  Die    iistance  of  a  thousand  niili^ 
with  a  less  satisfactory  service  at  twice  or  thrice  that  distance.     The  poss. 
bilities  of  clear  speech-transmission  at  indefinite  distance  are  without  im;; 
sure.     Like  the  telegraph,  the  telephone  has  ojiened  an  immense  and  i)iot;: 
able  industry,  involving  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars.     At  the  end  of  tl- 
century  it  is,  unfortunately,  monopolistic  ;  but  the  time  is  near  when  a  ic; 
sonable  cliaige  for  service  will  enable  every  business  )..  i. ■  '  to  communiia: 
with  its  customers,  and  when  even  the  remote  corners  'A    ■  ninties  will  1 
brought  into  touch  with  their  capitals  and  with  O' ■    an'^thi-r.      Along  tl. 
lines  of  civilizing  contact  the  telephone  fairly  di  ide--  <.jr  wonderb  of  il. 
century  with  the  telegraph,  while  for  intimate  intelleci.i'   ,'  'ommunicatimi . 
is  a  triumph  of  genius  without  jjarallel.     It  is  '  ■  e  disper.  ■c.  .'  f  s^  -^ecli  in  cit; 
town,  and  village  ;  in  factory  and  mine,  in  army  and  navv  ;  Uiroiighout  jji 
eminent  departments  ;  and  in  Budapest,  Hungary,  it  is  a  purveyor  of  geiur,, 
news,  like  the  iu'wspai)er,  for  the  "Telephone  (razette  "  of  that  city  has 
list  of  regular  subscribers,  to  wliom  it  transmits,  at  private  houses,  clu!' 
cafes,  restaurants,  and  public  buildings,  its  editorials,  telegrams,  local  iio.v 
and  advertisements. 

A  very  natural  outgrowth  of  the  telejihone  was  that  curious  inveiitir 
known  as  the  phonograph  (Gr. p/ione,  sound,  an'^  'jra/'Itehi,  to  write).     It; 


rruRY 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


35 


le  mici'oplu  II' 
sounds  by  t  ic 
ssure  at  Id  >!• 
.ickly  follow  cii 
icti'odes  was  oi 
;md  Blake  w  tli 
Subsequeir  1\ 
i  United  Hta  t> 
was  arrived  at, 
necessary  vi  ri- 
Ir.  DrawbauJi. 
metal  cup  j  i>i 
nrcuit  goes  iut" 
md  out  tliroi.-li 
3nder  causes  il^ 
t  and  produe.u;,; 
1    speech.      'I'lu- 
gaining  the  giaii- 
1  metal,  as  st '■(•!, 
ss  to  corresp<iiiil. 
posite  end  of  tli" 
•Ci  human  spetcl;. 
more  batteries  (!• 
Action  coil.     Tli' 
>  diaphragm  —  i; 
vogue  in  order  t' 
ne  is  attaohfil  ;, 
some  one  ^vislll■ 
brought  that  it  :- 
thousand  milov 
,uice.     The  poss: 
ire  without  me;; 
niense  and  pvnti: 
\t  the  end  of  li- 
near when  a  iv;; 
'  to  communica: 
-)untie.s  will  1- 
.,-r.      Alouii'  tl. 
•wonders  of  tl. 
ommunicatidii ; 
?.i  ?:^  (^ech  in  cif 
tiiroughout  t;i 
iirveyor  of  goner , 
if  that  city  Ims 
ate  houses,  clul^ 
;rams,  local  now- 
curious  invtMitii: 
;,  to  write).     It . 


A    GllAPIIOPIIONE. 


not  only  an  instrument  for  writing  or  preserving  sound,  but  for  reproducing 
it.  As  a  simple  recorder  of  sound,  it  was  an  instrument  dating  as  far  back  as 
1807.  when  Dr.  Young  showed  how  a  tuning-fork  might  be  made  to  trace  a 
lecord  of  its  own  vibrations.  lUit  Young's 
fliought  had  to  go  through  more  than  half 
I  century  of  slow  evolution  before  the  mod- 
^n  phonograph  was  reached;  for  in  the 
jjlionautograpli  of  Scott,  the  logographs  of 
^rlow  and  Ulake,  and  the  various  other 
Uttemiits  up  to  1S77  to  make  and  i)reserve 
lacings  of  speech,  there  were  no  success- 
Ill  means  of  reproducing  speech  from  those 
is|acings  hit  upon. 

';  In  that  year  (1877),  Edison,  in  striving  to 
jilake  a  self-recording  telephone  by  connect- 
iag  with  its  diapli-agm  or  disk  a  stylus  or 

njetal  point  which  would  record  its  vibrations  upon  a  strip  of  tinfoil,  accident- 
a^y  reversed  the  motion  of  the  tinfoil  so  that  the  tracings  upon  it  affected  the 
stylus  or  tracing-point  in  an  opposite  dii'ection.  To  his  surprise,  he  found  that 
this  reverse  motion  of  the  tinfoil,  tickling,  as  it  were,  the  stylus  oppositely, 
reproduced  the  sounds  which  had  at  first  agitated  the  diaphragm.  It  was  but 
a  8tep  now  to  tlie  production  of  his  matured  phonograph  in  1878.  He  made 
a  cylinder  with  a  grooved  surface,  over  which  he  spread  tinfoil.  A  stylus 
Ot  fine  metal  point  was  made  to  rest  upon  the  tinfoil,  so  as  to  produce  a 
tracin"-  in  it,  following  the  grooves  in  the  cylinder  when  the  latter  was  made 
to  revolve.  This  stylus  was  connected  with  the  diaphragm  of  an  ordinary  tele- 
phone transmitter.  When  one  si)oke  into  the  transmitter,  tliat  is,  set  the 
diaphragm  to  vibrating,  the  stylus  imi)ressed  the  vibratory  motions  of  the  dia- 
phragm, or.  in  otlier  words,  the  waves  of  the  exciting  sound,  in  light  indenta- 
^ns  ui)on  the  tinfoil.  In  order  to  reproduce  the  sounds  thus  registered  in 
Me  tinfoil  of  the  cylinder,  it  was  made  to  revolve  in  an  opposite  direction 
TOkder  the  ])oint  of  the  stylus,  and  as  the  stylus  was  now  affected  by  jn-ecisely 
l^e  same  indentations  it  had  first  made  in  the  tinfoil,  it  "arried  the  identical 
vibrations  it  had  recorded  back  to  the  diaphragm  of  the  telephone,  and  thus 
reproduced  in  audible  form  the  speech  that  had  at  first  set  the  diaphragm  to 
vibrating.  The  speech  thus  reproduced  was  that  of  the  original  speaker  in 
pitch  and  quality.  Ingenious  and  wonderful  as  Edison's  machine  was,  it  was 
susceptible  of  improvement,  and  soon  J>ell  and  otliei's  came  forward  with  a 
phonogra])h  in  which  the  recording  cylinder  was  covered  with  a  hardened 
wax.  This  was  called  the  graphophone.  Again,  Berliner  improved  upon 
ti|e  phonograph  by  using  for  his  tracing  surface  a  horizontal  disk  of  zinc  cov- 
^d  with  wax.  By  chemical  treatment,  the  tracings  made  in  the  wax  were 
e^hed  into  the  zinc,  aiul  thus  made  permanent.  I'^dison  made  further  and 
il||[enions  improvements  upon  his  phonograph  by  attaching  hearing  tubes  for 
tlie  ear  to  the  sound  receiver,  and  by  the  em])loyment  of  an  electric  motor 
t&  revolve  the  wax  cj'linder.  V>x  the  attachment  of  enlarged  trumpets  and 
<Hiier  devices,  every  form  of  modern  phonograph  has  been  rendered  capable 
ol  reproducing  in  great  perfection  the  various  sounds  of  speech,  song,  and 
iiptrument,  and  has  become  a  most  interesting  source  of  entertainment. 


i  ■  ^il 


30  TRIUMPHS  AND    WOyOERS  OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


V.       DYXAMu    AM)     MOTolt. 

Dyiuunu  is  i'niiu  the  (JrtH'k  (himniiia,  iiieaiiing  power.  ]\Iotov  is  from  tne 
Latin  moti/s,  or  morro,U)  move.  Dymimo  is  tin'  every -day  torm  applied  tot  ho 
dynamo-eleotrii!  machine.  Motor  is  tiie  every -day  term  ajiplied  to  the  eho 
trie  motor.  The  dynamo  and  motor  are  (jnite  alike  in  ])rinc'iple  of  constrrc 
tion,  yet  tlireet  ojjposites  in  object  and  effect.  Perhaps  it  might  be  Avell  U) 
designate  both  as  dynamo-electric  machines,  and  to  say  that,  when  su.li 
machine  is  nsed  for  the  conversion  of  mechanical  energy  or  ])o\ver  of  any 
kind  into  electrical  energy  or  jjower,  it  is  a  dynamo.  When  a  rever.se  result 
is  sought,  that  is,  when  electrical  energy  or  ])ower  is  to  be  converted  inio 
mechanical  energy  or  power,  the  nnichine  that  is  nsed  is  a  motor.  In  practiial 
use  for  most  purposes  they  are  brought  into  cooperation,  the  dynamo  beii,' 
at  one  end  of  an  electric  system,  making  and  sending  forth  electricity,  tiir 
motor  being  at  the  other  end,  taking  up  such  electricity  and  running  machin- 
ery with  it.  lloth  machines  were  epoch-making  in  the  midst  of  a  wondnub 
century,  and  both  were  results  of  those  marvelous  evolutions  in  electrirjil 
science  which  characterized  the  earlier  year.s  of  the  century. 

We  have  seen  how  the  simple  ghiss  cylinder  or  suljduir  roll  becanu".  wIumi 
rubbed,  a  generiitor  of  electricity.  In  a  later  cha])ter  of  electrical  histoiy, 
we  saw  a  new  and  more  powerful  generator  of  electricity  in  the  voltaic;  cell. 
by  means  of  opposing  metals  acted  upon  chemically  by  acids.  The  greatest, 
grandest,  most  powerful,  and  most  eccnioniic  of  all  generators  of  electri- 
city was  yet  to  come  in  the  shaj)e  of  the  dynamo.  We  see  its  beginnings  in 
those  investigations  of  Kara(hiy  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  inductien 
coil  and  the  ])rineiples  of  magneto-electric  indu(;tion.  In  l.S.'Jl,  he  inveiiteil 
a  simple  yet,  for  that  date,  wonderful  machine,  which  was  none  the  less  tin 
iirst  dynamo  in  principle,  because  he  modestly  called  it  "  A  New  Electriin! 
^Machine."  ]Ie  mounted  a  thin  disk  of  coi)per,  about  twelve  inches  in  diiiin- 
eter,  ujxm  a  centnil  axis,  so  that  it  would  revolve  between  the  op})osite  polo 
of  a  j)ermanent  magn-'t.  As  the  disk  revolved,  its  lower  half  cut  the  iield  nt 
force  of  the  magiu't,  and  a  current  was  induced  which  was  carried  away  In 
means  of  two  collectin.g  brushes,  fastened  respectively  to  the  axis  iind  circum- 
ference of  the  disk.  This  was  the  first  electric  current  ever  i)roduccd  by  ;i 
pernuinent  magnet.  The  Faraday  machine  and  others  that  derived  the 
mechanical  energy  which  was  converted  into  electric  current  from  a  perma- 
nent magnet  were  classed  as  niagneto-.generators.  Soon  the  electro-ma.Liiiii 
took  the  ]>1ace  of  the  j)ermani'nt  magnet,  because  it  produced  a  much  stroller 
field  of  force.  Hut  then  the  electro-niiignet  had  to  have  a  current  to  excite  it, 
This  current  was  supplied  by  a  magneto-generator,  ))la('ed  soniewhei'c  on  tin 
dynamo.  Mow  came  the  thought,  suggested  by  Jirett  in  1S4S,  that  the  induciVi 
currents  of  the  dynamo  coidd  themselves  be  turned  to  account  for  increasin, 
the  strength  of  the  electro-nuignets  used  in  inducing  them.  This  was  a  nm^- 
progressive  stej)  in  the  history  of  the  dynamo.  It  led  to  rapid  inventinii-, 
whose  ))rincii)le  was  based  on  the  fact  that  every  dynamo  carried  within  tli' 
cores  of  its  magnets  enough  of  unused  or  residual  nu-.^netism  to  ren<ler  tli- 
magnets  sclf-e,\citing  the  moment  the  machine  stiirted.  So  the  outside  nieaii- 
of  magnetizing  the  fields  of  force  of  the  dynamo  passed  away. 

The  dynamo  speedily  grew  in  size  and  importance.     The  electro-inagnoi- 


"   CENTURY 


■Motor  is  from  tnt^ 
lytonu  iipplicd  totl.i' 
11  ai)i)liecl  to  the  ('1<  '■- 
principle  of  oonstn  .■- 
s  it  might  be  -well  'o 
say  that,  wlien  sii.li 
M'gy  or  i)0\ver  of  any 
iVheii  a  reverse  result 
to  be  converted  inio 
a  motor.     Inpractiral 
on,  the  dynamo  Ihmi- 
,'  forth  eh^ctricity,  i'uc 
y  and  running  machm- 
'  midst  of  a  wondrdib 
volutions  in  electriral 
itury. 

ihur  roll  becanu\  wln'U 
r  of  electrical  history, 
city  in  the  voltaic  cdl. 
y  acids.  The  greatest, 
generators  of   elect li- 

0  see   its  beginnings  in 
povery  of  the  induction 

in  1S.")1,  he  inventcil 
was  none  the  less  the 

1  it  "A  New  Electriral 
twelv(^   inches  in  di:iui- 

WW  the  oi)posite  poli^ 

er  half  cut  the  hehl  i>t 

h  was  carried  away  In 

to  the  axis  and  circiun- 

ent  ever  j)roduced  by  ;i 

crs    that   derived   tlif 

ui-rent   from  a  perma- 

)on  the  electro-magiiK 

xluced  a  much  stron;;vr 

ve  a  current  to  excite  it. 

aced  somewhere  on  tin 

IS  IS.  that  the  indui'i'.; 

account  for  increasin. 
icm.    This  was  a  nm-' 

d  to  rapid  inventinii-, 
lanu)  carried  within  lli 

^netism  to  render  tli- 
So  the  outside  mcan- 
sed  away. 

The  electro-magiiPt- 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


37 


or  fields  of  force  were  greatly  increased  in  nund^er,  size,  and  jiower.  There 
were  great  improvements  in  the  construction  and  efficiency  of  the  wire  coils 
or  armatures  which  cut  the  fields  of  force,  and  a  corresponding  increase 
in  tlieir  nuiuber.  (,'omnuitators  and  bruslies  untk-rwent  like  improvement. 
So  at  hist,  tlic  well-nigli  perfect  and  all-powerful  dynamo  of  thtt  end  of  tlie 
century  was  evolved,  with  a  capacity  for  delivering,  in  the  form  (d'  electricity, 
ilinetv  per  cent  of  the  lueclianical  energy  which  set  it  in  motion.  In  the 
appliciition  of  steam  to  machinery,  eigiity  per  cent,  and  sometimes  more,  of 
the  energy  supplied  by  a  ton  of  coid  is  lost. 


A   DYNAMO. 

With  the  perfection  of  the  dynamo,  its  uses  multiplied.  It  became  a  prime 
&Ctor  in  electric  lighting.  Trolley  systems  sprang  up  in  city,  town,  and 
village,  taking  the  ])lace  of  horse  and  traction  cars.  In  certain  jdaces,  as  in  t])e 
Baltimore  tunnel,  the  dynamo  superseded  *he  engine  for  hatding  freight  and 
passenger  cars.  Tlie  mighty  dynamos  which  con',  ert  the  inexhaustible  energy 
of  Niagara  I^dls  into  electricity  send  it  many  miles  away  to  lUiffalo.  to  be 
applied  to  lighting  and  to  every  form  of  macliinery.  The  end  of  the  century 
sees  a  power  plant  in  o])eration  in  New  York  city  capable  of  furnishing 
one  hundred  tliousand  horse-juiwer,  or-  enough  to  supply  the  lighting,  Pcapid 
transit,  and  thousand  and  one  mechaincal  needs  of  the  entire  municipality. 
The  essential  parts  of  an  ordinary  dynanu)  are :  (1.)  The  electro-magnets,  which, 


I  I'll 


38 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDERS   OF  THE  A'/A"'  CENTURY 


II 


i 


I;      liilllll 


:iill 


'Hlll'iil 

\\ 

'Tlillli 


fl 


however  nuiuerijus.  are  arranged  in  circular  form  iijion  part  of  the  framewi  k 
of  tlie  niat'liine.  (L'.)  Tlie  iron  coils  or  armatures,  mounted  in  a  circle  upoi  a 
wheel.  When  the  wlieel  revolves,  the  armatures  pass  close  in  front  of  1  \w 
electro-magnets,  cutting  through  tlieir  fields  of  force,  and  thereby  indue: :ii; 
electric  current.  (.'!.)  The  comnuitator,  which  consists  usually  of  a  series  ut 
copper  blocks  arranged  around  tiie  a.xle  of  the  armatures,  and  insulated  fr  'iii 
the  axle  and  from  each  other.  The  (Mirrent  jjusscs  from  the  armatures  to  In- 
comnuitator.  If  the  current  be  an  alternating  one,  the  commutator  change  ■  it 
into  a  continuous  one.  and  the  reverse  may  also  be  accomplished.  (4.)  The 
brushes,  which  are  thin  strips  of  coj)per  or  carbon,  are  brought  to  bear  ;u 
proper  points  upon  the  commutator,  making  connection  with  each  coil  or  Mt> 
of  coils.  They  carry  the  corrected  current  to  the  outside  line  or  lii;is 
(o.)  The  outside  line  or  lines,  to  carry  the  current  away  to  the  motor.  ((5.)  Tli. 
]>ulley  for  strap-belting,  by  means  of  which  the  water  or  steam  power  iisdl  i, 
made  to  turn  the  dyuanu)  machine. 

lUit  we  nuist  not  forget  the  motor  as  a  companion  of  the  dynamo,  as  it- 
indispensable  brother,  in  turning  to  practical  account  tlie  electricity  sent  tuit. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  motor  is  the  reverse  of  the  dynanu),  at  least  in  it- 
effects.     It  is  fed  by  the  dynamo,  and  it  imparts  its  power  to  tiie  machiiier 
which  it  is  to  set  in  motion.     It  is  to  the  dynamo  what  the  water-wheel  i>  i 
the  water.    In  one  sense  it  is  an  even  older  invention  than  the  dynamo.  In- 
its  extended  commercial  a])plication  was  not  possible  until  the  dynamo  ha 
reaclu'd  certain  stages  of  ])erfection.     It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  lii-- 
motor  of  importance  was  that  constructed  by  I'rofessor  Jacobi,  througli  tl. 
liberality  of  the  Czar  Nicholas,  of  llussia.     .lacobi  used  two  sets  of  elciti 
magnets,  by  means  of  whose  mutual  attraction  and  repulsion  he  rotatrd 
wheel  on  a  boat  with  a  jjower  equal  to  that  of  eight  oarsmen.    But  as  Jacdlif- 
electi'o-magnets  rcfpiired  an  electric  currerit  to  nuagnetize  them,  and  as  lln: 
were  then  no  means  of  producing  such  current  except  by  the  costly  use  ut  ti. 
voltaic  battery,  his  invention  was  unripe  as  to  time. 

In  ISoO,  I'rofessor  ] "age,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  constructed  a  nm; 
which  worked  ingeniously,  but  was  still  open  to  the  objection  of  cost  in  su|i]i! 
ing  the  necessary  electric  current  for  the  electro-nuignets.  Though  vaii^ 
inventions  came  about  having  for  their  object  a  commercially  success! 
motor,  such  a  thing  was  impossible  till  CJramme  produced  his  improved  a: 
effective  dynamo  in  1871.  This  dynamo  was  found  to  work  ecpiaily  well  a< 
motor,  and  hence  it  became  necessary  for  electricians  to  greatly  enlarge  tli'; 
understanding  of  the  nature  of  electrf)-magnetic  iiuluction.  They  soon  li- 
covered  many  curious  things  respecting  the  behavior  of  induced  cunvn;- 
with  the  result  that  rapid  and  simultaneous  improvements  were  made  in  Imt: 
dynamos  and  motors.  One  of  the  most  curious  of  these  discoveries  was  tk 
a  motor  automatically  regulates  the  amount  of  current  that  passes  thinu. 
its  circuit  in  ])roi)ortion  to  the  work  it  is  called  upon  to  do;  that  is,  if  t: 
work  the  machine  has  to  do  is  decreased,  the  motor  attains  a  higher  spi. 
which  higher  speed  induces  a  counter  electro-motive  force  sufficient  to  di' 
up  the  amount  of  current  ])assing  through  the  motor.  So  when  the  mi  it  or 
required  to  do  increased  work,  the  machine  slows  up;  but  with  this  slow; 
up,  the  counter  electro-motive  force  decreases,  and  consequently  the  curiv 
passing  through  the  motor  increases. 


lantpsj 
UDstea 
or  lii 


NTURY 

the  iraniewi  k 
a  circle  vipui  a 
in  front  of  1  'v 
hereby  indue '.i,; 
ly  of  a  series  o| 
1  insuhited  fi  'in 
irmatures  to  In' 
utator  change  •  it 
ilished.  (4.)  '1  he 
)ught  to  bear  at 
each  coil  or  M't> 
Le  line  or  lini's, 
motor.  (().)  'I'll' 
vm  power  iisel  h 

le  dynamo,  as  it- 
■ctricity  sent  to  it. 
10,  at  least  in  it> 
to  the  machiiifiv 
water-wheel  is  t 
1  the  dynamo,  li,' 
1  the  dynamo  li;i 
3ed  that  the  lit-' 
acobi,  through  tl. 
vo  sets  of  eh'iti 
sion  he  rotatiil 
1.    But  as  Jaciili- 
them,  and  as  tin:- 
le  costly  use  ot'ti. 

instructed  a  iui>t 
uof  cost  in  suiiii'.; 
.     Though  vaiii 
ercially  sucees>i 
1  his  improved  ai. 
k  etpially  well  a- 
•eatly  enlarge  lli'. 
n.     They  soon  li;' 
induced  current' 
;  were  made  in  but: 
liscoveries  was  tli 
;hat  passes  tlumi: 
)  do;  that  is,  if  t! 
ns  a  higher  sin" 
;  sufficient  to  di' 
J  when  the  motm 
it  with  this  slnw: 
quently  the  cnn- 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTIilCirY 


39 


TIIK    (lOI.DKN   CVXDI.KSTn  K. 


*^As  with  the  dynamo,  one  of  tlie  marvels  of  the  motor  is  its  ethciencv.     In 

'l^^rfect  machines,  ninety  U>  ninety-Hve  per  cent  of  the  electrical  energy  sup- 

|JBed  can  be  converted  into  mechanical  energy.     Vov  this  reason  it  has  bt>come 

«  competitor   with,   and   even  successor  of. 

ateam  in  countless  cases,  and  especially  where 

water-power  can  be  connuanded.      A  prime 

motor,  in  the  sliape  t)f  a  water-wheel,  may  l)e 

mftde  to  drive  scores  of  secondary  motors  in 

places  liundreds  of  miles  away.     The  power 

•d^^Veloped  by  the  waterfall  at  Lauft'en,  (ier- 

nuliiy,  is  transmitted  one  hundred  miles  to 

Kfiankfort,  with  a  loss  of  only  twenty-iive  jier 

OC^t  of  the  original  horse-jiower. 

'|n  its  adaptation  for  jiractical  use,  the 
ni0tor,  like  the  dynamo,  assumes  all  sizes  and 
embraces  a  host  of  ingenious  devices,  yet  its 
power  and  usefulness  always  centre  around, 
or  are  contained  in.  its  two  efficient  parts, 
its  armatures  and  fields  of  force.  We  have 
seen  how  in  the  dynamo  the  armatures 
became  tlie  source  of  induced  currents  by  being  made  to  cut  the  fields  of 
fowje  of  electro-magnets.  Now,  a  dynamo  can  be  made  to  work  in  an  oj)no- 
aiW  way;  that  is,  by  making  the  magnetic  fields  of  force  rotate  in  front' of 
th«S  coils  or  armatures.  In  the  motor,  tl'e  field  of  force  is  nu)stly  established 
by  the  current  directly  from  the  dynamo.  This  current  ]>asses  also  through 
the  armature,  which  begins  to  rotate,  owing  to  tlie  fon^e  of  the  field  upon  It. 
Tbis  rotation  of  the  armature  through  the  field  of  force  i)n)(Uices  in  the  arma- 
ture conductors  an  electro-motive  force,  which  is  the  measure  of  the  power 
off^e  motor,  be  the  same  great  or  small. 

I 

f*  VI.       "ANT)    TUKKK    WAS    LKiHT." 

iiention  of  the  "candlestick  of  jnire  gold"  (Ex.  xxv.  'M)  mav  lead  to  the 
inl|rence  that  the  iirimitive  artificial  light  was  that  of  the  candle,  ]',l^t 
« candlestick"'  in  connection  witli  the  lighting  of  the  temple  is  clearly  a  mis- 
nomer. The  lamp  was  the  original  artifi- 
cial light-giver,  unless  we  choose  to  except 
the  torcli ;  and  if  less  indisi)ensable  than 
in  patriarchal  time-s,  it  is  still  a  favorite 
dispenser  of  niglitly  cheer.  Prior  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  lamj) 
had  practically  no  evolution.  It  was  the 
same  in  principle  .at  that  date  as  when  it 
illuminated  the  desert  tabernacle.  Even 
the  splendid  enameled  glass  or  decorated 
I'ersian  pottery  lamps  of  Danuiscus  and 
,  „  ^,  ^  Cairo,  and  the  magnificent  brass  or  bronze 

laB|)s  of  Greece,  Home,  and  the  European  cathedrals,  gave  forth  their  dull, 
un«eady  flame  and  noisome  smoke  by  means  of  a  crude  wick  lying  in  a  saucer 
or  iimilar  receptacle  of  melted  lard,  tallow,  oil,  or  sonie  such  combustible 


ANCIENT    I.AMI". 


{l!    |:| 


I'  I 


m  I 


ma. 


J 

\w 
w 


40 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


TAI,l-t)\V    1)11'. 


li(iui(l.  A  priino  improveinent  was  nuide  in  laiiij)-lij,'litin^'  in  ITS.'J,  by  Li  ;v 
of  I'ai'is,  wlio  devised  the  flat,  nietallie  burner,  through  whicii  lie  pass  d 
neatly  })rei»ared  \vi(!k.    A  further  improvement  was  made  in  17X4  by  Arj;  iin 

of  I'aris,  who  introdueed  a  burner  eoiisis  ii,, 

of  two  eireular  tubes,  between  which  pa  m 

a  cireular  wiek.     The  inner  tube  was  p'  it 

rated  so  as  to  admit  of  a  drauj^ht  of  air  ; 

feed  the  Hame  on  the  insich'  of  the  wi"k.     I 

order  to  similarly  feed  the  tlanie  on  '.lie  iw:. 

side  of  the  wiek.  he  invented  the  lamji  c'lii,, 

ney,   which   was   at   first  a  crude    thin,'  ■■ 

metal.      It.  however,  soon   gave  way  to  ti. 

glass  chimney,  which  has  up  to  the  pn  si- 

taken    on    many   improved    forms,  desivii' 

to    secure    more    perfect    combustion    ainl 

brighter,  s.,t'adier  glow. 

Improvenu'iit  in  lam]»-lighting  duriiiL;  i; 
nineteenth  century  has  consisted  of  an  indefinite  nnmljer  of  invention-.;, 
aiming  at  economy,  brilliancy,  .steadiness,  convenience,  beauty,  and  sn  i. 
liut  in  no  respect  has  this  improvement  been  nn)re  rapid  and  radical  tli;iii 
the  ada])tation  of  lamps  to  the  various  combustible  fluids  that  have  bid  : 
favor.  While  the  various  oils,  animal  and  vegetable, 
were  almost  solely  in  vogue  as  illnminants  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century,  they  were  largely  supers(>dc(l 
at  a  later  ])criod  by  the  burning-t^.uid  known  as  cam- 
])heiie.  This  was  a  purified  oil  of  turpentine,  which 
found  great  favor  on  account  of  its  economy,  con- 
venience, cleaidiness,  and  brilliancy  of  light,  liut  it 
was  very  volatile,  and  its  vapors  formed  with  air  a, 
dangerously  exjdosive  mixture.  Yet  with  all  this  it 
might  have  held  its  own  for  a  long  time,  had  not 
Ciesner,  in  1840,  discovered  that  a  su])eri()r  mineral 
oil.  which  he  called  "'kerosene,"  could  be  readily 
and  profitably  distilled  from  the  coal  foiind  on  I'rince 
Edward  Island.  Tliis  kerosene  or  hydrocarbon  oil 
speedily  displaced  camphene  as  an  illnminant.  Its 
manufacture  rapidly  developed  into  an  important 
industry  in  the  (Tnited  States,  and  large  distilling 
establishments  arose,  both  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
where  foreign  coal  was  used,  and  throughout  the 
country,  wherever  cannel  or  other  convertible  coal 
was  found.  With  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  pay- 
ing (piantities  on  Oil  Creek,  l*a.,  in  1859.  there  came  modkkn  lamp. 
about  a  great  (diange  in  kerosene  lamp-lighting.  It 
was  found,  u[)on  analysis,  that  crude  petroleum  contained  about  fifty-f. 
per  cent  of  kerosene,  which  constituted  its  most  important  prodiict.  I 
manufactories  of  kerosene  from  cannel  or  other  coal,  therefore,  went  nui 
existence,  and  new  ones,  larger  in  size  and  greater  in  number,  sprung  up  : 
the  manufacture  of  kerosene  or,  popularly  speaking,  coal  oil,  from  petmliii 


ENTURY 

1  ITS.".,  by  L.  ;v 
licli  lit'  puss  il 

17S4  l)y  Ai',uiiK 
mnit'i'  foiisis  ii;. 
jcii  which  icisi 
[•  tube  was  jn  li 
Inui.ijht  of  WW  \ 

(if  the  wi"k.  1: 
HiUiio  on  '.he  mr. 
1(1  the  himp  c'lii, 
\.  cnule  thin,'  .; 
gave  way  tn  ti. 
lip  to  the  jiri  si'. 
forms.  dcsi,ii. 
ombustioii   and 

;htiug  (bii'iui,'  tl- 
of  inventions,  n. 
leauty.  and  so  n; 
nd  vadieal  tliMii 
that  have  bid  t 


WONDERS   OF  ELliVTRlClTY 


41 


MODERN    LAMl'. 

lied  about  fifty-f. 
taut  product.    T 
refore,  went  uut 
ber,  sprung  up  : 
oil,  from  petrolii;. 


i 

5j^is  iUuiuinant  came  into  ahnost  universal  tavor  lor  lamp  use,  owing  to 
it!  cheapness  and  brilliancy,  it  is  not  frei;  from  danger  when  improperly 
(Ubtilled,  but  under  the  operation  of  stringent  laws  governing  its  preparation 
»fld  testing,  danger  from  its  use  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  rural 
^tricts,  in  smaller  towns  and  villages,  wherever  economy  and  convenience 
axe  esscmtials,  and  when  beauty  in  lump  effects  is  desirable,  the  kerosene 
illuminant  has  become  indispensable. 

The  discoverv  of  petroleum  heliied  further  to  light  the  worlil  and  distin- 
guish the  century.  It  gave  us  gasolene,  naphtha,  gas  oil,  astral  oil,  and  the 
V«Ty  effective  "  mineral  sjierm,'"  which  is  almost  universally  used  in  light- 
h^ses  and  as  headlights  for  locomotives.  With  the  addition  of  kerosene,  a 
faTorite  light  of  the  beginning  of  the  century  — the  tiillow  dip  of  our  grand- 
jyrthers  —  began  to  fall  into  disuse.  The  honndike  pictures  of  housewives 
at  their  animal  candle-dippings,  or  in  the  manipulation  of  their  moulds, 
beeanm  vencialile  antiques.  Candle-light  paled  in  the  presence  of  the  higher 
illuminants.  Though  still  a  convenient  light  under  certain  circumstances,  it 
plays  a  gradually  diminishing  part  amid  its  superiors. 

One  of  the  signal  triumphs  of  the  centuiy  has  been  the  introduction  of  gas- 
lighting.  Though  illuminating  gas  made  from  coal  was  known  as  early  as 
1^1,  it  did  not  come  into  use,  except  for  experiments  or  in  a  very  special 
way, until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  trentury.  In  l.S(l'.>,  a  few  street 
lamps  were  lit  with  gas  in  London.  An  unsiu'cessful  attemiit  was  made  to 
introduce  gas  into  I5altimore  in.  ISL'l.  between  l.SL'2  and  1S27.  the  gas-light 
began  to  have  a  feeble  foothold  in  I5oston  and  New  York.  Other  cities  l)e- 
gaa  to  introduce  it  as  an  illuminant  in  streets  ami,  eventually,  in  houses. 
B^  the  ju'ocess  was  very  slow,  owing  to  intense  opjiosition  on  the  jiart  of 
both  savants  and  common  people,  who  saw  in  it  a  sure  means  of  destruc- 
tion by  jioison,  explosion,  or  lire.  It  was  not  much  before  the  middle  of  the 
century  that  prejudice  against  illuminating  gas  was  sutfieiently  allayed  to 
adir.it  of  its  general  use.  lUit  meanwhile  nuiny  valuable  experiments  as  to 
its  pro(hu'tion  and  adaptation  were  going  on.  The  most  productive  source  of 
illuminating  gas  was  found  to  be  bituminous  coal.  Though  gas  c(mld  be  pro- 
duced by  distillation  from  other  substances,  such  as  shale,  lignite,  petroleum, 
water,  turf,  resins,  oils,  aiul  fats,  none  could  compete  in  (puility,  (quantity, 
a^d  economy  with  what  is  known  us  ordinary  coal  gas,  at  least,  not  until 

Ii  time  came,  quite  late  in  the  century,  when  it  was  found  that  non-luminous 
BS,  such  as  water  gas,  could  be  rendered  luminous  by  impregnating  thera 
w|kh  hydrocarbon  vapor.  This  became  known  commercially  as  water  gas, 
anl  it  is  now  largely  used  in  place  of  coal  gas,  because  it  is  cheaper  and,  for 
tKi  most  part,  equally  effective  as  a  luminant. 

iGas-lighting  has,  of  course,  its  limitations.  It  is  not  adapted  for  use 
beyond  the  range  of  cities  or  towns  whose  populations  are  sufficient  to  war- 
rqi^t  the  large  expenditures  necessary  for  gas  plants.  It  is  a  special  rather 
tU|tn  general  liglit.  Yet  within  its  limited  domain  of  use  it  has  proved  of 
lerful  utility,  —  a  source  of  cheer  for  millions,  a  clean,  safe,  and  economic 
it,  a  convenience  far  beyond  the  candle,  the  lamp,  or  any  jirevious  lighting 
alliance.     In  the  street,  it  is  a  source  of  safety  against  thieves  atul  way- 

^ers.  In  the  slums,  it  is  both  polieem;ui  and  missionary',  baffling  the  wrong- 
4$er,  exposing  the  secrecy  that  conduces  to  crime,  laying  bare  the  hotbeds  of 


ll 


Mm 


m>\ 


^ 


■!'!fll||l 

I 


"IlillH 


LUti. 


42 


TllIUMPHS  AND    WONDEltS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTUllY 


sliame.  It  is  as  well  a  suurce  of  heat  as  lighi.  and  consequently  convert;  .!. 
into  power  for  liylit  mechanical  purposes.  In  the  kitchen,  it  is  more  ;  w, 
more  becoming  a  boon  to  the  housewife,  who  by  means  of  the  gas  rii  ,.;. 
escapes,  in  cooking,  much  of  the  dust,  smoke,  wcry,  and  even  expense  of  li. 
coal  cook  stove  and  range.  In  the  parlor,  library,  or  sick-room,  it  is  acheei  IH. 
and  effective  substitute  for  the  coal  grate,  and  may  be  made  to  assume  the  c  !>■ 
qualities  and  fantastii;  shapes  of  the  old-fashioned  wcxjd  tire.  Coincid  ■].• 
with  the  discovery  of  petroleum,  its  inseparable  ct)mpanion,  natural  gas,  c;i in. 
into  prominence  as  a  source  of  b(jth  light  and  heat,  or  this  became  true,  ic 
least,  after  it  was  ascertained  that  natural  gas  regions  existed  which  could  li. 
tapped  by  wells,  and  made  to  give  forth  thrir  gaseous  product  inch.'pendent  n; 
the  oil  that  may  have  at  one  time  existed  near  or  in  connection  with  it.  'I  In- 
natural  source  of  liglit  and  Ju'at  became  as  interesting  to  the  geol(),ui>i, 
explorer,  and  capitalist  as  the  source  of  jietroleum  itself,  and  soon  every  likclv 
section  was  prosjiected,  with  the  hojje  of  finding  and  tai)i»ing  those  mysterinu, 
caverns  of  earth  in  which  the  pent-up  luminant  aljounded  in  paying  (pian- 
titles.  It  was  found  that  workable  natural  gas  regions  were  numerous  ii; 
the  United  States,  especially  in  proximity  to  jjetroleum  or  bituminous  cna'. 
deposits,  and  little  time  was  lost  in  their  development.  As  if  by  nuigii  , 
new  and  j)rofitable  industry  sprang  into  cxistenct!.  The  natural  gas  wii; 
becanui  abuost  as  ct)mmon  as  the  i)il  well,  and  at  times  far  more  awe-inspirin, 
as  it  shot  into  space  its  volcanic  blasts  which,  when  ignited  through  c;nv. 
lessness,  as  sometimes  haiipened.  (carried  to  the  vicinage  jiU  the  dangers  iiiii 
terrors  of  Vesuvius  or  Stromboli.  J'owerful  as  was  the  force  with  wliici 
natural  gas  sought  its  freedom,  wonderful  as  was  the  phenomenon  of  ii- 
escape  from  the  subterranean  alembic  in  which  it  was  distilled,  huiuai; 
genius  (piickly  harnessed  it  by  api)]iances  for  conservation  and  carriagi'  {>■ 
places  Avhere  it  could  be  utilized.  Sometimes  great  industries  sprang  ui 
■contiguous  to  the  wells  ;  at  others,  it  was  carried  through  pi^jcs  to  citii- 
many  miles  distant,  where  it  became  a  light  for  street,  home,  and  store,  ain, 
a  prodigious  energy  in  factory,  furnace,  forge,  and  rolling-mill.  In  fact,  n- 
marvel  of  the  century  has  been  at  once  so  weird  and  inscrutable  in  its  oriij;ii. 
as  natural  gas,  or  more  potential  as  an  agency  within  the  areas  to  wliii! 
its  use  is  limited.  The  question  is  ever  uppermost  in  connection  wit 
natural  gas,  will  it  last  ?  The  gas  springs  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains  liav. 
been  burning  for  centuries.  But  that  is  where  nature's  internal  forces  hav. 
their  correlations  and  compensations.  Where  it  is  quite  otherwise,  that  i- 
where  the  -v'ents  of  natural  gas  reservoirs  are  abnormally  numerous,  or  wlimv 
those  reservoirs  are  drained  to  the  extreme  for  commercial  purposes,  not  t 
saj"-  through  sheer  wastefulness,  the  geologist  is  reatly  to  surmise  that  tli 
natural  gas  supply  cannot  be  a  perpetual  one. 

But  one  of  the  most  magnificent  triumphs  of  the  century  in  the  matter  ic 
light  came  about  through  the  agency  of  electricity.  We  have  already  soi: 
the  beginnings  of  electric  lighting  in  the  discovery  of  Sir  Humi)hrey  Paw 
in  1809,  that  when  the  ends  of  two  conducting  wires,  mounted  with  chaiv(i;i 
pieces,  were  brought  close  together,  a  brilliant  light  in  the  shape  of  an  a; 
or  curve,  leaped  from  one  piece  of  charcoal  to  the  other.  Davy's  chai'n;; 
pieces  or  carbons  were  consumed  by  the  fierce  heat  evolved  ;  but  the  ]iriiic: 
pie  was  established  that  an  electric  current,  so  interrupted,  was  a  vivid  \vi\t- 


'I 


UNTUliY 

iutly  cull VI' it:  il. 
it  is  more  ;  in 

f    tllU    gllS    I'il  .';i 

11  expense  of    h. 
11,  it  is  aclieeilii. 
assume  the  f  »■ 
ire.      Coincid  1.' 
natural  gas,  c;i  111. 
i  became  true,  a' 
(I  wiiictli  could  Ih 
t  imlepeiuleiit  o: 
1)11  with  it.     'I  In- 
to the  geolo,i;i>i, 
soon  every  likulv 
those  inysterji  Ill- 
ill  paying  quun- 
ere  numerous  in 
•  bituminous  cia'. 
iS  it'  by  magii 
natural  gas  wii. 
ore  awe-inspiriii, 
eel  through  eaiv. 
the  dangers  ;iim 
force  with  wliii': 
lenomunon  ot  ib 
distilled,  huiuai; 
1  and  carriagi'  t- 
stries  sprang  \\\ 
1  pipes  to  ci tit- 
le, and  store,  an., 
mill.    In  fact,  li- 
able in  its  orij,'i!. 
e  areas  to  \\\\h\. 
connection  wit 
jNIountains  hav. 
erual  forces  haw 
itherwise,  that  i- 
iinerous,  or  wlui' 
purposes,  not  t 
surmise  that 

in  the  matter  i>: 
lave  already  sim'. 
Humphrey  Paw 
ted  with  chairoii 
.'  shape  of  an  a: 
Davy's  chai 
but  the  ]iriiai- 
was  a  vivid  li,'li! 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


43 


ducer.  and  might  be  miuU'  permanently  so  if  a  substance  capable  of  resist- 
tlie  heat  could  be  substituted   for  his  cliareoal  tips,  and  a  generator  of 
ctricity  of  suHicient  power  and  economy  in  use  couhl  be  substituted  for 
^1  voltaic  batteries  or  ctdls. 
vlUpoii  these  two  essentials  hung  the  future  of  the  electric  light.     Tlu>  first 

^ential,  tliat  of  a  substance  at  the  ends   of  the  wires  or  in  the  midst  of  the 

^Ifctric  circuit  which  would  resist  the  lieat.  was  soon 

nut  by  the  use  of  specially  jirepared  and  liard  gra- 
phite ("arlioii  tips,  in  the  sliai)e  of  caudles.  Hut  the  sec- 
ond essential,  a  generator  of  electricity  clieai.er  and 

more  i>o\v.'rfiil  than  the  voltaic  cell,  was  not  met  witli 

till  the  dynamo  inachine  reached  an  advanced  stage 

of  perfection  ;  that  is.  about  l.S<>7. 

The  two  grand  essentials  now  being  at  command, 

invention  of  electric  light  appliances  went  on  rapidly 

upon  two  lines,  eventuating  in  two  systems,  which  be- 
came known  as  arc  lighting  and  incandescent  ligliting. 

By  187'.»-SO.  tlie  arc  light  was  sutticiently  advanced  to 

meet  with  favor  as  an  illuminaiit  for  streets,  railway 

stations,  markets,  iind  any  large  si)aces,  in  which  phufcs 

it  became  a  substitute  for  gas  and  other  lights.     The 

essential  features  of  the  arc  light  are :  (1.)  The  dynamo 

machine,  situated  in  some  central  ])lacc,  for  the  gen- 

emtion  of  electricity.     (2.)  (.'oiiducting  wires  to  carry 

tl^  electricity  throughout  tlie  areas  or  to  the  places 

to  be  lighted.  (.'».)  The  arc  lamp,  which  may  be  sus- 
pended upon  i)oles  in  the  streets,  or  upon  wires  in 

stores  and  other  covered  places.     Its  mechanism  coii- 

slpis  of  two  pencils  or  candles  of  graphite  carbon, 

v^  hard  and  incombustible,  adjusted  above  and  be- 

lo»  eacli  other  so  that  their  tii)s  or  ends  are  very 

oIliBe  togetlier,  but  not  iii  contact.     IJy  means  of  a 

oiockwork  or  simple  gravity  device  these  carbon  tips 

ali  brought  into  contact  at  the  moment  the  electric 

Oi^rent  is  turned  on,  and  then  are  slightly  separated 

a#soon  as  the  current  has  heated  tliem.     The  air 

l^ween  the  lieated  tips,  having  also  reached  a  high  temperature,  becomes  a 

o|f  ductor,  and  the  electricity  leaps  in  the  form  of  an  arc  or  curve  through  it. 

ri|dering  it  brilliantly  incandescent.  Should  the  current  be  diminished  in 
igth  for  any  reason,  the  above-mention"'  lock  work  or  gravity  device 
gs  the  carbons  a  little  closer  togethi  i  md  should  the  current  l)e 
eased,  the  carbons  are  separated  a  little  wid«r ;  thus  the  steadiness  of  the 
t  is  regulated.  There  are  also  various  automatic  devices  for  thus  regulat- 
tlie  proximity  of  the  carbons  and  maintaining  the  evenness  of  the  glow, 
power  of  an  arc  light  is  measured  by  candles.  An  ordinary  arc  light  under 
amperes  of  current  gives  a  light  equal  to  twenty-five  candles,  while  under 
amperes  of  current  it  gives  a  light  equal  to  twenty  thousand  candles, 
searchlights  on  board  vessels,  and  where  very  large  areas  are  to  be 
ted,  both  heavier  currents  and  larger  carbons  are  used  than  in  the  arc 


b;lectuic  auc  lkmit. 


IT 


44 


TlilUMrilS   AM)    WOSDEHS   OF    Till-:   A/.V"   CKSTIIlY 


I  '  \\\% 


i    '' 


lii. 


liii 


liUiij)S   for  onliiiarv  sticct    imrposcs.     \u  li.^'lit  sur|iiisscs  tlic  iin-    \\^\ 
lii'illiiiiu'V.    fXct'|itiii,L;-  till'   inii,i;iii',siuin    li;,'lit.     'I'Ihtc    inc    I'l'W   cififs    in    rl 
coillitiy  mil'    I'^ii'iipi'  tliiit  (III  lint,  ('iiiplny  lln'  ai'c  lamp  as  a  lacaiis  ol  si  .. 
station,  anil  lar^'i'-aM'a  liJ;lltinJ,^  owini;  to  its  siipi'iimity  as  an  illiiniinani  ,i 
till'  udiidrrriil  policing,'  crtVut  it  has  iip<in  tin'  slum  st'ctimis. 

Tlic  iiicandcsccnt  lamp,  or  electric  lif,'litinj,'  l»y  iiicainlescence.  umlei  .1; 
a  somewhat  longer  evolution  at  the  liiinds  of  inventors  than  the  arc  1  i, 
owiny  to  tlu^  (litliciilty  of  lindinj,'  a  sulistaiK-e  snitalile  for  the  prodiictii  ;i 
the  neeessiiry  j^low.  The  discovery  of  sindi  snhstaiice  may  lie  accredit'  i 
Kdison  inor(f  fidly  than  to  any  other.  'I'he  incandescent  or  ^dow  lamp  s 
t,dass  hnll)  ti  >\\\  which  tiie  air  is  exhanstt  "icic  passes  into  the  hnllt  n  li 

uieiit  of  carhon,  which,  after  a  turn  or  t\  ..■>ide  tint  iadh.  passes  ont  ai  li, 
end  tlironj,di  which  it  entered.  Wln-n  a  cnrreiit  from  11  voltaic  battery  is  mi; 
throni^h  this  carhon  tilament.  it  hrini,'s  it,  in  the  ahsence  of  oxy^'cn  within  ti, 
hnlli.  to  ii  hi^di  white  heat,  \vitho\it  •condiiistioii.  'i'he  poilinii  df  this  hi-; 
white  heat  whiidi  is  radiated  is  thf  lii,dit-.i,dvin.L,'  ener!.,'y  of  the  incaiide-cir 
lamp,  .^^etal  lilaments  were  at  tii'st  tried  in  the  hull),  lint  tln^y  ([nickly  liii:ii. 
out.  (Jarlnm  lilaments  were  at  leii'^th  found  to  be  the  only  ones  capalhc,: 
resistin<^  the  heat.  Thoy  moreover  had  the  advanta,ij;e  of  cheapness.  ainl  r 
i,n'eater  radiatinj,'  enery:y  than  metals.  .Many  substances,  such  as  silk,  ciiUii;, 
hair,  etc.,  were  used  in  the  jireparation  of  the  carbon  tilaineiits.  but  it  u,. 
foun<l  that  strips  cut  from  the  inside  bark  of  the  bandioo  gave,  when  broii^i; 
to  a  white  heat  by  an  electric  current  and  then  pro[)erly  treated,  the  most  tm,. 
cious  and  best  conducting  carbon  fihiment. 

The  (luality  of  light  produced  by  an  incandescent  lamp  i-  a  gentler  glu': 
than  that;  produced  by  the  are  lamji,  and  '  color  more  nearly  resembles  tli- 
light  of  gas  or  the  oil  lamp.     The  inc;  ■•n\\,  light  speedily  became  f. 

till!  home,  hotel,  hall,  and  limited  covi  ea  what  the  arc  light  becan.- 

for  the  street  and  railway  station,  and,  if  anything,  the  former  outstripir. 
the  lattei"  in  the  extent  and  value  of  the  industry  it  gave  rise  to. 

In  the  arc  lamp,  tlK^  carbon  jiencils  have  to  be  renewed  daily.     In  the  iurai, 
descent  lamp,  the  carbon  tilament,  though  very  delicate,  may  last  for  i|ui;' 
a  time,  bt  cause  incandesi  enee  takes  jilace  in  the  absence  of  oxygen.     II  tL- 
favor  in  which  the  electric  light  is  held,  and  the  great  extent  of  its  use,  nst. 
solely  on  the  questiea  of  cheapness  of  production,  such  (luestion  would  ;ji 
rise  to  interesting  debate.     And,  indeed,  the  debate  would  continue,  if  t, 
(jnestion  were  the  superior  fitness  of  electric  lighting  for  lighthouses  and  lii, 
service,  where  extreme  brilliancy  does  not  seem  to  pem^trate  a  thick  atn. 
si)liere  as  effectively  as  the  more  subdued  glow  of  the  oil  lam]i.      ]>ui  1 
debate    ceases   when  the  (piestion  is  as  to  the  beauty  and  etttciency  ot  1 
eh'ctric  light  in   the  home,  street,  station,  mine,  on  shipboard,  aiul  the  tin 
sand  and  one  other  jilaees  in  which  it  has  come  to  be  deemed  an  esseiit; 
eiiuipment.     In  all  such  places  the  question  of  economy  of  production  ;i: 
use  is  subordinate  to  the  higher  question  of  utility  and  indispensability. 

VII.       lU.KCrUIC     LOCOMOTION. 

The  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw,  as  vehicles  of  locomotion,  t: 
saddled  hackney,  the  clujnsy  wagon,  the  ostentaticms  stage-coach,  the  |iii; 
itive  dearborn,  the  lumbering  carriage,  the  poetic  "one-boss  shay."      fi 


IP  I 


/.;,V7r/.'j- 


]\'o\jn:ns  OF  EI.KCTHlrlTY 


40 


the  ;in'    li^l 
\v   cities    ill    I: 

IIKMIIS     ol     >l     . 

ill  illiiiiiiiiuii'  .1 

I'ciicr.  uiuU'i    I 
Kill  till'  arc  I   1 
,iit'  iiriiiluct  ji   I 
■  lie  accrcdil'  i 
r  },'l(i\v  laiuii  i- 
ito  the  liiilli  ii  ti 
passes  out   ai   i,, 
aie  battci'y  is  >i:; 
;)X\  ^'eii  within  li,- 
rticiii  lit'  tills  lii... 
tlie   iiicaiiile-iv;- 
ev  (iiiicUly  burn.. 
ly  (Mies  cai»ali'ii'  i; 
clieaiiuess.  ami  >: 
icli  as  silli.  cnitH:., 
niciits.  liut   it   w- 
iive,  when  linui:!,' 
ted,  the  most  tnii- 

I  is  a  j^oiitler  l;1ii'i 

lirly  reseuil)h's  tli- 

'edily  hociUuc  !■: 

arc  liglit  bccaiii- 

nriner  outstripin'; 

SI!  to. 

ily.     Ill  the  iiicaii' 
nay  last  I'or  iiuii' 
if  oxygen.     1 1  t!:- 
t  of  its  use,  rest. 
nostion  wouhl  ;ii- 
d  continue,  ii  i 
lithonses  ami  li,, 
ite  a  thick  atii- 
1   lamp.      Ibil  1: 
1  etticienoy  ot  i. 
ml.  and  tlio  tin 
emed  an  essciit: 
production  a: 
lispensability. 


of  locomotion,  ti. 
;e-coach,  the  pi::. 
boss  shay."      1'; 


univei.sal  eiiiT'^'y  Was  the  lioise.  A  new  energy  came  witli  the  apidieatioii 
of  Bteaiii.  and  with  it  new  veliiciilar  loconiotion. — easier,  swilter.  stmngei'.  tni 
the  mn>t  part  cheaper,  leiideriny  possible  what  was  liitlierlo  impo.>silil.  ,i,^  t,, 
time  and  distance. 

This  signal  triiinuiii  of  the  century  may  not  have  been  eclipsed  by  the 
introdnctioii  ol  subsequent  joconiotiv*'  changes,  imt  it  was  to  lie  snppleiiiented 
bvwliat.ai  tiic  beginning,  would  have  passed  lor  the  idle  dream  oj  ;i  vision- 
ary. 'I'lie  lior>c-car  came,  had  its  lirief  day.  and  went  out  with  all  its  incon- 
veniences, cruellies,  and  horrors  bidore.  in  part.  I  lie  tractiiui-car,  and.  in  jiart, 
the  rajiidly  revolulioiii/ing  energy  ot  electricity. 


KI.KC  ritlC    I.OI  OMOTIVK. 

The  first  conception  of  a  railway  to  l)P  oporated  by  fdectricity  dates  from 
about  1S."..">.  when  'riiomas  Davenport,  id'  ilrandon.  Vt..  contrived  and  moved 
a  small  car  by  iiu'ans  oi'  a  current  from  voltaic  cells  placed  within  it.  in 
1851,  ]*roicssor  Tagp.  of  the  Sniithsoniau  Institution,  ran  a  car  ]iroptdlcd  by 
•electricity  upon  the  steam  railway  between  Washington  and  r>altimore.  but 
thoagh  he  olitained  a  high  rate  ol  speed,  the  cost  of  supplying  the  current  by 
mefUis  of  batteries  —  the  only  means  then  known  —  pndiibitcd  the  commer- 
cial use  of  his  nicthod. 

With  the  invention  of  the  dynamo  as  an  economic  and  powerful  generator 
of  electricity,  and  also  the  invention  of  the  motor  as  a  means  of  turning 
electrical  energy  to  mechanical  account,  the  way  was  open,  both  in  the 
United  States  and  Kurope.  for  more  active  investigation  of  the  question  of 
electric-car  propulsion.     Uetween  1.S71*  and  1.S87,  different  inventors,  at  home 


40 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  A/A'"'   CENTURY 


\\ 


and  abroad,  planed  in  operati^m  several  experimental  electric  railways.  Few 
(pf  tlieni  proved  practical,  though  each  t'nrnished  a  fund  of  valuable  experi- 
ence. An  underground  electric  street  railway  was  operated  in  Denver  as 
early  as  188;) ;  but  the  one  ujjon  the  trolley  plan,  which  proved  sutticiently  suc- 
cessful to  warrant  its  being  called  the  hrst  oi)erated  in  the  United  States, 
was  built  in  Kichmond,  Va.,  in  18S8.  It  gave  such  impetus  to  electric  rail- 
way construction  that,  in  five  years'  time,  enormous  capital  was  end)arked, 
aiul  the  new  means  of  i)ropulsion  was  generally  accepted  as  convenient,  safe, 
and  profitable. 

The  essential  features  of  the  electric  railway  are :  (1.)  The  track  of  two 
rails,  similar  to  the  steam  railway.  (2.)  The  cars,  lightly  yet  strongly  built. 
{\^.)  The  power-house,  containing  the  dynamos  which  generate  the  electricity. 
(4.)  The  feed-wire,  usually  of  stout  copper,  running  the  length  of  the  tracks 
of  the  system,  and  supported  on  poles  or  laid  in  conduits.  (5.)  Tlie  trolley- 
wire  over  the  centre  of  the  track,  supported  by  insulated  cross-wires  passing 
from  poles  on  opjKJsite  sides  of  the  tracks,  and  connected  at  proper  inter- 
vals Avith  the  feed-wire.  (0.)  The  trolley-pole  of  metal  jointed  to  the  top  of 
the  car,  and  fitted  with  a  s])ring  which  jiresses  the  wheel  on  the  end  of 
the  pole  up  against  the  trolley-wire  with  a  force  of  about  fifteen  pounds,  and 
which  also  serves  to  conduct  the  electricity  down  through  the  car  to  the 
motor.  (7.)  The  motor,  whicli  is  suspended  from  the  car  truck,  and  passes  its 
power  to  the  car  axle  by  means  of  a  spur  gearing.  The  power  r^tpiisite  for 
an  ordinary  trolley-car  is  abcjut  fifteen  horse-power.  The  speed  of  trolley-cars 
is  regulated  in  cities  to  from  five  to  seven  miles  per  hour,  but  they  may  be 
run,  under  favorable  conditions,  at  a  speed  equal  to,  or  in  excess  of,  that  of 
the  sceam-car. 

As  a  means  of  city  transit,  and  of  rapid,  convenient,  and  economic  inter- 
course between  suburban  localities  and  rural  towns  and  villages,  the  electric 
traction  system  ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  century.  The 
speed  with  which  it  found  favor>  the  enormous  capital  it  provoked  to  activity, 
the  stinuilus  it  gave  to  further  study  and  invention,  the  surprising  number  of 
passengers  carried,  go  to  make  one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  electric 
annals.  The  end  of  the  century  sees  thousands  of  these  electric  roads  in 
existence;  a  comparatively  new  industry  involving  over  .1?  100,000,000  ;  a  pas- 
senger traffic  running  into  the  billions  of  people  ;  a  prospect  that  the  trolley 
will  succeed  the  steam-car  for  all  utilizable  purposes  within  the  gradually 
extending  influence  of  cities  and  towns  upon  their  rural  surroundings. 

In  s])eaking  of  the  jiassing  of  the  horse-car  and  its  substitution  hy  the 
trolley,  a  distinguished  writer  has  well  .said:  "Humanity  in  an  electric-car 
differs  widely  from  that  in  the  horse-car,  propelled  at  the  expense  of  animal 
life.  It  is  more  cheerful,  more  confident,  more  awake  to  the  energy  at  com- 
mand, more  imbued  v.-ith  the  subtlety  and  majesty  of  the  propelling  force. 
The  motor  confirms  the  ethical  fact  that  each  introduction  of  a  higher 
material  force  into  the  daily  uses  of  humanity  lifts  it  to  a  broader,  brighter 
plane,  gives  its  capabilities  freer  and  more  wholesome  play,  and  opens  fresh 
vistas  for  all  possibilities.  We  applaud  Franklin  for  seizing  the  lightning  in 
the  heavens,  dragging  it  down  to  earth,  and  subjugating  it  to  man.  Let  this 
pass  as  part  of  the  poetry  of  physics.  lUit  when  ethics  comes  to  poetize,  let 
it  be  said  that  electricity  as  an  applied  force  lifts  man  up  toward  heaven, 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


47 


jiiickens  all  his  api^reoiations  of  divine  energy,  draws  him  irresistibly  toward 
;he  centre  and  source  of  nature's  forces.     There  is  no  dragging  down  and 

iibjugatiou  of  a  physical  force.  There  is  only  a  going  out,  or  up,  of  genius 
.0  meet  and  to  grasp  it.  Its  universal  application  means  the  raising  (yf  man- 
kind to  its  })lane.  If  electricity  be  the  principle  of  life,  as  some  suppose, 
,\liat  wonder  that  we  all  feel  better  in  an  electric-car  than  any  other  ?  The 
aiotor  becomes  ■'.  sid)lime  motive,  (rod  himself  is  tugging  at  the  wheels,  and 
',ve  are  riding  witli  the  Intinitc."' 
Enthusiasts  say  the  trolley  is  only  the  beginning  of  electric  locomotion,  and 


ELKCTHIC    HAILWAY.       THIUU    KAIL   SVSTKM. 


that  there  is  already  in  rapid  evolution  an  electric  system  which  will  supersede 
steam  even  for  trunk-line  ])urposes.  In  vision,  it  ])resumes  a  speed  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-tive  miles  an  hour  instead  of  forty ;  greater  safety,  cleanli- 
ness, and  comfort;  and  what  is  most  momentous  and  startling,  an  economy  in 
construction  and  ojieration  which  will  warrant  the  sacrifice  of  the  billions  of 
dollars  now  invested  in  steam-railway  ]iroperties.  The  ])r<i])osition  is  not  to 
sacrifice  the  steam-railway  track,  but  to  add  to  it  a  third  rail,  which  is  to  carry 
the  electric  current.  Tlien.  by  means  of  feed-conduits  alongside  of  the  track, 
and  specially  constructed  electric  locomotives  and  cars,  the  system  is  siq)- 
|insed  to  reach  the  ])ractical  perfection  claimed  for  it.  Experiments  with  such 
:in  electrical  system,  made  ujion  branch  lines  of  some  of  our  trunk-line  rail- 


i 


48 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX J"  CENTURY 


ways,  as  the  Peniisylvuiiia,  New  York  Central,  and  New  Haven  &  Hartford, 
give  much  eneouragenient  to  the  hypothesis  tliat  it  may  become  the  next 
great  ste])  in  tlie  evolution  of  electrical  science. 

Another  means  of  electric  i)roj)ulsion  was  prcjvided  l)y  the  investigations 
of  riante,  which  resulted  in  his  invention  of  the  ''accumulator  "  or  "storage 
battery,"  in  liSoS).  His  battery  consists  of  plates  of  lead  immersed  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  liy  the  passage  of  an  electric  current  through  the  acid,  it  is 
electrolytically  decomposed.  l*>y  continuing  the  current  for  a  time,  first  in 
one  direction  and  then  in  another,  the  lead  i)lates  become  change'^  the  one  at 
the  point  where  tVie  current  leaves  the  cell  taking  on  a  dejtosit  of  spongy 
lead,  and  the  one  at  the  point  where  the  current  enters  the  cell  taking  on  a 
coating  of  oxide  of  lead.  When  in  this  condition,  the  battery  is  said  to  be 
stored,  and  is  capable  of  sending  out  an  electric  current  in  any  circuit  with 
which  it  may  be  connected.  After  exhausting  itself,  it  can  be  re-stored  or  re- 
charged in  the  same  way  as  at  lirst.  Faure  greatly  improved  on  Plante's 
storage  battery  in  ISSO,  by  spreading  the  oxide  lead  over  the  jtlates,  thus 
greatly  reducing  the  time  in  forming  the  i>l;.  cs.  Subse(|uently,  further 
improvements  were  made,  till  batteries  came  into  existence  capable  of  supply- 
ing a  current  of  many  hundred  amperes  for  several  hours.  One  of  the  first 
])ractical  uses  to  which  the  storage  battery  was  put  was  in  t.ie  propulsion  of 
street-cars;  but  its  weight  proved  a  drawback.  It  was  found  better  ada])ted 
for  the  running  of  boats  on  rivers,  and,  in  the  business  of  water-freightage 
for  short  distances,  has  in  many  instances  become  a  rival  of  steam.  It  found 
one  of  its  most  interesting  applications  in  helping  to  solve  the  problem  of 
the  (nifiiitiolnh;  or  "horseless  carriage,"  either  for  i)leasure  purposes  or  for 
street  traffic.  In  this  problem  it  has.  at  the  end  of  the  century,  an  active 
rival  in  compressed  air ;  but  as  the  '■  horseless  carriage  "  is  rapidly  coming 
into  demand,  means  may  soon  be  found  to  utilize  the  strong  and  persistent 
energy  of  the  storage  battery,  without  the  drawback  found  in  its  great  weight. 

VI ri.       TIIK    X    R.\Y. 

An  astounding  electrical  revelation  came  during  the  last  years  of  the  cen- 
tury through  the  discovery  of  the  X,  or  unknown,  or  lloentgen  ray.  A  liint 
of  this  discovery  was  given  by  Faraday  during  his  investigation  of  the 
effect  of  electric  discharges  within  rarefied  gases.  He  also  invented  the 
terms  anndf  and  v>ithoih\  both  of  which  are  in  universal  use  in  connection 
■with  instrunu'uts  for  jjrodiu-ing  the  X  rays  ;  the  anode  being  the  ])ositive  pole 
or  electrode  of  a  galvanic  battery,  or,  in  general,  the  terminal  of  the  con- 
ductor by  Avhich  a  current  enters  an  electrolytic  cell ;  and  the  (sathode  being 
the  negative  ])ole  or  electrode  by  which  a  current  leaves  said  cell. 

(Jeis'V  followed  Faraday  with  an  improved  system  of  tubes  for  contain- 
ing rarefied  gases  for  experimentation.  He  ])artially  exliansted  his  tid)f  s  of 
air,  introduced  into  them  permanent  and  sealed  ])latinum  electrodes,  and  pro- 
duced those  AV(mderful  ett'ects  by  the  discharge  obtained  by  connecting  the 
electrodes  with  the  terminals  of  an  electric  machine  or  induction  coil,  which 
from  their  novelty  and  beauty  became  known  as  (teissler  effects,  just  as  his 
tubes  l)ecnme  known  as(Jeissler  tubes.  In  the  attenuated  atmosphere  of  the 
(ieissler  tube,  the  current  does  not  i)ass  directly  from  one  platiinim  point  or 
electrode  to  the  other,  but.  instead,  illuminates  the  entire  atmospheric  space. 


WONDERS  OF  ELECTRICITY 


ivt'ight. 


being 

oiitain- 
iilxs  of 

11(1  ]11'0- 

iig  tlie 
wlii((li 

t  as  his 
of  the 

oiiit  or 
space. 


OEISSI.EK  S   Tl'lJES. 


UTi en  other  gases  are  introdueecl  in  rarefied  tonii.  tliey  are  similarly  illiiiiii- 
iiatecl,  but  in  eolurs  eorresponding  to  their  eoniiKisition.  In  liis  furtlier  experi- 
ments, Geissler  noted  tliat  the  gases  in  tlie  tulie  l;ehaved  ditt'ereiitly  at  the 
anode,  or  jwsitive  terminal,  and  tlie  cathotU*.  or  negative 
lerniiiial.  A  beautiful  bluish  liglit  appeared  at  the  catli- 
iide,  while  the  anode  assumed  the  same  eolor  as  the 
ilhiminated  si)ace  in  tiie  tube.  It  was  also  noted  that 
after  the  (dectric  discharge  within  the  tube,  there  re- 
mained upon  the  inner  surface  of  the  glass  a  fluorescent 
or  jihosphorescent  glow,  which  was  attributed  to  the 
ctfeirt  of  the  cathode. 

This  brought  the  study  of  the  vntlnxli'  rays  into  jiromi- 
iieiice,  and  through  the  investigations  of  I'rofessor  Wil- 
liam Crookes,  in  1879  and  afterwards,  a  conclusion  was 
reached  that  a  '"Fourth  State  of  Matter"  really  existed. 
He  [jerfected  tubes  of  very  high  vacuum,  by  means  of  which  he  showed  that 
molecules  of  gas  projec^ted  from  the  cathode  moved  freely  and  with   great 
velocity  among  one  another,  and  so  bomliarded  the  inner  walls  of  the  tube  as 
to  render  it  fluorescent. 

Subsetpiently,  Hertz  showed  that  the  cathodic  rays  wf)uld  penetrate  thin 
sheets  of  metal  placed  within  the  tube  or  bulb;  and  soon  after,  I'aul  Leiiard 
(l.Si)4)  demonstrated  that  the  cathodic  ray  could  be  investigated  as  well  out- 
side of  tlie  tube  or  bulb  as  within  it.  He  set  an  aluminum  plate  in  the  glass 
wall  of  the  bulb  opposite!  the  cathode.  Though  ordinary  light  could  not 
penetrate  the  aluminum  plate,  it  was  readily  pierced  by  the  cathodic  rays,  to 
11  distance  of  three  iiudies  beyond  its  outside  surface.  With  these  rays,  thus 
treed  from  their  inclosure,  he  produced  the  same  Huorescent  effects  as  had 
been  noted  within  the  bulb,  and  even  secured  some  photographic  effects. 
These  cathodic  rays  produced  no  effect  on  the  eye,  which  jtroved  their  dissim- 
ilarity to  light.  Leiiard  showed  further  that  fhe  cathodic  rays  outside  of 
the  tube  could  be  deflected  from  their  straight  course  by  a  magnet,  tliat 
tiiey  might  pass  through  substances  opaipie  to  light,  and  that  in  so  jiassing 
tliey  might  (;ast  a  slnuhnv  of  objects  less  ()pa(pie,  which  shadow  could  be 
]ilintographed.  Now  I'rofessor  Roentgen  came  upon  the  scene.  He  had  been 
('(inducting  his  experiments  in  (Jermaiiy.  along  tiie  same  lines  as  T.enard,  and 
had  reached  practically  the  same  results  as  to  the  ])enetrative.  fluorescent, 
and  photograidiic  effects  of  the  cathodic  rays.  ]>ut  he  had  gone  still  fur- 
ther, and,  in  IS'.XJ,  fairly  set  the  scientiflc  world  aflame  with  the  announce- 
ment that  all  tlH>  eft'ects  ]iroduced  by  Leiiard  in  the  limited  space  of  a  few 
inches  could  also  be  ])roduced  at  long  distances  from  the  tube,  and  with 
sufficient  intensity  to  dei)i('t  solid  substances  within  or  behind  other  sub- 
stances sutticiently  solid  to  be  impermeable  by  light.  Trofessor  Iioeiit- 
gen  claims  that  liis  X  ray  is  dift'erent  from  the  cathodic  ray  of  Leiiard  and 
others,  because  it  cannot  be  deflected  by  a  magnet.  This  claim  has  given 
rise  to  much  controversy  respecting  the  real  nature  of  the  X  ray.  a  contro- 
versy not  likely  to  end  soon,  yet  one  full  of  inspiration  to  further  iiive.s- 
figaticHi.  • 

The  essential  features  of  the  best  ajiproved  ai>]>aratus  designed  to  jiroduce 
the  X  ray  and  to  secure  a  photograph  of  an  invisible  object,  are:  (L)  .\  bat- 
4 


60 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDERS   OF  THE  XIXT"  CENTURY 


tery  or  light  dynamo  as  a  generator  of  the  electric  current,  accompanied,  of 
co\irse,  by  the  necessary  induction  coil,  which  should  be  so  wound  as  to  give 
a  spark  of  at  least  two  inches  in  length  in  the  tube  where  a  picture  of  a  sim- 
ple object,  as  a  coin  in  a  purse,  is  desired ;  a  spark  of  four  inches  in  length 
where  pictures  of  the  bones  of  the  hands,  feet,  or  arms  are  desired ;  and  a 
spark  of  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  length  where  inside  views  of  the  chest, 
thighs,  or  abdomen  are  desired.    (L'.)  The  second  essential  is  the  glass  tube. 

The  one  in  common  use  is  the  Crookes 
tube,  usually  pear-shaped,  and  resting 
upon  a  stand.  Into  it  is  inserted  two 
alununum  electrodes  or  disks,  the  one 
through  the  snuxUer  end  of  the  tube  be- 
ing used  as  the  cathode,  and  the  one 
from  below  and  near  the  large  end  be- 
ing used  as  the  anode.  (.S.)  A  tluoroscope 
with  Avhich  to  observe  the  conditions 
inside  the  tube  necessary  to  the  i)roduc- 
tion  of  the  X  ray,  to  decide  upon  its 
j)roper  intensity,  and  to  establish  the 
proper  degree  of  fluorescence.  The  fa- 
vorite fluoroscoj)e  for  this  purpose  is 
the  one  invented  by  Edison.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  stereopticon,  in  which 
is  a  dark  chamber  after  the  manner  of 
a  camera.  In  front  are  two  openings, 
admitting  of  a  view  within  of  both 
eyes.  At  the  opposite,  and  greatly 
eidarged,  end  is  a  screen  which  is  ren- 
dered fluorescent  by  means  of  a  new  sub- 
stance (tungstate  of  calcium)  discovered  by  ,Mr.  Edison  after  some  eighteen 
hundred  experiments.  Such  is  tlie  pi)wer  of  this  fluoroscope  that  it  may  be 
used  as  an  independent  instrument  in  cases  of  minor  surgery  to  locate  Itullets 
or  other  objects  buried  in  the  flesh,  even  before  a  jdiotograph  has  been  taken. 
(4.)  The  photograjthic  ])late.  wliich  is  prepared  with  a  sensitix.ed  film  aiul 
mounted  in  a  frame  as  in  ordinary  jjliotography.  Ujion  this  fllm  the  object 
to  be  photographed  is  laid,  say,  for  instance,  the  human  hand,  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  fllm  or  jdate  at  a  ])roper  distance  from  the  Crookes  tube. 
Current  is  now  turned  into  the  tube,  the  X  ray  is  developed,  the  fllm  is 
exjiosed  to  its  effects,  and  the  result  is  a  negative  showing  the  interior  struc- 
ture of  the  hand.  —  tlu'  bones  or  any  foreign  object  therein.  This  negative  is 
developed  as  in  ordinary  iih()togra])hy. 

Tlie  disoiivevy  and  a|iplication  of  the  X  ray  has  ]»roved  of  immense  value 
in  nit'dicine  and  surgery.  Wy  its  means  the  physician  is  enabled  to  carry  on 
far-reaching  diagnoses,  and  to  ascertain  with  certainty  the  whole  internal 
structure  of  the  human  body.  Fractures,  dislocations,  deformities,  and  dis- 
eases of  the  bones  may  be  loi'ated  and  their  character  and  treatment  decided 
u]Kin.  Tn  dentistry,  the  teeth  may  be  ])hotographe(l  by  means  of  the  X  ray, 
even  before  they  conu'  to  tlie  surface,  and  broken  fangs  and  hidden  flUings 
may  be  located.     Foreign  objects  in  the  body,  as  bullets,  needles,  calculi  in 


SCIAGRAPH   on   SHADOW    Pt(  Tllti:. 

By  X  Ray  process. 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


61 


the  bladder,  etc.,  may  be  localized,  and  the  surgery  necessary  for  their  safe 
removal  greatly  simplified.  The  beating  of  the  heart,  movement  of  the  ribs 
in  respiration,  and  outline  of  the  liver  may  be  exhibited  to  tiie  eye.  It  has 
been  boldly  suggesteil  that  in  the  X  ray  will  be  found  an  agent  capable  of 
destroying  the  various  bacilli  which  infest  the  human  system,  and  become 
1,'erms  of  such  destructive  diseases  as  cholera,  yellow  fever,  typhoid  fever, 
diphtheria,  and  consumption.  Even  if  this  be  speculative  as  yet,  there  is 
still  room  for  marvel  at  the  actual  results  of  the  discovery  of  the  X  ray,  and 
its  future  study  opens  a  Held  full  of  the  grandest  possibilities. 

IX.       OTHER    ELKCTKK'AL    WONDKRS. 

The  novel  idea  of  keei)ing  time  by  means  of  electricity  originated  quite 
t>arly  in  tlie  century,  and  culminated  in  two  kinds  of  electric  clocks,  one 
UKJved  directly  by  the  electric  current,  the  other  moved  by  weights  or  springs, 
hut  regulated  by  electricity.  The  former  have  the  advantage  of  running  a 
very  long  time  without  attention,  but  as  it  is  impossible  to  keej)  up  an  unvary- 
ing electric  current,  they  are  not  so  accurate  as  the  latter  in  keeping  time. 
Though  the  latter  are  popularly  called  electric  clocks,  they  are  really  only 
clocks  regulated  by  electricity,  and  in  such  regtdation  the  electric  current 
comes  to  be  a  most  important  agent,  as  is  proved  at  .all  centres  of  astronomi- 
cal and  other  observations,  as  at  Greenwich  and  Washington.  At  such  cen- 
tres the  astronomical  time-keeper  is  set  up  so  as  to  run  as  infallibly  as  possible. 
This  central  time-keejier,  say  at  Washington,  is  electrically  connected  with 
other  clocks,  at  observatories,  signal-service  stations,  railway  stations,  clock- 
stores,  city  halls,  etc.,  throughout  the  country.  Should  any  of  these  clocks 
lose  or  gain  the  minutest  fraction  of  time  as  compared  witii  that  of  the  cen- 
tral time-keeper,  the  electric  current  corrects  such  loss  or  gain,  and  so  keeps 
all  the  clocks  at  a  time  uniform  with  one  another  and  with  the  central  one. 
Electrical  devices  are  also  often  attached  to  individual  clocks,  as  those  upon 
city  hall  towers  and  in  exposed  places,  for  the  i)urpose  of  meeting  and  cor- 
recting inequalities  of  time  occasioned  by  weathor  exposure,  expansion  and 
contraction  by  heat  and  cold,  etc. 

The  fatlierhood  of  the  very  useful  and  elegant  arts  of  electrotyping  and 
electroplating  is  in  dispute.  Daniell,  while  perfecting  his  battery,  noticed 
that  a  current  of  electricity  would  cause  a  deposit  of  copper.  In  \K\\,  Jacobi, 
of  St.  Petersburg,  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  copjjcr  (Uqiositcd  on 
his  plates  of  copper  by  galvanic  action  could  be  removed  in  a  perfect  sheet, 
which  presented  in  relief,  and  most  accurately,  every  accidental  indentation 
on  the  original  plates.  Following  tiiis  u]),  he  employed  for  his  battery  an 
engraved  copijcr  plate,  caused  the  de]»osit  to  be  formed  upon  it,  renu)ved  the 
deposit,  aiul  founil  that  the  engraving  was  impressed  on  it  in  relief,  and 
with  sutticient  tirmness  and  shar])ness  to  enablt;  him  to  jirint  from  it.  .lacobi 
called  his  discovery  galv;ino])lasty  in  the  jmblication  of  his  observations  in 
1S.'{".).  It  was  but  a  stej)  from  this  discovery  to  tlie  ajtplication  of  the  electro- 
typing  [trocess  to  the  art  of  printing.  A  mould  of  wax,  plaster,  or  other  suit- 
able substance  is  made  of  an  engraving  or  of  a  i)age  of  ty]»e.  This  mould  is 
covered  with  powdered  grapiiite  (bhu-k  lead)  so  as  to  make  it  a  conductor 
of  electricity.  It  is  then  inserted  in  a  bath  containing  a  solution  of  sulpliate 
of  copper.     An  electric  current  is  jiassed  through  the  bath,  and  the  copper  is 


J'Hl 


62 


TRIUMPHS  AXB    WONDERS  OF  THE  XL\"'  CENTURY 


(lepositcil  oil  tilt'  iiKnild  in  siittieiiMit  (|iuiiitity  to  give  it  a  liard  surface  capable 
of  offering  greater  resistaiiee  in  printing  than  the  types  tlieniselves,  and  also 
of  producing  a  clearer  ini])ression.  In  electroplating,  practically  the  same 
principle  is  employed.  The  bath  is  made  to  contain  a  solution  of  vater, 
cyanide  of  potassium,  and  whiitever  metal  —  gold,  silver,  platinum,  etc. — 
it  is  designed  to  precipitate  on  the  article  to  be  electroplated.  Tlie  current 
is  then  passed  through  the  bath,  and  the  article  —  sjiooii,  ki.  fe,  fork,  etc. — 
to  be  electroplated  receives  its  coating  of  gold,  silver,  (Jernian  silver,  plati- 
num, or  whatever  has  been  made  the  tliird  agent  in  the  bath. 

The  various  modern  submarine  devices  for  the  destruction  of  shijis, 
known  as  torjiedoes,  sul)marine  mines,  etc.,  depend  ui)oii  electricity  for  their 
efficiency.  It  is  the  lighting  or  tiring  agent,  and  is  carried  to  the  torpedo 
or  mine  by  means  of  stout  wires  or  cables  from  some  safe  shore-i)oint  of 
observation. 

In  railroading,  electricity  has  become  an  indispensable  agent  for  the 
ojieratioii  of  signal  systems,  opening  and  closing  of  switclies,  and  limitation 
of  safety  sections.  It  moves  the  drill  in  the  mine,  sets  off  the  blast,  and 
sup])lies  the  light.  It  enables  the  dentist  to  manipulate  his  most  delicate 
tools  and  do  his  cleaiu^st  and  least  painful  work.  In  medicim*  it  is  a  healing, 
soothing  agent,  boiuidless  in  variety  of  ajiplicatiou  and  wondrous  in  results. 
It  is  a  stimulus  to  the  growth  of  certain  ])lants,  and  has  given  rise  to  a  new 
science  called  Electro-horticulture.  It  may  be  made  a  jirolific  source  of  heat 
for  warming  cars,  and  even  for  the  welding  of  iron  and  steel.  The  electric 
fan  cools  our  parlors  and  offices  in  summer,  and  the  electric  bell  sinqilities 
household  service.  In  fact,  it  would  appear  that,  in  contrasting  the  electrical 
beginnings  with  the  electrical  endings  of  the  nineteenth  centiuy,  the  space 
of  a  thousand  rather  than  a  hundred  years  had  intervened,  and  that  in 
measuring  the  agents  which  conduce  to  human  comfort  and  convenience, 
electricity  is  easily  the  most  potential. 


X.    Ki.i:(  TIM.  Ai.  i..\\(;r.\<iK. 

Out  of  the  various  discoveries  and  ajiplications  of  electricity  almost  a  new 
ianguiige  has  sprung.  This  is  especi.dly  so  of  terms  expressive  of  the  mea- 
surements of  electric  energy,  and  of  the  laws  governing  the  api»lication  of 
electric  power.  For  a  time,  various  nations  measured  and  applied  by  means 
of  terms  chosen  by  themselves.  This  led  to  a  jargon  very  confusing  to 
writers  and  investigators.  It  became  needful  to  have  a  language  more  in  com- 
mon, as  ill  iiharmacy,  so  that  all  nations  could  understand  one  another,  could 
comjnite  alike,  and  especially  impart  tliei''  meaning  to  tho.se  Avliose  duty  it 
became  to  aoply  discovered  laws  and  acttiial  calculations  to  practical  electric 
operations.  This  was  a  difficult  undertaking,  owing  to  the  tenacity  with  which 
nations  clung  to  their  own  nomenclatures  and  terminologies,  liut  tlie  drift, 
though  slow,  finally  ended  at  the  Electrical  Congress  in  Paris  in  1S81,  in  the 
ado]»tion  of  a  uniform  .system  of  measurements  of  electric  force,  and  an 
agreement  ujion  terms  for  laws  and  their  ai)i)lication,  which  all  could  under- 
stand. 

Three  fundamental  units  of  measurement  were  first  agreed  upon.  —  the 
Ccnfhiii'fre  (.'.WH  in.)  as  a  unit  of  length;  the  (ii'nwme  (iri.4.Stroy  grains)  as 
a  unit  of  mass  ;  the  ScromI  {^^  of  a  minute)  as  a  unit  of  time.     These  three 


WONDERS   OF  ELECTRICITY 


53 


units  became,  when  referred  to  togetlier  by  their  initial  letters,  the  basis  of 
•he  C.  («.  S.  system  of  units.  Now  by  these  units  of  measurement  some- 
thiut,'  must  be  nu'asured.  as,  for  instance,  the  electric  force;  and  when  so 
iju'.isured,  an  absolute  unit  of  force  must  be  the  result. 

j)Y.\K  : — This  is  but  a  contraction  of  '///«a/«.  force.  It  was  adopted  as 
the  name  of  the  "  Ab.solute  I'nit  of  Force,"  or  tiie  C.  (J.  S.  unit  of  force,  and 
is  tliat  force  which,  if  it  act  for  a  second  on  one  gramme  of  nuitter,  gives  to 
it  a  velocity  of  one  centimetre  per  second. 

AMi'KiiK: —  Elc(!trical  force  produces  electrical  current.  Current  must 
lie  uu'asureil  and  an  abs(dute  unit  of  current  strengtli  agreed  upon.  Tiie 
•  .Vbs(dute  L'nit  of  Current'' was  settled  as  one  of  such  strength  as  that 
w  hiMi  one  centimetre  length  of  its  circuit  is  bent  into  an  arc  of  one  centi- 
iiit'tre  radius,  the  current  in  it  e.xerts  a  force  of  one  dyne  on  a  unit  magnet- 
imle  placed  at  the  centre.  iWit  the  absolute  unit  of  current  as  thus  obtained 
was  decided  to  l)e  ten  times  too  great  for  jtractical  purposes.  So  a  practical 
unit  of  current  was  fixed  upon,  which  is  just  one  tenth  part  of  the  above  abso- 
lute unit  of  current.  Tiiis  [iractical  unit  of  current  was  called  tiie  ampere,  in 
hnnor  of  the  celebrated  French  electrician,  Ampere.  It  may  be  ascertained 
in  other  ways,  as  when  a  current  is  of  sutticient  strength  to  deposit  in  a 
cojiper  electrolytic  ci'll  1.174  grnmmes  (IS.lKi  grains)  of  coi)per  in  an  hour, 
such  current  is  said  tt)  be  of  one  ampere  strength;  or  a  current  of  one 
auipere  strength  is  smdi  a  one  as  woidd  be  given  by  an  electro-motive  force 
(if  one  volt  through  a  wire  offering  one  ohm  of  resistance. 

Voi/r :  —  This  was  named  from  Volta.  the  celeltrated  Italian  electrician, 
and  v/as  agreed  upon  as  the  unit  of  electro-motive  force.  It  is  that  elec- 
tro-motive force  whi(di  would  be  generated  by  a  conductor  cutting  across 
1(I0,()(M>.(»0(I  C.  (J.  S.  lines  in  a  field  of  force  per  second  :  or  it  is  that  electro- 
motive force  which  wouhl  carry  one  amiiere  of  current  against  one  ohm  of 
resistance. 

Ohm:  —  So  called  from  Ohm.  a  (Jerman  electrician.  It  is  the  miit  of 
resistan(;e  offered  by  a  conductor  to  the  passage  of  an  electrical  current.  As 
an  absolute  unit  of  resistance,  it  is  equal  to  1.(KK>.(K»0.(I0()  C.  Cr.  S.  units  of 
resistance.  As  a  ]iractical  unit,  and  as  agreed  ujion  at  the  International 
Congress  of  Electricians  (Chicago,  iStK}),  it  rejjresents  the  resistance  offered 
to  an  electric  current  at  the  temi)erature  of  melting  ice  by  a  column  of  mer- 
cury 14.4")!  grammes  in  mass,  of  a  constant  cross-sectional  area,  and  KXL.'i 
centimetres  in  length.  This  is  called  the  international  ohm.  The  resistance 
offered  by  400  feet  of  ordinary  telegraph  wire  is  about  an  ohm. 

These  three  units  —  ampere,  volt,  and  ohm — are  the  factors  in  Ohm's 
famous  law  that  the  current  is  directly  proportional  to  the  electro-motive 
force  exerted  in  a  circuit  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  resistance  of  the 
circuit;  that  is,  — 

Electro-motive  force 


or, 


or 


Current  =  ■ ,- — . 

Kesistance 

Electro-motive  force  =  Current  x  Resistance 

Kesistance  =  Electro-motive  force 
Current. 


64 


TiiWMJ'ns  Ai\i>  ]voyj)iciis  or  the  xix">  cExruny 


Kuci  :  —  Krom  llic  (Jn'ck  rr;/"n,  work,  is  tlic  unit  of  work  n'(|iiinMl  td  move 
a  lorcu  of  Olio  tlyiie  one  ctMitiiiiftrc.     (Mic  foot-|ioiiii(l  tM|Uiils  l.'t.'idO  cr.Ljs. 

Cai-ouiI''.: — Latin  ni/nr,  hnit,  '\s  tlu-  unit  of  lit-at  ;  lu-iu},'  tlic  amount  of 
lu'at  n'(|uiriMl  to  raise  tlit-  tt-mptTaturt'  of  one  kiloj^ram  of  water  one  (lt'j,'rt't' 
ct'iitif^rade. 

Coi'i.oMit:  —  In  lionorofC.  A.  dc  Couloml),  of  France.  It  is  tlie  ]ir;ictical 
unit  of  fiuantity  in  measuring  eleetriiMly,  and  is  tlie  amount  conveyed  \>y  one 
amjiere  in  one  si'cond. 

Kauad: —  From  FAifAi>AY,  tlu'  pliysicist.  It  is  tlie  unit  of  electric  capa- 
city.  and  is  the  capacity  of  a  condt'usi'r  tliat  retains  one  couiond)  of  cliarge 
with  oiu'  volt  difference  of  ])otential. 

(lAiss  :  —  From  Carl  F.  (iauss  (17Sr»-lS;"»).  The  ('.  (J.  S.  unit  of  tlux- 
density,  or  the  unit  by  which  the  intensity  of  nui,i,'netic  fields  are  measured. 
It  ('([uals  one  weber  per  normal  scpuire  centimetre. 

tiiMsKiir  : — The  unit  for  nu-asuring  nuigneto-niotive  force,  being  produced 
by  .T'XiH  amjiere-turn  apitroximattdy. 

JIi'.Miv: —  I''rom  ,losei)h  Henry,  of  the  Smitlisonian  Institution,  Washing- 
ton, J).  C.  The  ])ractical  unit  for  measuring  the  induction  in  a  circuit  when 
the  elcctro-motiv(>  force  induc(Ml  is  one  international  volt,  while  the  inducing 
current  varies  at  the  rate  of  one  amjiere  per  second. 

Jttri.K:  —  The  ('.  (i.S.  unit  of  i>ractical  energy,  being  e(iuivident  to  the 
work  done  in  keeping  uji  for  one  second  a  current  of  one  ampere  against  a 
resistance  of  on<'  ohm.     Named  from  .J.  1*.  .loule,  of  I'aigland. 

Okhstki)  : — From  Oersted,  the  electrician.  It  is  the  praeticid  unit  for 
mciisuring  electrical  reluctance. 

Watt  :  —  The  practical  (dectrica!  iinit  of  the  rate  of  wijrking  in  a  circuit, 
when  the  electro-motive  force  is  one  volt,  and  the  intensity  of  current  is  one 
amiiere.  It  is  e()ual  to  107  ergs  p(>r  second,  or  .OOl.'M  horse-power  persecoml. 
Named  from  .lauu's  Watt,  of  Scotland. 

Wkuki!  :  —  The  pnictical  luiit  for  measuring  nuignetic  flux.  Niinied  from 
W.  Weber,  of  (iermany. 

.Iamks  1'.  l>ovi>. 


THE  CENTURY'S   NAVAL  PROGRESS 


I.       INKMKNf  K    UK    SI'.A     ri>\V|;|£. 

TnK  share  of  navies  in  the  t,M'eat  nii>Veiiu'iits  wiiich  have  niouldt'il  liiunaii 
destiny  and  sliaped  tht;  world's  iiroH;ress,  altiiowffh  lonj^  ol)seure  and  undcr- 
vahied,  has  met  in  our  time  full  recoj^nition.  Within  a  decade  the  influence 
of  sea  power  upon  history  has  ix-eome  th(^  fre(pient  theme  of  historians  and 
essayists  who,  in  (dear  and  striking  form,  have  shown  the  cardinal  importance, 
hoth  in  war  and  commerce,  of  th(^  Heet  —  the  nation's  right  arm  on  the  sea. 
It  is  fitting,  therefore,  that  in  the  retrospect  of  a  hundred  years  navies 
should  have  their  ])lace;  tliat,  in  looking  backward  with  history's  nnoloudcd 
vision,  we  should  mark,  not  only  their  growth  and  change,  but,  as  well,  their 
achievement  in  some  of  the  most  nu'morahle  contiicts  of  our  race. 

The  century  had  but  begun  when,  at  (Jopenhagen,  Nelson,  with  one  titanic 
blow,  shattered  the  naval  strength  of  Denmark  aiul  th(!  coalition  ni  the 
Northern  powers.  His  signal  there,  ever  for  "closer  battle,"  told  in  few 
words  the  life  story  of  the  Great  Admiral,  and  foreshadowed  his  end.  Four 
years  later,  at  Trafalgar,  the  desire  of  his  eager  heart  was  satisfied,  when  he 
met  in  frank  fight  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain.  Amid  tlm  thundering 
cannonade  of  that  last  victory  liis  life-tide  ebbed,  bearing  with  it  the  jiower 
of  France  upon  the  seas  and  the  broken  fortunes  of  Napoleon,  in  the  war 
of  1<S11',  our  disasters  upon  the  land  met  compensation  in  victory  afloat.  The 
I'liited  States  was  then  among  the  feeblest  of  maritime  powers;  ami  yet  ^lac- 
(liinongh  and  I'erry  on  the  lakes  and  our  few  frigates  on  the  ocean  opposed, 
with  success,  the  swarming  s(piadrf)ns  of  a  nation  whose  naval  glory,  as 
Hallam  says,  can  be  traced  onward  '-in  a  continuous  track  of  light  "'from  the 
days  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  oppression  of  the  Sultan  was  ended  fur 
a  time  when,  in  ISlT,  the  Turkish  and  Fgyjitian  fleets  were  annihilattMl.  in 
sudden  fury,  by  the  allied  squadrons  in  that  brief  engagement  which  Welling- 
ton termed  the  "  untoward  event  "  of  Navarino. 

A  generation  later,  the  command  of  the  sea  enabled  England  and  France 
to  (U'spatch,  in  unarmed  transports.  <;.'>,(»<>(»  men  and  llJS  guns  to  the  Crimea, 
and  to  land  them,  without  opjiosition,  for  the  red  carnage  of  tlit;  Alma.  l>ala- 
klava,  Inkerman,  and  Sebastojiol.  Following  ch)sely  ujion  the  disease  and 
death,  the  fatuity  and  the  glory,  of  the  Crimea,  canu'  the  great  war  of  modern 
times,  in  which  the  gun  afloat  played  such  a  gallant  i)art,  as  the  blockade, 
with  its  constricting  coils,  slowly  starved  and  strangled  the  Confederacy  to 
death,  and  Farragut,  on  inland  waters,  sjdit  it  in  twain.  Passing  over  the  sea- 
fights  of  Lissa,  —  in  which  imperial  Venice  was  the  stake,  —  of  South  Anu-rica 
and  the  Valu,  we  note,  lastly,  the  swift  and  fateful  actions  off  Santiago  and 
in  Manila  liay,  which  destroyed  once  again  the  sea  power  of  Spain,  won  dis- 
tant territory  for  the  United  States,  and  ojiened  uj)  for  us  a  noble  pathway 
of  commercial  ex[»ansion  to  the  uttermost  island  of  the  broad  I'acific  and  the 


66 


TIUUMI'IIS   AS  I)    WOMjKRS    OF   THE   A/A'"    C/iAVr/.'l' 


viist  Asi;iii  littoriil  lu'Vuml.  \\\n)  will  sny.  in  tlu>  ret  rdspcct  of  the  (•ciitiirv, 
tliiit  the  Hi'i'ts  (it  the  world  liavf  not  hatl  tlirir  lull  >liiiio  in  tin-  niiiUin;^-  oi  its 
history  ".' 

II.         Illi;     iKNIIUV's      (■IJOWIIF      IN      N\\\l.     SlJIKN  ( .Til. 

'riic  rnitcd  Statfs  llccl.  in  the  year  |S(MI.  roiii|iiisf(l  .""i  vessels.  Id  ol'  wliirh 
were  iiii^ates  inonntiny;  .'5-  unns  or  more,  in  JSlL".  Auieiici  cntcrctl  the  lists 
against  a  navy  of  a  thousand  sail,  with  a  tieetol'  imt  L'<»  ^hips.  the  largest  of 
which  was  a  il-i,Mni  fri.^ate.  The  ojierations  of  the(.'ivil  War  were  begun  with 
but  SI.' ve>sels.  ISof  which  were  sailing  craft.     Ueloic  the  close  of  that  gigantic 


;    ■! 


VL 


AN    Ar(il>r    MOIfNINii    Willi    l'AI!l!Ali|-r. 

iliiittli'  of  MMk-  liay.i 

struggle  tlvro  were  added,  by  eoiistruetion  or  jiurchase,  (>74  stpfimers.  In 
ISitS.  during  the  war  with  Spain,  there  were  borne  on  the  Naval  Register,  as 
building  or  in  service,  lo  battleships  and  I7(i  other  vessels,  including  torpedo 
eraft.  with  IL'.'!  converted  nierchantnien.  The  total  naval  hirce  during  hostil- 
ities was  L'L'.S.'SL'  men  and  L'.'tSL'  otticers.  excluding  the  Marine  Corps. 

.Vt  liondon.  in  ICm."..  there  was  printed  "A  J.ist  of  the  Connnonwealth  of 
Knglaiul's  Navy  at  Sea.  in  their  ('Xpedition  in  ]May,  Km.'!,  under  the  coninumd 
of  the  Ikight  Honorable  Tolonel  Kichard  Deani!  and  Colonel  <!eorge  Alonk, 
ICs(piires.  (renerals.  and  Admirals."'  This  (juaint  record  (d'  that  early  time 
gives  the  force  atioat  as  1(),"»  shipN.  .'!S40  guns,  and  Ki.UC)'.)  men.  In  IJritain's 
strife  for  that  ocean  emjiire.  which  is  world  enijiire,  that  fleet  had  grown,  by 
the  year  ISOO,  to  ~.'>7  vessels,  built  or  building,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
<;l".>.L'11.  and  carrying  L'(i..'i.")L'  guns,  ."M;").'}  otticers,  and  llO.OOO  nu>n.  The 
stately  three-decker,  with  its  snowy  canvas  and  nui/.e  of  rigging,  has  vanished 
with  the  past;  but,  desjiite  time  and  change,  that  mighty  Hcet  still  dominates 


lililTI>ll    r.ATTI.KMIir    MA.IKsTIf. 


K1!KN(  II    r.ATTI.EPniP   MAOKNTA. 


m 


'MM 


ttm 


:!ii 


k 


r,H 


TUIUMI'llS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTUHY 


I    I' 


tlic  si'iis.     Its  Ntri'iigtli,  oil  Keliniiirv  1.  ISOS,  wiis  (il."»  v»'shc1h  —  (»1  of  wliifli 
were  liiittlt'sliips,  —  ciiiryiii.u:  it  lotiil  toirc  of   llO.oriO  otliccrs  ainl  iiicii. 

Collicrt,  wliL'U  tlif  (iriiiid  .Moiiiiirli  wiis  at  tin-  /ciiitli  of  lii.s  ikiwit,  i'oiiiul 
Kniiu'c  with  a  lew  old  and  rotti'ii  vessels,  and  lelt  her  with  u  noble  Heet  ot  lo 
sliijts  of  the  line  and  (10  frif,'ates,  wliieli.  under  D'Kstrt'e.  ilean  l>art.  Tour- 
ville,  and  I)u<|Uesne,  carried  her  tla^;  to  everv  sea.  X  state  paiier  of  the  time 
gives  the  foree  at  tlie  beginninK  of  this  eeiituiT  as  til  shijis  of  the  line.  11' 
corvettes,  and  a  numerous,  althou^di  nnim|portant.  flotilla  <if  small  eraft.  With 
Aboukir  and  Trafalj^ar.  the  maritinn'  power  of  France  wasted  away;  and.  by 
the  year  IS.'iit,  there  were  atloat  i)ut  three  effective  sail  of  the  line,     in  IH-IO, 


'!^?i*"'.jCS»r..-'  'JT 


-"•^      ■■■"■  ,_     JgQe-- —  . 


^fer^- 


■mwmmme^' 


'tiir  Til"    lilt 


oKinrw  hatti.i'.shii'  wokutu. 


liowever,  the  revival  be,<fan,  and  (hirini^-  the  modern  ei'a  the  French  fleet  has, 
at  times,  been  a  formiddde  rival  of  that  of  En.t,dand.  Jt  com|)Hsed,  in  J8'.»S, 
'1  K;  vessels,  including  torpe(U)  craft.  L'(i  of  the  total  being  battleshijis.  The 
force  afloat  nundiered  70.'.>-r>,  ot  all  raidvs  and  ratings. 

(iermany's  navy  is  of  modern  creation.  It.  began,  a  little  less  than  half  a 
century  ago,  with  one  sailing  corvette  and  two  gunboats;  :md  '••  '^'.>J!l.  c-xni- 
]irised  1.'!  battleships  and  \'\)  other  vessels  of  all  typ(  »'ari_\iiii^  J.'!.:;(IL' 
othcers  and  inen.  The  fleet  of  united  Italy  had  it  '■  •  ,iji.  ahso,  within  the 
age  of  steam.     It  was  on  JNlarch  17,  IStJO,  that  national  li'     began 

with  the  ascension  of  the  throne  by  Victor  Emnui  i.  From  the  U  winning, 
the  kingdom  has  been  lavish  with  its  fleet,  its  exp*  iniitiire  v\  ithiu  the  tirst 
six  years  reaching  $(;(».0(l(».()(i(».  In  l.Sl>.S  there  were  in  tin  It.iliaii  navy  L'();"> 
vessels  of  all  ty])es.  17  of  which  were  battleships.  The  force  afloat  w;is 
l.'4,L'(K),  of  all  ranks  and  ratings. 


Till-:  cKsrunvs  ami  ia  j'iiOf,i{/:ss 


m 


riic  ('rimt'iiii  war  IuhikI  iJussia  Imt  liltlc  uilviiiici'd,  cither  on  llu'  lilack 
..;i  (ir  till'  liiillir,  ill  tin-  .siil)stitiiti()ii  of  stcaiii  lor  sail.    Siiict-  that  tiiiir.  linw- 

.  r.  slit'   has   rc-rrratcil   licf   liattlc  Hcct,  which   is  imw  csjicciuUy  stmic.,'  in 

r|iC(hi  cral't  and  cruisers  of  >,'rcat  steaiiiiiij,'  fadiiis.  llcr  navy,  in  1S'.)S,  coiii- 
, iscd  -'•  liatth'sliips  and  L'tJ."!  (itlier  vessels,  with  a  I'oree  of  .'>LM77  i)fticeis  and 

,11.  .lapaii  l)eH:an  her  Heet  in  lS(Wi  with  the  piirchase  of  an  armor-clad  troni 
le  I'nitcd  States.  In  1S'.»8.  she  had  a  total  oi'  14')  vessels,  Imilt  and  Imild- 
•,,_r  —  Sol'  wliicii  were    battleships  —  earrviiiLf  L'.'>.(«l(i  men  of  all   ranks  and 

llill>,'S. 

( tjuiinor  navies  little  need  he  said,     .\ustiia   had.  inlHOS.  n   Hoet  id   11," 


riAl.lAN    liAl  ri.KSIlII'    SAIM>i;<iNA. 


vessels  of  all  types.  iiichidinLr  1>>  battleships  ami  7'.>  torpedo  craft.  Holland's 
hiive  was  IS')  vessels.  .'!  lieiii;^'  liattleshi[)s  and  0.">  torpedo  craft.  The  th'ets  (d 
'I'lnkey.  (ireece.  Spain,  and    I'ortuj^al  are  ••  paper-navio  "  mainly.     Norway 


and  Sweden  have  aconiliiiied  stren<'th  <d'  171  v 


csseis  o 


ail  typ 


Denmarl 


which  betian  the  century  with  ovcrwliclmiii;.;'  naval  disastei'  at  Copenlue^cn. 
lias  now  a  force  cd'  .'{(too  nien  borne  on  ."»(>  vessels,  half  of  which  arc  torpedo 
criilt.  Ar-,'entina.  l!ra/il.  and  Chili  have  atloat  lOL'  torpedo  vessels  anil  4'.l  td' 
other  types.  The  vast  growth  in  naval  armaments  dnriiij;- lln'  centiiry  may  be 
measured  from  the   fact   that  the  personnel  of  the  leading-  navies  of  Kiirope. 


th 


IS'.KS. 


with   those  of  .lapan  and  the  L'nited   States,  comprised,   m  tlie  year 
.'iiiS.liL'S   officers   and  men,   with   a   total  force  id'  L'74',>  vessels  of  all   types, 
inchiding  torjiedo  craft. 


m 


(j(» 


TiuuMrus  AM)  \vo.\i>i:ns  of  riii-:  \i\"'  cestuhy 


III.      iiii;   iJATi  i.Ksiiii-.  —  I'Asr   AM»    i'i!i:sK\  r. 

Ill  t.ai-iiiLC  till'  t'vtiliitiini  <it  tin'  iikmIc'ii  iii:ni-(ir-\viir.  il  will  lie  iiistnictivc  ti> 
roiiipari' w  illi  her  the  type  of  tlic  sailint;- ai^c.  'I'licic  arc  twd  ships  ol'  the  (ilil 
tiiiii' which  hdld  chid'  places  in  the  iiiciiiorv  of  the  AiiLihp-Saxoii    race.  —  the 

Vict 


(ifV, 


Ncl: 


(III  s  riaus 


H; 


lip  at  'I'l- 


ilal'''ar.  ami  the  CniistitiituMi.  wlmse  achii'\c 


incuts    mull 


r  Hull,  liaiuiniiluc  ami  Stcwai't.  raiiir  ainiiml  the  wmhl.     T 


lerc 


\V( 


re.  even  hct'nie  the  ila\s  n|'  steam,  war-vessels  twice  as  lars^e  ami    puweiiul 


as   "Mid  Inuisiiles."  Imt  i)\cr 


111  sea.  Ill  any  aije.  has  thei-"  sailed  a  ship  w  ith 


Uinre   Liallaiil    lecdiil.      I'late  1  shows  her  as  she  was  in  1 


I  lie  wiml.  w 


ith  all  sail  set.     On   I'latc    i!    ilci 


cr  priim 


'  —  hell 


e    IS    yiveli    a 


^ille  view  III'    her 


XKI.SDN  S    KI.AlisIIlI'    Vl(   lOKV. 


hull,  which  is  of  historic  interest,  in  that  it  is  repruiluced   I'roni  tlu'  orii^iiial 
ilraw  iiiu' made  in  (»ctulier.  17'.i('». 

When  her  power  and  diiiieiisinns  are  c(iiii])ared  with  those  ol'  the  Mre^^nn. 
iiiir  sea-ti!j;liter  of  to-day.  one  sees  what  tiiin'  lia.s  \vroui,dit.  'I'iie  t'ri:-rate  car- 
ried   loC)  men.  the  armor-clad.  .■>••<> :  and  yet,  with   this  approximately  eipial 


the    ( »rei,'oii   has  a    dis)ilaceiiieiit  <i.\   tii 


tori 

cessor;  ami  altliou^li  tiie  iiiiiiitier  i 


that  of   her   famed    [ 


ireiic 


if  the  1,'iius —  II  —  is  tl 


e  same  in  eaeii.  she 


disci 


lai'^es    a 


hroad 


side 


S.;i   tiini's    heavier  ami    in    euer'.,'v    ovcrwlieliiiiu'.,dv 


superior.  'I'lie  speed  of  the  liattleship  is  one  half  !,'reatcr  than  that  of  the 
Cniistitution.  and  she  carries  armor  varyiiii,'  from  IS  inches  to  I  inches  .hick, 
which  the  fri,i,'ate  wholly  lackcil.  The  lon|.,dtudinal  section  of  the  Oregon 
indicates  the  immense  advance  in  other  directions.  Her  hull  is,  for  safety, 
minutely  subdivided,  and  is  |»n)vi(k'd  with   engines   for  propulsion,  sttcriiij,'. 


ivc  to 

lif  old 
—  tlh- 
liif\f- 
Tliciv 
Vl'llul 

I  witli 
l)('t'uri' 
.f   luT 


m 


i.i;iiiiil 


(•  cir- 
('(|nMl 
ircdi'- 
1.  slic 
iiiii;ly 
.f  111.' 
.l.ick. 
i'cy:(ili 
ii'"ty. 
•rill''. 


62 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


liglitiiiy,  drainage,  ami  ventilation,  numbering  in  all  <S4,  with  miles  of  piping 
and  Imndreds  of  valves.  The  time-honored  frigate  was  bnt  a  sail-propelled 
gnn-platftn-m,  whose  wants  were  as  few  as  her  construction  was  simi)le;  the 
steel-chid  battleship  is  a  mass  of  mechanism,  a  floating  machine-plant,  Avhich 
lor  full  etticriency  must  l)e  manned  by  a  personnel  not  only  brave  and  daring 
as  of  old,  but  expert  in  many  arts  and  sciences,  which  in  the  age  of  sail  were 
but  rudimentary  or  unknown. 


IV.       TIIK    I'KO(iUKSS     OK     NAVAL    KX<JINKKKIX«}. 

"' I  have  Just  rend  the  jtrojrrt  of  Cifivi'ii.  Fuitoii,  Juii/ineet;  which  you  hare 
sinf  nil'  niid'htoo  btti;  siwT  it  is  dih'  irhii'h  mn  i/  I'hantje  the  fitve  of  the  irorld.^' 

So,  in  the  beginning  of  the  (ientury,  wrote  the  tirst  Napoleon  from  his 
Imperial  cam])  at  IJoulogue.  Wrapped  in  his  <lay-dream  of  a  descent  upon 
the  Thames,  he  saw,  with  prophetic  vision,  in  the  jdans  of  the  American 
engineer,  the  future  of  navigation,  and  he  strove  to  grasp  —  but  too  late  — 
the  opportunity  which  might  have  m.ade  his  armada  viotorifms  over  wind  and 
tide. 

His  words,  however,  rang  truer  than  he  knew.  On  the  sea,  as  on  the  land, 
tlie  engineer  has  indeed  "changed  the  face  of  the  world;"  and  in  no  depart- 
ment of  human  jtrogress  has  his  iuHuence  been  more  radical  or  more  far- 
reaching  than  in  the  mechanism,  the  scope,  and  the  strategy  of  naval  war. 
Fleets  move  now  with  a  swiftness  and  surety  unthought  of  in  the  days  of 
saih  Over  the  same  western  ocean  which  Nelson,  in  his  eager  chase  of  Ville- 
neuve,  crossed  at  but  four  knots  an  hour,  the  United  States  cruiser  Columbia 
swept,  ninety  years  later,  at  a  speed  nearly  four  and  three  cpiarters  times  that 
of  his  lagging  craft.  When,  in  ISUS,  war  came,  the  great  battleship  Oregon, 
although  far  to  the  northward  on  our  western  coast,  was  needed  in  the  distant 
battle-line  off  the  Cuban  .shore.  In  7'.)  days  she  .steamed  14,">(M)  miles,  mak- 
ing a  run  which  is  without  parallel  or  approach  by  any  warshii)  of  any  navy 
in  the  world's  history.  The  magniticent  maidiood,  tiie  uncompierable  pluck, 
the  engineering  skill,  which  lirought  her  just  in  time  oft"  Santiago,  won  their 
reward  when  the  Colon  struck  her  Hug.  Speed  has  been  a  determining  factor 
in  many  a  naval  action.  It  was  that  which  gave  the  power  to  take  and  hold 
the  nld-time  "weather-gauge."'  None  knew  its  value  better  than  Nelson,  the 
chief  tighter  of  the  age  of  sail.  Once  he  said  that  there  would  be  found, 
stamped  upon  his  heart,  "the  want  of  frigates,"  the  swift  and  nimble  "eyes 
of  the  Heet "  in  his  day.  if  his  career  in  warfare  on  tin;  sea  had  been  a  cen- 
tury later,  he  would  be  found  forenutst  among  the  advocates  of  high-speed 
battleships  and  ipiick-tiring  guns. 

It  is.  however,  not  only  in  the  speed  of  warships  that  steam  and  mechanism 
have  revolutionized  fleets.  For  exam]>le,  the  displacement  <if  the  battleship 
nf  to-day  is  fully  tliree  and  one  half  times  greater  than  that  of  her  heaviest 
auci'stnr  of  the  sailing  age.  With  due  limitation  as  to  length  of  hull.it  is 
evident  that  the  wind  would  lie,  at  best,  a  wholly  inadetpiate  and  untrust- 
worthy motor  for  this  huge  structure  with  its  great  weight  of  armor.  It  is 
true  that,  during  the  era  (d'  transition,  sail  and  steam  were  both  apjdied  to 
iron-clails — this  absurdity  reaching  its  climax  in  the  Uritish  Agincotirt  and 
iier  sisters,  which  were  KM)  feet  long,  l(>,<i(»()  tons'  dis]>lacement.  and  were 
titted  with  Hve  masts.     It  is  said  that  a  merchant  steamer  narrowly  escaped 


URY 

i  of  pii)ing 
il-proiielled 
limple;  the 
laiit,  which 
and  daring 
f  sail  were 


\  you  have 
e  woiid,'" 
L  from  his 
icent  npoii 
American 
boo  late  — 
.'  wind  and 

II  the  land, 
no  depart- 
more  far- 
laval  war. 
lie  da^-s  of 
ie  of  Ville- 
Columbia 
times  tliat 
p  <  >regon, 
he  distant 
ile.s,  mak- 
any  navy 
jle  pluck, 
ivon   their 
ing  factor 
and  hold 
elson,  the 
l)e  found, 
)le  "  eyes 
•en  a  cen- 
igh-speed 

echanisni 
)attlesliip 

lienviest 
lull,  it   is 

untnist- 
[)r.  It  is 
|iplied  to 
•onrt  and 
md  were 
■  escaped 


£; 


I 


z     a 


>     .y 


J 


64 


trilmi'Hs  axd  woyDJjjfs  or  tuk  xj\"'  clshuy 


111 


I ' 

i 

lll'i 


cnllisiou  ;it  iiJLclit  witli  (lilt' of  tlicsf  v«'sst'ls.  l(fl  if  villi,'  Iniin  lit-r  li-ii;,'tli  and 
rii;;4iii.L;' tluit  tluTc  WfiT  tirit  slii|is  jilifiid,  iK'twccii  wliidi  she  could  jms^.  Wliiil 
tlii'st'  iar,i,'t.' dis|plafciii(iits  iiifaii.  in  cdiitrast  with  those  (d'  past  days,  will  lie. 
prrhaps,  Ix'st  ilhistralrd  li\  the  stati'iiiciit  tiiat  the  Italia  of  l,".(!(t()  tt)iis  — 
a  siii|)  with  wliitdi.  in  hn- d;iy.  Italy  (•liall<'iii,'cd  tin-  I'liticisiu  (d'  the  world  — 
caii'ics  oil  her  dcrk  a  wcij^lit.  in  ainior  :nid  ariiiamt'iit,  (d  L'."»(M>  tons,  or  out- 
fouitli  iiiori'  than  tliiit  ot   N(dsou"s  tlaLtsliip  N'ictoi-y. 

A,yain.  the  la i-,i,'i'st  naval  ,i,Miii  in  the  ymr  iSOd  was  one  tiring;  Init  a  iL'-iioiind 
shot,  while  in  the  I'nited  States  navy  we  li;i\e  now  the  I.'i-inidi  ritle  (d  do 
tons,  with  a  inojeetile  of  1  l(»(l  pounds,  and  (ireiit  Uritain  has  afloat  INOO- 
pounder  lireecdidoadeis  wliiidi  wei^h  1 1 1  tons.  I'xd'ore  monster  oidnanee  smdi 
as  this,  the  strength  of  man.  nnaided.  is  hat  crude  and  futile.  He  must  call  to 
liis  lud|>  —  as  he  has  iloiie  —  steam  as  the  soiiice  id'  power  for  the  tdectric. 
hydraulic,  or  pneumatic  eiit,Miies.  whi(di  load,  (devate.  and  train  the,tfun. 

In  summiii,i,Mip  the  service  (d'  steam,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  ship-id- 
war.  it  will  he  seen  that  the  speed  of  the  hattleship  has  lieeii  increased  hy 
fully  .">(>  |ier  cent.,  and  that  of  the  cruiser  has  liecn  douhled  ;  that  the  dis- 
jdacement  (d'  the  liattleshiii  is  now  three  and  one  jialf  times  that  (d'  her  sail- 
ing,' i>redecessor  ;•  and  that,  since  the  century's  hirth.  the  <fiin  has  i,Mdwn  to 
su(di  extent  that  the  jtrojoctiU'  for  the  Oregon's  main  iiattery  weighs  L'd  times 
that  of  the  heaviest  shot  in  the  year  lS(t(»,  This,  however,  is  not  all.  Steam 
acts  ])rimarily,  as  widl.  to  raise  the  amdior.  to  steer  the  ship,  and  to  effect  her 
lighting,  heating,  drainage,  and  ventilation.  To  the  genius  of  .lames  Watt 
there  must  he  a>criiied  the  possiliility  for  the  growth  and  change  whi(di  have 
jModiiced  the  modem  man-of-war. 

Clo.stdy  allied  w  ith  ineidianism  in  this  evolution,  has  heeii  the  tr.msformation 
of  the  structural  material  of  the  hull,  whicdi  has  passed  from  the  hands  of 
the  shi; Wright  in  wood  to  the  engineer  who  works  with  steel.  Tlie  reasons 
for  this  are  not  far  to  seidi.  They  lie.  iirstly.  in  the  greater  strength  of 
the  metal  construction  to  withstand  the  vihration  of  swift  and  heavy  ma- 
(diinery.  and  the  strains  arising  from  the  unecpial  distrihutiou  of  nia>sive 
weights  in  a  hull  which  pitidies  or  r(dl>  with  the  waves.  With  wootU'ii  ships, 
the  jiresent  proportions  would  liave  lieeii  iinattainahle.  Again,  there  is  a 
marked  saving  in  the  wtdght  of  the  hull  proper  (d'  the  steel  vessel.  whi(di  is 
not  only  stronger  hut  lighter.  This  weight  in  the  ihiys  (d'  timher  averaged 
fully  one  half  of  the  displacement  ;  while  in  the  Oregon,  whose  tonmige.  at 
normal  draught,  is  in.'JSS.  the  hull  percentage  is  41. (M».  leaving  a  gain  over 
the  wooden  vessel  ol'  (111  tons  to  he  apjdii'd  to  armor,  armament,  or  eipii|i- 
meiit.  I'"inally.  the  diirahility  <d'  the  metal  vessid.  with  adeipiate  care,  greatly 
exceeds  that  cd'  the  woodeu  war  sfciuuer.  whose  average  life  was  hut  1.'!  years. 

The  creation  of  the  steam  niaidiiiiery  id'  navies  has  lieeii  the  aidiieve- 
nieiil  (d'  the  engineers  of  practically  hut  three  great  nations.  The  daring  (d 
l'"rauee.  the  inventi\-e  gi'iiius  (d'  America,  and  the  wide  experience  iind  sound 
judgment  of  (ireat  Itritaiii,  have  united  in  this  work,  (hir  country  has  led 
time  and  again  in  the  march  cd'  improvement;  although  our  jirogress  lias 
been  litfiil.  since,  imu'c  than  a  generation  ago.  we  turned  from  the  sea  to  the 
(levtdopment  cd'  the  internal  re.sourcos  td'  this  continent,  lamit*!  of  space  per- 
mit hut  hritd'  roviewdf  a  history  wliicdi  has  had  its  full  share  of  triumphs, 
not  only  in  battle,  hut  over  wave  and  wind. 


11   1 


anil 


Ills  ■ 


)r  oin' 


]IIIUI1U 

ot   CO 
ISOU- 

(•  SlK'll 
cull  tn 

t'l'tric. 


liji-nl'- 

I'.l  by 
ic  (lis- 


iT  sal 


iWll     til 

■>  tiiut's 

StlMIU 

ect  luT 
s  Watt 


liavf 


latinli 

nils  (if 

■caMilis 

h    ni 

i_v  nia- 

a>siv(' 

sliiiis. 

is  a 

llrll   is 

'ra;4t'il 

ii,'('.  at 

1   (ivrr 

liiip- 

rcally 

yravs. 

licvi'- 

":-J  "I 
siMiinl 


s  lias 
In  tin' 
li'  iit'i- 


ipl 


linns. 


Nil  J, 

''Mil 
m 


'\ 


,M 


■•'*! 


;r 


II     ;|! 


I>^      !l 


^f      *!■ 


!»!!• 


66 


rnn'Mi'iis  asd  \v<)Si>i:i:s  of  tiii-:  xix>'>  vestury 


A  coiitfiiiiiorarv  authority  states  that,  whi-ii  I'.ritish  A(hiiiral  Sir  .Fdlm 
r.dilnsc  Warrt'ii  ascfiidcil  tlic  rotnmac  IviviT,  (hiriiij,'  tlu'  war  of  ISlL',  liis 
fX|ic(litioii  was  rt'coiiiioitrt'il  by  an  Anifricaii  steaiiifr.  Tliis  appears  to  be 
till'  tirst  rci'onl  d  the  use  of  siieli  cnift  for  military  iJiirposes.  In  1.S14  the 
I'liitiMl  States  built  the  lirst;  steam  war-vessel  in  the  world's  history.  She 
was  called  the  I  »emolo.u;os.  later  the  l''ulton,  and  her  eompletion  marked  truly, 
as  her  eommissiouers  said.  ••  an  era  in  warfare  ami  the  arts."'  She  was  w 
double-ended,  twin-hulleil  Hoating  battery  of  L'47~)  tons,  carryinj;  twenty  .'!!.'■ 
]idr.  .yuns,  jiroteeted  bv  \  ft.  lo  in.  of  solid  timber.  She  was  driven  by  a  sin- 
j,de  eentral  paddle-wheel;  her  speed  was  .").],  miles  i»er  hour;  and  she  was 
iioth  Iiandy  and  seaworthy,  i-'rance.  in  ISL'O.  sent  a  commission  to  America 
to  re])ort  upon  steam  vessels  of  war;  ami  in  ls;!(l  the  Kreiieh  had  nine  armed 
steann-rs  aHoat  and  nine  building.     In  l!S-l,  the  (Jumet.  a  small  side-wheeler, 


1 

k*l 

\ 

k 

f ' '        ' ' 

•••••    ".  o 

■a 

'\ 

'•^      ... 

:;^;w^' 

^^ 

ACTION     l!i;rWi:KN    MoNIToII    AM)    MKI!liIMA(  . 

was  commissioned  as  the  tirst  steam  war-shi])  in  the   Uritish  navy,  ami  in 
1S4<».  ;it  the  bombardment  of  Acre,  steam  vessels  fo\ii,dit  their  tirst  battle. 

The  growth  of  steam  in  navies  liad  been  retarded  by  its  application  .solely 
to  p.'iddle  craft.  Avliose  wheels  and  machinery  were  inca]iable  of  protection  in 
action.  I  hiring  tlie  years  lSlL'-4."!.  however,  the  United  Stjites  built  the  sloop- 
of-wav  Princeton,  of  '.>r»4  tons.  This  vessel  was  the  pro(Uict  of  the  genius  ol 
•Fohn  Ericsson,  the  ablest  nnirine  engineer  the  world  lias  ever  seen.  Shewa> 
the  lirst  screw-propelled  steam  warship  I'ver  built,  and,  in  other  resj)eets,  fore- 
.shadowed  the  advances  which  were  to  come.  Tims,  her  niaehiiiery  was  the 
tirst  to  be  jilaeed  wholly  below  the  water-line  beyond  the  reiicli  of  hostile 
shot;  her  engine  was  the  tirst  to  be  cou]>led  directly  to  the  screw  sluift,  and 
blowers,  for  forced  draft,  were  with  her  tirst  used  in  naval  practice.  Sin 
was  virtually  the  herald  of  the  modern  era. 

Tlie  rrinceton  was  followed  idosely  by  the  Uattler,  the  tirst  screwvessel 
of  the  I'lritish  fleet,  and  in  lNl.'!-44  the  French  44-gun  frigate  I'oiiKtne  wa- 
Htted  with  jiropellers.  In  1S4.">.  also,  the  Knglish  l'eiielo])e  was  the  tirst  man- 
of-war  to  be  e(pii|iped  with  tubular  boilers,  and  the  year  ISIa  was  notable  foi 
the  building  of  the  ill-fated  Jtirkenhead,  the  tirst  iron  vessel  of  the   IJritisli 


THE   CE\TiJiy\S   AMI  ML   PlUM^IiKSS 


tu 


ct.      111    1S."»(I.  wlu'ii  till'  I""rriicli   coiistnicttHl   tlu;  screw  liiu'-nf-liiittlc   slii|) 
,]Milf()ii.  tilt'  Kii,y;Iish  hccamo  alanin'il.  and  l)t'i,Mii  with  vi^or  tin-   iciiovatidii 
their  navy  with  re,i,'anl  to  serew  pioiiulsioii. 

I'laiiee.  ill  l.S.VI,  laid  the  keels  ol'  four  anuoreil  batteries,  three  ot  whieh. 
iiiiiit,'  the  first  iroiielatl  s(|iiailr()ii  in  Iiistorv,  went  into  aelitui  a  year  later 
..  r  the  I'orts  of  Kinhurn  in  the  Crimea,  ihey  were  nl'  HKKMons'  ilisjilaee- 
iir.  earried  4^  inch  armor  and  si.\t»'eii  (IS-pdr.  i^uiis.  and  hatl  a  speed  of 
r  knots.  In  iSdl,',  Kriessoii  lannehed  the  famous  .Monitor,  the  lirst  sea- 
Mu' ironclad  with  a  revohing  turret,  and  an  "en;,dneers'  ship"'  from  keel 
iirret  top. 
lie  Civil  War   found   us  with   a   sailing  iiavv.   and  left   ns   one  of  steam. 


THi;     TriMUXI.X. 

Passini:  over  its  victories,  in  which  steamers  ]ilayed  always  the  chief  ])art  on 
se;i  ;ind  river,  we  come  to  that  most  notable  triumith  of  Clii»'f  Knj,'ineer  Islier- 
uimkI.  the  cruiser  Wani])anoa,t,'  of  4l.'(M»  tons'  disiilaeement.  This  vessel, 
|iiiiiiomenal  in  her  day.  steamed  in  Fehruarv.  ISCtS.  from  iiarnei^'at  to  Savaii- 
iiiiii.  over  a  stormy  sea.  in  .'>S  hours.  Her  averaj,'e  was  l(».<i  knots  for  the  run. 
:iii<l  I"  knots  durinjja  period  of  six  consecutive  liours  —  a  speed  which  for  11 
yrars  thereafter  was  unapproatdied  liy  liner  or  hy  warship.  In  IST'.t,  the  Uritish 
despatch  vessel  Mercury,  of  .'»7.'!0  tons  and  1S..S7  knots,  wrested  the  palm  from 
.\iiierica;  but.  in  1S',>.'»,  it  was  won  a|,jaiii  for  the  United  States  by  the  triple- 
sciew  Hiers  Columbia  and  Minneapolis  of  7l7."»  tons,  with  speeds  n'spectively 
of  l.'l'.Sandl.'.'».07.'S  knots.  The  laurels  rest  now  with  the  Uueiios  Avres.  which. 


THE  ( "AW run  Y's  y. .  i  m  l  ph ooi:ess 


r.o 


,i„'li  built  ill  KiiL,'liin(l  in  is;*.").  Hies  tlic  Haj?  ol'  Arj,'»Mitiii;i.     Slic  Ims  a  ton- 

,.  ,,t    |.*.(i(>  and  a  s) 1  of  L'.'S.L'OL'  knots. 

"lie  Itritisli  inmclad  I'ailas.  coniiilt'trd  in  lS(;r>,  was  rcniarkaltle  for  havinj,' 

lirst  sui'icsst'nl  naval  cnjfint's  on  tiic  conipomid  iirincipk',  in  which  the 

,111  is  admitted  at  hiurh  pn'ssnn'  to  a  small  cvIindtT.  and  passes  thfiict'   to 

,ii_r,.r  one  whiidi  it  tills  liv  its  expansion.    To  (Ireat  Itritain  the  world  owes 

till'  dt'vt'lopmt'iit  (tf  triple  expansion,  i.  e..  the  use  id'  steam  siii'i-essively 

iiiee  cylinders.     This  system  was   inaiiiinrated   in   naval   enj,'ines   liy  tin* 

,i>ii.  in  ISSA-SfJ,  and  is  now  univer.sally  employed.     I'rior  to  1S71(.  the  lioii- 

,.t'  all  modern  war-vessels  had  been   those  of  the  Scotcdi   type,  in  wliich 

tiame  passes  thron,i,di  tidies  fixed  in  a  cylindrical   slndl   contaiidnLt  water. 

it  year,  however,  France  liei,'aii  a  revolution  in  the  steam   irenerators  of 

s  l»y  eipiippinj;  a  dispatidi-vessel  with  the  lUdleville  tulmlous  lioiler,  in 

tiic  water  to  lie  evaporated   is   contained  within   tidies  surrounded   Iiy 

contiiied  in  an  miter  casiie^'.    'I'lie  watci-tiilie  principle,  also,  bids  fair  to 


III 


.irli 


IM.ATK    IV.       KMiINK    OK 


S.    S      Kltn  SSON. 


lii'iiiiic  of  universal  application.  It  has  had  its  most  noteworthy  naval 
iii>t;illation  ill  the  I'.ritfsh  cruisers  Powerful  and  Ti  nilile.  of  1  I.L'do  tiiiisand 
L'.'i.SSil  luirsc-piiwcr,  completed  in  1S!».". 

The  use  of  more  than  one  .screw  for  propulsion  dates  back  to  lS."i,"..  l)iirin!,' 
mil  Civil  War  multiple  screws  ti;,Mirei!.  to  a  small  extent,  in  the  ••tin  dads" 
lUiii  larp'r  monitors.  The  ajiplication  of  twin  screws,  in  the  modern  era, 
Infills  with  the  liritisli  ironclad  I'eiieiope  of  iSCiS.  !•' ranee,  in  the  years  1SS4- 
s.">.  Ilia  zed  the  way  for  another  naval  ailvance  of  much  importance  in  conduct- 


ries  of  trials  with  tli 


auiicji  <  'iirpe.  ec|iiippcd  witli  t  riple  scic 


ver.  althouijli  of  niurii  \Mlue.  I'lom  cic'li 


leeniiLT  and  tactical  points 
-poWclcd  vessels  lllltil  the  ildvellt  of  the 


\wj.  a  M 

>\  ^tclll.  llOWl 

(it  \  icw.  was  not  adopted  in  lai!j;c 
i'lciich  armored  cruiser  Dupiiy  de  I.oiiie  in  IS'.IO.  mid  the  protected  cruisers 
('ipluiidiia  and  .Miiinea]iolis  of  the  rnited  States  navy  in  IS'.I."!.  It  has  now 
won  full  approval  in  tiie  navies  of  continental  Kuiope.  and  triple-screw  ships, 
av'iri'ciiatinj,'  .'((Ml.tKM)  tons,  are  tniilt  or  luiildiii;.,'  tiicie. 

The  limits  of  space  foriiid  more  than  a  passing;  note  of  the  triumphs  of  the 
ciiuMneer  in  torpedo  craft,  the  li|.;lit  cavalry  of  tlie  sea.  With  steamers  of  nor- 
iii;il  proportions,  the  speed  and  powei'  depend  laii^cly  ii]ion.  and  increase  with, 
till'  displaoenient.  .\s  lias  iieeii  stated,  the  maximum  performance  of  lar;j;e 
iTuisci's  is  now  1'.'!  knots  on  a  toniiai,'e  of  l.'iOtt,  These  particulars  .u'ive  a  faint 
•glimpse  of  the  extraordinary  problem  which  has  confronted  the  torpedo-boat 


ml 

m 


70 


TiUfMi'iis  A.\n  ivoMU'jns  or  the  XIX'"  ckntuhy 


« I 


<lt'si;^'iu'r  ill  ilriviii'^'  hulls  df.  ;it  |pi'i'sriit.  ;il)(iiit  l."i(l  tons  ;it  a  simmmI  w  liicli  ik 
ii]»i>rf>xiiii;it('s  tn 


»\v 


;iin|- 


With  the  Inilliiiiit  rccurd  nj'  sufccss  in  tiiis  tusk, 
liiiki'il  iilun\  s  tin-  niiHii's  nl  \  iiriow  :Miirrii(irii_vcrnlt  in  Kn^'liiml. 


'I"hi'  JirliicvcnuMit   hut 


tiicn;  w  il 

i)t  Si-iiii'iinu  ill  ( ii'i'iiiaiiy,  iiiiil  (if  Noi'iiKiiifl  in    I'i'iiih 

recently  nf  ;i  llritish  iiiventur,  the  Ilnn.  ('hiirles  .\l,i;i'riiiin  I'lirsmis,  in  .Ljiviiii; 

tlic 'riirhiniii  of    1 1..">  tuns  ;i  speed  ut'  over  .'M    knots,  lias  driiwn  the  attentimi 

of  eni,'iiieeis  the  world  over  to  tlie  |iossiliilities  of  the  steam  turbine  (Pii    thi' 

sea.    This  |ierforniaiiee  is  |iiienoiiienal  with  such  a  dis|)laeeineiit.    Tiie  P'reinh 

Korhan,  of  !.'!••  tons,  has  made  .'II. L'  knots,  and  a  reported  speeil   of  .'!."•   knot^ 


K'l 


ves  a 


Seiiiehaii  lioat  lier  tempoiarv  laurels  as  the  fastest  eraft  aHoat. 


.\  iiriid'  i^laiice  at  the  iniproveiiieiits  w  liiidi  have  made  j  nssihle  tiiese  extrenn' 
torpedo  craft  will   lie  of   interest.     'I"he  pro;^ress  which 


siicimLs  III  cruisers  am 


li;is  lieeii  made  has  been,  lirstly.  in  the  economy  in  the  use  of  steam  arisiiiLj 
fi'oiii  hi^^her  pressures  and  nniltiple  exjiansion  ;  secondly,  in  the  reiluctioii  of 
weii^ht,  per  horse  power,  due  to  increase  in  strein,'th  of  materials  and  in 
cn^iiu'-speed  with  the  emiiloynieiit  of  loi'ced  draft — w  hicdi  was  reintroduced 
by  Krance  —  and   the  water-tulie  lioiler;  and.    finally,  in  the  apjilication  of  a 


mo 


re  eflicieiit  propellin,;,'  instrument.    'I'ho  advances  of  half  a  century  in  \ 


iro- 


ludlinn-  machinery  are  shown,  in  some  respects,  by  I'lates  III  and  IV.  which 
contrast,  on  the  same  scale,  the  side-wliool  maohinery  of  the  I'nited  States 
war-steamer  Powhatan,  (d'  iS-l't,  with  the  eiiLrines  of  the  L'nited  States  tor- 
jiedo  boat    Kricssoii   of    to-day.     The  (hita  of  the  former  vessel   arc  :  horse- 


powe 


r.  n; 


<team  pressure  1.")  lbs.;   wpii^ht   of   macliinerv  per  Imrse 


lioWOI' 


971' lbs.;  while,  for  the  l'",ricsson.  the  ti,i,'ures  are:   horso-]iower,  tS(M»;  steam 
]iiessuie.  L'.ltt  lbs. ;   weight  (d'  maidiiiieiy  per  horse-power.  . "id  lbs.     This   com 


10  older  eiiuiiH' 


]i;irison.  however,  must  be  (pialilied  by  the  statement  that  til 
was  for  a  sti'amer  of  about  .'MCtd  tons,  while  the  toi'iicdo  Imat  is  but  IL'O  ton> 
in  displacement.  The  contrast  lies,  thereb ire,  only  in  the  reduced  weight  o| 
material  ]ier  horse-power  developed  and  in  tlu-  increased  steam  |iressure. 
which,  however,  are  in  themselves  most  strikiiiir.         * 


ih 


V.       TIIK    (iltoWTII    OK    oI!l>\A\(K. 

At  Trafalt^ar.  the  Victory  driftecl  bebire  the  wind  into  aotion.  Tn  her  slow 
advance,  at  a  speed  of  one  and  one  halt'  knots  through  but  1 '_'(•( I  y;irds.  she 
w;is  for  half  an  hour  under  the  proloni^ed  fire  of  !.'(•(»  irmis,  and  yet  she  (dosed, 
|ir;ictically  unhurt,  with  her  b)es.  and  liveil,  not  only  tu  win  the  day.  but  to 
brin.Lt  undyin;4  .Lfhuy  to  the  Kn<,disli  Ha,^.  What  a  contrast  the  latest  sea-ti,i,dit 
(if  the  century  presents  in  the  power  of  modern  ordnance  as  compared  with 
the  puny  ,y:uns  of  Nelson's  time  I  ( >ur  battleship  ( Jreyon.  at  a  rani:fe  of  nearly 
live  miles,  with  one  llOO-jiound  shell,  drove  the  Colon,  an  armored  eriiisor,  not 
only  shoreward,  but  to  surrender,  striindiui^.  iind  wreck. 

The  laru^est  naval  ijuns  in  the  year  INOO  were  the  Ioiil:  .'52  and  4L'-iiounders. 
smooth-bore  muz/le-loaders.  with  a  rauLfe  of  aiiuut  IL'(K)  yards,  (^irroiiades 
—  short  pieces  with  ;i  heavy  shot  but  limited  range  . —  found  favor  als(j. 
especially  with  llritish  sailors,  eaiier  bir  that  (dose-(piarter  li,L,ditin,i;  in  which 
the  ••Smasher'' — as  (ieneral  M(dville  called  his  carronade  —  would  be  most 
effective  in  shatteriiij:;'  timiiers  and  in  seiidin;^  (douds  of  splinters  anionj^  the 
foe.  The  projectiles  were  spherical  shot.  c;inister.  smd  grajie,  the  diabolical 
shri(d<  of  the  sladl  bein;4  vet  unheard.     Hoth  gun  and  shot  were  of  east  metal. 


iU     1 


i) 


■'■  i^!  ti 


I  rl-"* 


^»-^i 


flpyg 

^m 

■'^lilS 

'Mm 

lUlUMI'lls  AM)    WoSDEliS   oF  THE  MX'"  CEMUUY 


[  I 


«'■      '. 


and  till'  iiiiiiiiit  was  a  \v Icii  caniai^i'  on   low  trucks.     'I'ln'  tiainini,'.  <ir  Imri- 

zmilal  an;;!''  nl  the  ;,'iiii.  was  cttci^tfil  liy  rn|M'  tarklcs.  and  tin-  anidiiiit  nl  i-lc- 
vatiiin  (d'  its  imi/zli'  ilripfmlrd  u|miii  llic  |Misiiiiin  id'  a  "(iiiiiiii,"  (ir  wondcii 
Wt'dj,'!',  llinist  liciicatli  tlic  liiccrli.     'I'lir  rcroil  was  liiniti'd  liy  i'n|K'  ♦' lirmdi 

in},',"  passing  llii()iij;ii  tlif  cascalnd.  —  a  knoli  lidiind  tlir  I  mi Ii,  —  and  si'iMUfd 

to  rini,'  Imlts  in  tlu-  sidp's  side.  Tiic  \!,\\\\  was  liarni'ssi'd,  as  a  lioise  is.  in  tin- 
shafts. 

.VinuHi,'  was  !ai'},'rlv  a  iii'i'liini'tory  iiroci'ss.  sim-i'  tiir  ;,'un  liad  no  si.i,dits  and 
the  >hiit  had  I'sceNsivi-  ••  winda.y[i'."  its  raliliii'  lie  in,!;  Ironi  oni'  tilth  to  ont;  third 
inidi  h'ss  than  tiie  liure,  niakiu;;'  its  outwaid  passaLje  a  -  ries  ot  leiioiinds  and 
its  final  direetion  a  matter  of  ehanee.  ■•  Winilai,^'."  however,  was  essential  to 
faeilitate  nni//le-loadiii.i;  and  to  provide  for  the  expandeci  diameter  of  reddiot 
>hot.  It,  is  line  that  in  1S(»1  a  proposition  to  use  si},dits  was  made  to  Loiil 
NelMin.      lie,  howevei,  I'ejeeted  it  with  the  worils  :  — 

•'  I  hope  we  shall  lie  able,  as  usual,  to  yet  so  close  to  our  enemies  that  our 
shot  cannot  nuss  the  oliject." 

His  lilind  ciiura.!,'e  in  this  cost  his  eountr\  nn'U  dearly  when,  in  lSll.'-M.  their 
shot  Hew  wild,  while  their  ships  were  hulled  and  their  gallant  tars  fell  bcd'ore 
the  then  si},diteil  jfuns  id'  the  I'ldted  States. 

To  ii,'idte  the  charj,'!'  the  slow-mattdi  was  still  used,  as  is  shown  Ity  the 
sharp  words  id'  a  sailor  of  that  time.  Mailed  in  the  darkness  liy  a  liritisli 
shiji  and  ordered  to  send  a  hoat.  his  ipiiek  answer  was:  — 

••'I'his  is  the  I'ldted  States  fri|i,'ate  ( 'onstitutiou,  Kdward  I'lvble,  t'oinuKuloi'i  , 


oommanilin 


'^,  and  I  "11  lie  d — d  if  I  scud  a  lioat 


Then  to  his  men.  silent  and  ea,i,'er  liy  the  shrouded  battledantenis ; 
•'  l>low  vour  matches,  liovs  I  " 


.V  full  crew  for  a 


under  consisted  of  14  men.     An  old  rule  as  to  tlii.'- 


SOI 
th 


as  one  man  to  every  ."iOttdlis.  weij^ht  of  the  ^uu.  whiidi  would  .Ljive  the  <  he 
I  llOO  men  to  handle  the  four  l.'t-inch  riHes  of  her  uiaiu  liatterv,  or  m 


ore 


lau  twice   her  whole  crew.     Meain  ami  mechanism   li.ive  wron},dit  a   ma,y;ie 
cliani,'e  in  this. 

The  slow-match  remained  in  use  until  well  into  the  iiiiieteeuth  century. 
altliou;,di,  until  ISIL'.  the  Hint  lock  was  ,t,'eiicrally  employed  in  the  Uritish 
navy,  havin.i,'  re|ilai'ed  ihe  primiiiL--  horn  and  matclj  in  17S(l.  Jn  1S(I7  there 
was  discovered  a  composition  which  could  lie  ij^uited  by  friction  or  concussimi, 
and  in  l.S.'tWthe  freuc'i  had  adopted  the  percussion  lo(d\.  which  exploded  the 
cap  and  retracted,  iincoveriiii;  the  vent  ludore  the  liaidvward  r  ish  of  the  i,'as 
could  strike  it.  Later,  a  similar  composition  was  used  with  "  frii-tion-primers." 
or  tulies  Mlled  with  mealed  powder  and  capped  with  ctimiMisitioii.  the  tidie 
lormiu},'  a  train  leadinj,'  to  the  (diar!,'e.  and  the  compositii'u  lieiiitf  Hred  by  the 
friction  of  a  rmiijh  wire  drawn  briskly  through  it.  I'erciissiou  and  friction 
have  beiMi  in  turn  lari^ely  ilis|(laced  by  the  electric  primer,  which  consists 
essentially  of  a  Hue  wire,  or  ••  brids^'e."  passing  throuuli  a  liiuddy  iiiHammable 
mixture.  The  briib^e  offers  a  resistance  to  the  idectric  cuireut.  is  heated 
thereby,  ignites  the  composition,  and  Hres  the  i,niu. 


The  (dder  t\  ne  of  the  cast  iron  smooth-bort 


run 


for  solid  shot  reached  it^ 


liii 


ultimate  development  in  the  (iS-pounder.  whiidi  endured  until  the  advent  of 
armor.  In  iSll*  the  system  of  Hriui,'  shells  loaded  with  jjiinpowder  from 
smoothdiore  ;j;uns  was  sutfi^ested  bv  (ieiieral  I'aixhans.  of  l'ranc<'.    Iiil8L'4.  i- 


-V- 


^ 


\1 


3 


lf.,/:.,r,  ,arn,„rcr,0  POCCpJr  ,7in    9,//^    M^,   „   ,       . 


T/ie  Grcu;th  of  Crdnance 

I'l.ATK   V. 


J 


rp 


1 


'  I 


i  ^-  '! 


■ 
ill 


I      |l 


!  .i 


1  -! 


If 


74  TltllMPUS   AM)    WOXDEliS   or   THE   XI.\"   CEyTLUY 

\v;is  iiitr()(liic('(l  iiiUi  thf  Kri'iich  iiuvy.  and  uliimt  IMO  into  tliiit  ol  tin-  I'liitLHl 
St;iti's.  At  Siiidiif.  ill  lcS,"i.'».  tlif  t,('i'ril)lt'  ctTrrt  nt  >lifll  lire  iijinii  woiuleii  ^liips 
startled  tlif  world,  nlicii  a  Kussiaii  Hcrt  dcstroyt'd  alisolutcly  II  'riirki>li  vcs- 
st'ls.  with  tlifir  imrc  id'  llMX*  mumi.  Tin-  I'aixlians  ;,miii  was  niddilicd  and  its 
fdrin  iiMiin)V('(l  by  Admiral  Dahljjirfii.  l'.  S.  N,,and  in  the  lair  ."iM's  tin-  arnia- 
nii'nt  —  d('sit;nt'tl  liy  liini  —  <d'  I'nitt'd  Stairs  vt-sstds  was  siiiM'rinr  tn  that  id 
any  otlicv  in  the  wurld.  Tin- '.I.  I  Land  l.Vimdi  Dalils^rcns  rmincd  tlic  Imlk  id 
(inr,t,Mins  atlnat  duiinj,'  the  Civil  War,  tin-  rcniainder  htdni,'  alnmst  wholly  iilii'> 
(d'  tilt'  I 'a  not  t  typf. 

'I'lic  icsistancr  whiidi  s|)lifrii'al  iPi'oji'ctilcs  met  from  the  air.  thrir  deviation 
in  tliLclit.  owiuLi  t"  '1"'  treqnent  laek  ot  eoincidence  id'  the  centr.'s  of  j,navity 
and  torni.  tlnir  exeessive  ••  winda,L;e."  and  their  li,:4:ht  weitjht  relatividy  to  cali- 
lire.  led  to  the  ailo|ition  of  the  rifled  i^un  and  the  eylindrieal  ]>rojeetile.  The 
]irinei|ile  id  the  tormer  —  makiiij,'  the  shot  act  as  a  serewdiolt  and  the  Imre  a.- 
a  serew-tliread  —  is  very  old,  there  heinj;  at  \Voolwi(di  a  harrtd  id'  this  type 
hearing' date  id'  lol?  The  ohjeets  aimed  at  in  ritlinj;  are  to  <;ive  a  pointed 
eylindrieal  shot  rotation  on  its  axis  that  it  may  keep  steady  dnrin^  tlii^ht. 
and  secondly,  to  olitain  increased  wei;j;lit  in  the  projectile  fri'ni  it^  idonLjated 
form.  As  to  the  latter  consideration,  it  may  he  noted  that  the  old  .'tL'-iioiindrr 
smoothdtorc  \vas  id  Ci-iin  h  caldire,  whih-  the  rnded  States  (i-imdi  rdle  (jf 
to-day  thi'ows  a  shot  id  Intt  Ihs.  wci'^ht. 

!■' ranee,  durini;  the  Crinn'an  War.  lironLjht  out  the  lirst  heavy  litled  Lrnn. 
In  IS(iit-(>l,  ArmstroiiLr  rifles  were  introduced  in  the  I'.ritish  navy.  The  lalmr 
(d'  Krupp  met  such  >ncces>  that  at  Paris,  in  iNCiT.  he  exhihited  a  ritle  wei,i,diin:; 
r»0  tons  with  a  projectile  of  1(»S(»  pounds.  The  I'arrott  riHe  was  hroui^ht  out 
about  IS."»(>  in  the  Tnited  States,  ami  was  so  developed  that  in  ISdL'  it  was  the 
most  powerful  \s.\\\\.  b>r  its  \vi'i,i,'ht  and  si/e.  in  existence.  The  adoption  of 
ritliiij,'  was  the  lirst  j,'reat  step  on  ihe  road  which  engineeriiiu;  had  laid  toward 
tlu!  growth  in  ]iower  of  modern  ordnance. 

Havint;  thus  si-curcd  a  projei'tile  id'  great  weight  and  moderate  calibri' 
whiidi  would  bore  through  the  air  a  triu;  ]iath  to  the  distant  mark,  there 
remained  to  seek  but  four  chitd'  elements  in  the  magiuticent  advance  made 
within  a  generat  ion  by  the  naval  artillery  of  our  day.  Tliese  factors  were  : 
1st.  Increased  strength  in  the  material  id'  the  gun.  I'd.  .\  metliod  id  con- 
struidion  which  woi  "  .lot  oidy  permit  enormous  pressuies  in  the  ]iowiler- 
chandler.  b\it  would  make  possilile  the  continuous  acceleration  id'  the  projectile 
dui'ing  its  [tassage  thiongh  the  bore.  .'!d.  An  explosive  whiidi  would  satisly 
the  oi(jeet.s  of  the  method  of  construction:  and.  Ith.  \  system  of  loadiic^ 
which  would  enable  guns  of  great  length  to  be  (diarged  with  ease.  The 
nnninting  of  ordnance  of  any  wtdght.  its  coidrol,  and  its  rajiid  and  facile 
handling  were  !)nt  minor  matters  id'  engineering. 

In  a  paper  >ncli  as  this,  of  limited  le-igth  and  aihlressed  to '.lynieii.  it  i^ 
])ossible  to  give  but  a  glance  at  the  progress  in  Ihe  various  (d(Mnpnts  of  gun- 
construction  whicii  have  been  noted.  Of  material,  little  need  be  said.  Tin 
rifle  <d  Crimean  days  was  a  cast-iron  piece;  I'arrott  ordiuinco  was  of  cast  and 
wrimght  iron;  and  the  first  .\rmstrong  gun  was  built  (d'  wrought  iron  iind 
stetd.  Cast  ami  compound  materials,  however,  have  vanished  with  the  past 
Sfeol — hiinlened  iiml  ttnighened  to  the  last  degiee  by  every  rcfim'nn'nt  ol 
nuuuifaoture -- forms  the  ••reeking  tube"  for  the  "iron  shard  "id  the  ceh 
tury'.s  (doM-. 


rill-:  cESTniY's  xaval  I'noanKss 


75 


'I'lic  iiu'tlinil  <>t  (•(•iistnu'lidii  is  the  "  liiiilt-u]i "  pinci  >>.  .■<lin\\  n  liy  tlic  ]i;iiti;il 
■tioii  (III  I'latf  \'..  tlic  liaiTi'l  liriii;.^  I'fiiiturci'il  liy  tuln'>  wliidi  an'  slinmU  nn 
like  llu-  tilt'  ol'  a  \va,y;nii-\\  lirrl  —  sn  as  to  jnndut'i'  initial  cniiiiHcssiciu.    'I" lie 

^|pl(>sioii  ill  tin-  iiuwdrr  cliaiiilicr  strains  ami  i'\|>aii(l>  tciiiiMnarily  tin-  liaiifl. 
1(1  till'  a|i|>liiMti<in  of  tlic  sliriiika,^'*-  |ii'iiii'i|il<'  nialiics  a  |iiirtiiiii  ol  tli<' 
it'iij,'tli  of  tilt'  tiilifs  III  lit'  i'ni|ilii_Vfil   ill  lUfliiiiiHarv  inti-nial  iHi'ssiirf.     Tin' 

.iiii'l  tliiis  sU|i|itiitt'tl  fail  1)1'  straiiiiil  l>v  tlif  cliaii,'!'.  imt  nnly  to  its  duii  liiini 
'  I  sat'i'ty,  Imt  tn  an  atlilitimial  anitiiint  i'i|iial  to  tins  initial  t'(>ni|iri'^sinn.    'Ihr 

li-stit'l.  linilt-ii|)  i,Miii   lias  a  pDssiiilf  rival  in  w  iif-wnnml  I'liinaiifi'.  a  sysirni 

.  hifli  ii'iihifi's  tlif  tulirs.  til  a  ;4ii'alfr  ur  It'ss  fxtriit.  liy  laviTs  nl  s\  iif,  wnniiil 

.lull'  in  ti'iisioii  arininil  llif  liairrl. 

i'tiutli'r  is  till'  siial  nt  tlif  ;4Uii :  it  t  |•all^lll|  ins  tlif  liiiyf  iiiiTt  mass  int"  a 
.laiiiiii.i^  fiij,'iiif  iiT  il''atli.  Tlif  Lcn-at  df M'liiiiiiii-nl  nf  fNiilii>i\cs  iifi^an  imt  a 
,fin'i"ititiii  siiiff.  'I'lif  rfsfarclifs  ni  iinliin^  ami  iiuiiil<>i'<l  in  the  la>l  ii'iiinry. 
.iiiil  III'  II  lit  1 1  III  ill  till'  I  law  1 1  nf  this,  tnrnifcl  tlif  unrlii's  Uiiuu  Ifilj^'f  nl  I  lie  :^'nn'> 
Milfinal  hallistii-  until  tl  :  yi-ar  ls7o.  'I'd  tlif  L,'fnins  ..f  Nnlilf  ami  Alifj  i^ 
liiif  llif  stiniiiliis  tci  :,'fti\tli  siiiff  tlifii.  'i'lif  iMi\>(lri>  lia\f  kfpt  paff  witli 
^iin-ftiiistniflitiii  in  its  aihaiiff.  'i'lif  iiitTfasfil  >trfii;4tli  ni'  tlif  fliamlM  r  ha^ 
iiffii  iiift  liy  lifavitT  ami  sltiw-liiirniiiL;  fliar.^'fs  —  fncua,  Wniwii  |irisiiial  if.  ain! 
tiif  likf  —  wliifli  liavf  ,i,'ivfii  imt  tnily  tfrt-atfr  initi.il  vflocity.  Imt  a  fcintiiiiiiin> 

.irffli'ratitin    tliniU'^'li    Imi'fs    ulmsf    iiia\iiiiniii    Ifif^tli    lias   f\ ilrd    I7    Ifft. 

hidffil.  to  tlif  |iriMlnftiiiii  nl  tliis  lin^'frin^  I'liniliii^tinii  i>  diif  tlif  L:ifal  luifai 
1 11  llif  II  sii  III  and  |Mi\\  IT  III'  im  llif  I'll  ;.,miiis.  Init  lal  |ii'f>siii'f  liad  its  limit  :  ail\anf<' 
la\  nnly  in  tlif  snlisfi|Ufnl  afff  If  latimi  '^Mxt'ii  li\  lalf  iu'iiit  inn  nl  a  |pnriiiiii 
111  tlif  idiar^f. 

( iuii]pii\vtlf  r.  Iiowf  vf  r.  altf  r  a  if  i:;ii  nt  nmir  t  liaii  li\t'  liiimlifd  yt'ars.  ha  >  liff  n 
dftlirniifil.  'I'lif  ••  villaintiiis  saltpftif  "  n|  tiif  nmiik.  w  it  li  its  allifs.  fliaivnal 
and  siilpliiir.  if  Ms  miu  to  iiitro  fniii|pnnml>.  wliicli  pmduff  imt  nidy  tar 
U'li'atfr  fiifr,y:y.  1ml  art'  as  Wfll  siiiokflf>s,  'I'lif  sca-li^lit--  nl  nnr  wai  w  itii 
Spain  saw  tlif  last  fniitfiidini^  tiffts  to  lif  wra).|ifd  in  a  ilniid.  Iiif.,'friiiu  and 
lialHiiij;.  nf  llif  ir  nwn  inakiifj;.  <  'nidirf.  nin'  nf  ilif>c  fniii|MiiincN  in  ii-f  alnnacl. 
is  prfpai'ftl  ill  Itnii,'  ••  f  nrds  "  irnin  iii-iiit  lo-ffUiilnM'  and  nil  in-;.;lyffi  inf.  Th.' 
iifw  siiioki'lt  ss  ••  powdf r  ■  nf  llif  I'liili'd  Statfs  na\y  i>  niadf  tmni  nitm- 
iilliilosi!  tlissnhfd  in  ftlicr  alfnlml.  l''raiiff  wa^  tlif  lii-t  in  fiiipl"\in.; 
fXlilosivi's  siifli  as  tlifsf.  wliifli.  in   tlifir  nf|cnNi\-f  and   lai'tnal   advaiiliiui-^. 

'niin  'llif  nf  till'  si'.,'iial  triiiniplis  nf  tli ntui\'s  last  yfar>. 

Tlif  Iiiiil;  ,i,'iiii  of  iiiodfrn  days  is  nl  iifffs>ity  liiffflilnadiiii,'.  'I'lif  dfvclnp- 
1.  I  lit  of  otin  r  flt'iiifiits  ;^'avf.  as  a  rfsiiltaiit.  yrfat  Ifin^tli  ;  and  tliis,  in  turn, 
rfjiiircil  a  systfiii  nf  cliariiiiiL;  wiiifli  uniild  pfiiiiit  prntfi-linn  for  llif  nifii 
■.vliilf  loailiiif^,  iiinl  woiiltl  oli\  iatf  llif  intnlc laMf  iiifnnvf  nif  iiff  td  laiiiiiiiii',' 
lioiiit'  powdor  am!  shot  in  a  loiiy;  iiin/./lfdoatlf r  —  an  opfiatinn  wliifh  wa>,  in 
lact.  iiiipossililt:  iii'yond  a  ffrtain  limit  of  Ifn^tli.  'I"hf  aihnfatfs  nf  thf  ildi'i 
1  niistnu'iion.  fspt'cially  in  i'liii^laml.  iir,i,'fd  Inin.,'  and  faiiif>tly  it--  simplifity 
:iiid  thf  sii|ifiinr  strt'iii^th  nt  a  snlid  ln-ffili:  Imt  tlif  ln',df  nl  f\fiil>  \\a> 
ai,'ainsr  tlifin,  and  thf  liifffh-lnadf  r  w  nii  a  fnniplftf  liiiiiiipli.  it  is  wnithy 
nf  iinlf  that  it.  likf  rillin;4  ami  thf  principlf  nf  Iniildiii'^  up.  was  Init  a  ii'vival. 
I'inm  tlif  warship  ^lary  Itosf.  >iink  in  I'll'iin  aftinn  nff  Spiiluad.  tlif  if  Wfif 
ifcnvf ri'tl  ill  ls;!(»  a  niiinlifr  nl  u'lins.  sniiif  td  wiiich  an-  nf  wniii'^dit  imn. 
Iiailt-iip  ami  Invfch-lisiiliiii;.     'I'lifiv  ai»'  in  iisf  twn  nifthotls  of  flosiiij,'  lla- 


^ 


\h 


\  II 


111  i 


\:.\ 


f 


1--1I 


70 


THIUMI'llS   AM)    way DKliS    OF   THE   XL\"'   CESTUIiY 


l>r<'fcli  wlii'ii  tilt'  gun  is  IickIimI  t'ritiii  the  rear.  In  Krciu'li,  Kiiglisli.  lunl 
Ann'ricaii  onliumce  iin  Jixial  scrcw-idii},'  isinsertetl;  in  the  Krupi)  system  a 
(•yiindro-prisiiuitiii  l)reeeh-hh)ek  sli(h's  in  ;i  hori/.ontal  opening  ent  across  tlic 
Ixtre.  The  rornior,  or  interrniitcd  screw  uu!clianisiii,  was  first  set  t'urtli  in  ihe 
United  States'  patent  of  isl'.t  to  Chamliers. 

In  iirojectiles  tlie  tendency  of  the  nioderu  era  has  l)eeu  towards  siniplitica- 
tion.  liar-shot,  cliain-shot,  and  grape  iiave  disappeart'd,  whih;  canister  and 
solid  shot  are  hcconiing  ohsoh'te.  There  I'eniain  siirapnel  as  the  ••  nian- 
kilier  "  oi'  this  ai,'e.  and  explosive  shell,  dit't'erentiatcd  into  armor-piercing  and 
that  lor  attack  on  iinarmored  strnctnres.  Lieutenant  Slirapnid,  in  171M>.  in- 
vented the  projectile  whi(di  hears  his  name.  Fu  its  modern  form,  it  consists 
of  a  stcid  case  containing  leail  or  iron  balls  and  a  light  bursting  charge  (jf 
powdiM'.  ignited  by  a  time-fuse  carried  in  the  head.  This  projectile  is  most 
formidable  against  bodies  of  www,  boats,  and  the  endirasnres  of  forts,  since, 
when  it  is  ruptured,  the  i)alls  are  dispersed,  covering  a  wide  area. 

The  use  of  exi)l()sive  shell  in  high-angle  discharge  dates  back  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  From  l'aixh;ins'  works.  *'  La  Nouvelh^  Arme,"  publishcl  in  ISUl. 
oame  the  stinudus  to  its  development  and  to  its  deadly  service,  in  our  tinu", 
in  iiori/ontal  Hre.  The  ••common  shell"'  for  the  Tnited  States  l.'Uinch  rifie 
is  made  of  forg'd  steel,  weighs  11(10  pounds,  and  carries  within  it  a  bursting 


charge  of  "»()  p(*unds  of  powdei'.  ignited  l>y  a  ])ei'cussion  fuse  set  in  its  base. 
It  will  penetrate  (5  or  7  inches  (d'  armor  and  then  explode  within  the  ship. 
The  I'nited  States  "  armor-piercing  shell  "  is  manufactured  from  crucible  steel, 
all 


illoveil  witli  chromium  ;  it    is   teniiiered  to  extreme  hardness  a 


It  th 


iioint. 


whicdi  carries  a  cap  of  soft  iiptal.  The  function  of  the  latter  would  ai)pear 
to  be  that  of  a  support  to  the  shoulder  of  the  projectile,  or  as  f.  luiiieant 
thereto,  since,  without  the  cap,  the  shell  is  broken  or  deformed  in  Lee  attack 
oil  armor  of  surface  hardened  steel.  To  resist  the  crushing  strain  in  its  pass- 
age tiirough  massive   plate,  the  walls  id'  this  shell  must  be  so  thick  that  no 


ar'jt' 


of 


giiiiiiowder  will    burst    it.      Hence,  as   a    rule,   the  shell    is    fired 


uiiloadi'd.  although  recently  there  havt;  been  adopted  to  some  extent  burst- 
ing I'harges  of  some  high  explosive,  such  as  gun-cotton,  joveite,  or  jiierie 
a.'id. 

In  closing  this  brief  review  (d'  the  jirogress  of  <irdnaiice,  but  passing  men- 
tion can  i)e  made  of  matters  minor,  but  in  themselves  of  much  importance, 
(inn  carriages,  or  mounts,  are  now  intricate  meidianisms,  pri'.ctically  the  whole 
service  of  large  ordnance  being  performed  by  electric  and  hydraulic  machin- 
ery. Tile  rapid  fire  principle  has  been  extended  to  pieces  <d'  (J-iiich  calilire. 
and  liiils  fair  to  pass  beyond  that  limit.  Its  success  in  increasing  largely  tlie 
number  of  shuts  within  a  given  time  lies  in  s]iecial  liree(di-lilo<'ks.  aiming  de- 
\  ices,  and  prepared  cartridges.  Machine  i^uns  (d'  litle-calibre.  partly  or  wlndly 
automatic.  lia\  ■  been  so  developed  as  to  lie  capable  of  tiring  I'JOO  niunds  per 
minute.  Tlie  disciiarge  n|  jiigh  explosives  in  large  (piantity  was  effected 
witii  success  by  the  I'liitcd  States  steamer  Vesuvius  off  S.'intiago.  The 
torpedo-gun  afloat,  however,  woiilil  appear  to  be  still  in  a  tentative  con- 
dition. 

.V  britd'  lapse  into  technical  terms  may  be  permitted  in  summarizing  the 
gun's  growth  in  power.  The  term  ••  muzzle  energy"  is  used  to  describe  the 
work  which  the  projectile  is  capable  of  performing  when   it  leaves  the  bore. 


xi>r<'ssfil  in  toot-linis,  i.  r.,  tlu'  iiuiiilier  of  tuns  which  tlic  ciicri'v  htniiM 


IS  ex  I 

ih<'  sliot  wonhl  litt  to  ii  lunj,'ht  of  one  foot.     The  ti^iiics  as  to  tliis  for  tlie 

jionndfr  ot  the  crnturv's  bci^'inning,  for  tlio  I'niti'd  States  l.'i-inch  rith'and 

■   the  lll-tnii   I'^n.Lcli^li  gnu.  are,  respeetivelv.  (>4L'.  .■!."!.(;i.'7.  ami  ."il.Ci'.lo  foot- 

i.-,.     Again,  the  ronntl  shot  from  the  ."'J-ponnder  l(,st  Imni  the  resistance  of 

■  air.  in  a  laii-i-  of  ll.'(l()  yards.  "(>  per  cent  of  its  energy  ;    wliih'  this  loss, 

ill  the  I'nited  States  l.'I-inch,  in  a  range  of  lOOO  yards,  is  hut  11  percent. 

1    iially,  if  the  cast-iron  shot  of  the  ML'-ponnder  were  tired  against  arnior-phite, 

wonld  lose,  in  Wreaking  itself  up,  two  thirds  of  its  remaining  energy,  leaving 

iL'tM)  yards  hnt    "il    foot-t<jns  for  effective    W(»rk  ;    while  with  the  modern 

uor-piereing  shell  the  entire  energy  left  at  the  end  of  the  range  is  expended 

ii.on  tlie  armor-plate. 

It  will  he  seen  then  that  the  inimeasnralile  snperiority  of  moilern  guns  is 
(  Aing  both  to  their  great  increase  in  energy  and  to  their  wiser  ilispositinn  of 
that  which  has  been  attained.  The  gun  has  niaintaineil  fully  during  the  cen- 
tiiiy  its  jirimacy  among  naval  weapons.      It   is  triH'  tiiat,  in   theory  and   on 


piper,  Its  supremacy  has  at  times  lieeii  (piestione 


hut 


as  to  its  two  rival 


tiie  ra 


m  would  seem  to  lie  rather  tlu'  weapon  of  accident  than  action,  and  tl 


toiiiei 


lol 


las  yet  to  score  in 


le 
i)attle  a>j;ainst  ships  in  motion,  while  the  precisiiin, 


lidity,  and  power  of  the  gun  grow  more  deaiUy  with  every  passing  year. 


VI. 


TiiK  i>KVi:i,oi'Mi:N"r  ok   akmoi; 


Armor  and  the  gun  are  natural  and  now  liereditary  foes.     The  function  fif 
lie  is  to  resist,  tliat  of  the  other  ever  to  attack.      Since  the  beginning  of 


llie  O 


b 


the  modern  era  in  na\ies,  tnere  lias  heeii  ceaseless  >tnle  lor  mastery  oe- 
tweeii  these  two  elements  of  warship  design,  the  gun  ever  becomim^  more 
piiwerfiil.  and  the  armor  —  at  lirst  through  gmwing  thickness  and  later 
tliiniigh  improved  material  —  opjiosing  a  steadily  mnic  stubborn  irtuit. 
The  ottieial  reptirt  <d'  an  Knglish  eommittee  made  in  the  year  l.SCiU  states 
that.  — 

••Vessels  clothed  in  rolled-iron  jilati's  of  four  and  a  hall  inches'  thickness 
are  to  all  practicable  purposes  invulnerable  against  any  prnjeclile  that  can  be 
brought  to  bear  against  them  at  any  range. "* 

The  advance  which  forty  years  have  seen  may  bi'  slmwii  by  the  single  state- 
iiiciit  that  the  Krupp  l.").7-inch  gun  develops  sullicieiit  energy  to  penetrate  at 
the  iiui/zle  47  inches  of  wrought  iron.  The  battleship  is  at  best  but  a  series 
of  compromises,  eacdi  factor  (d'  the  structure  yielding  (jr  growing  as  the  skill 
111'  whim  of  her  designer  may  indicate.  In  the  present  stage  of  this  unceas- 
ing I'hange,  the  gun  would  appear  to  be  the  victor,  and  the  power  ol'  this 
mighty  l.">'_'-ton  riHe  seems  scarcely  needed  on  the  sea.  The  dislini;iii>lied 
chief  of  ordnance  of  the  I'liited  States  navy,  in  his  annual  repnit  i'm  ]S'.)S. 
says  :  — 

"The  development  td'  the  iL'-ineh  gun  has  been  so  great  and  its  jMiwer 
so'much  inert'ased  that  the  I'.ureau  is  uf  opinion  that  hereafter  it  will  be 
til.'  maxinmm  calibre  that  it  will  be  advisable  to  install  on  future  iiatth' 
>liips," 

With  armor,  as  with  the  torpedo,  the  t.ilent  (d'  Europe  reaped  where  the 
uriiius  of  America  had  sown,  .lolm  Stevens  ol  New  dersi'v  was  the  lirst 
inventor  of  modern   times  to  sie^'irest   the  application  of  armor  to  a  floating 


}  *i 


ri\ 


! 


n 


I  % 


ii 


lllil 


I 


'I9H' 

Dli! 


j1 
II  >i 


I.  t 


(UarrtCf 


1859 

4^> 


X- -  -  mmmmmmm A 

y »»oo J 


^fftctaur 


1861 


.SS 


^^mm^^w^JMrnmrnM^ 


Monarch 


1866 


•  »te 


C7u^ae/0MS 


1867 


a.6 


1869 


2>«va4fat<«ii 


HUxantl: 


1873^. . 


I'l.ATi;    VI.      TlIK    nisTIlim'TION    OK    AiiMon. 


1874 


-i= 


Trafalgar 


1880 


Coilirfoufcod     ■■■■■,.■  T 

'  £Mn// 1 1 1  Uum    a     j « '    e 


mmfm^}^^. 


9SOO 


1886 


1890 


fflaifhc 


1894 


J2ri2i2 


;t(  n 


.flmepMS 


CM 


1897 


't»ao 


IM.ATK    VII        TIIK    DI-TUIItlTIoN    OK    AHMoU. 


,'■     ^iJ 


H 

1     ' 

i 

1  ,l 

n 

;li,; 

if 

■  ;!    '■) 

1 

HO 


TiaiM/'llS   AM)    WOXDKliS   OF    111 E  Xl.\"'  CEXTiny 


li.illciv .  liis  pliiiis  iH'iim  Miliiiiittcrl  til  tlic  I'liitfil  Stiitfs  i^nvfriiiiifiit  iliiriii;,'  the 


wiirni  isl: 


licv  rcccivfd,  liowcvrr.  lui  sfiiinis  (•(iiisKli'rutuni.  ;iim 


I  to  !• 


liUlrc 


f'ortv-twii  yi'iiis  later.  It'll  tlif  lioiior  ol  attaining  tin-  first  |»ractit'al  n'sult>  in 
tilt'  liuildiii.y:  of  irniiclails.  MciiiIhts  uf  tlii'  Stcvt'iis  lamilv,  huwi'vcr.  roiitimifd 
tlif  fX|pi'riim'iit,s  (il  its  tuiiinlcr,  until  li_v  tlu'ycar  ISII  tlicy  had  (Iftfrininril 
till'  tinckni'ss  (d  inm  nt-ccssarv  to  stop  s|>ln'rii'al  |irojfctilt's  at  jioint  lilaid; 
rani^t'.  and  tin'  coniparativc  rrsistint,'  powers  cd'  iron  and  oak.  'I'lu'se  results 
led  to  an  appropriation  iiy  ("oii,i,'ress.  in  lS."il,  id'  .s.'itM >.(((»(»  to  iiej,dn  work  upon 
an  inmelail. — the  Stevens  liattery.  —  wlueli  vessel,  intwever.  never  U'lt  the 
ways  and  was  eventually  broken  up. 

(ieneral  I'aixlians,  who  rev(dutioni/ed  naval  art illery  liy  tin  Miventiim  ot 
the  modern  shell,  prophesied,  in  an  otlieial  letter  to  the  l-'reneh  government  in 
ISL'I,  that-  the  new  projectile  wouhl  force  the  creation  (d'  armored  ships.  In 
IMl  he  reconinu'iided  otticially  the  clothin;,'  of  vessels  with  iron  armor,  as  a 
protection  aj,'ainst  his  own  missiles;  and  in  iSo.'t  his  words  of  warnin,Lj  met 
coni|ilete  and  terrilile  liiltilhnent  in  the  annihilation  l>y  shell  i;uns  oi  the 
Turkish  fleet  at  Siiiope.  This  action  was  the  inuni'diate  cause  of  the  intro- 
duction of  armor  in  modern  navies. 

The  r.ritish  adndialty,  in  JSl.".,  had  duplicated  the  Stevens  e.\])erinient.s, 
usinj;  a  target  id'  I  I  |)lates  of  boiler  iron  riveted  loiielhcr.  which  j^ave  a  total 
thickness  of  (I  inches ;  and  experiments  on  laminated  platini,'  had  been  also  at 
this  time  carried  on  at  (Javres.  in  l''rance.  In  IS|,"»  Dupuyde  Lome,  the 
famous  naval  arciiitect,  sniimitted  to  the  l-'reiich  i^overnnn'Ut  the  first 
I'airopean  design  lor  an  armored  fri;;ate.  liis  |plans  weie,  however,  reiected; 
and  only  with  the  outl)reak  of  the  Crimean  War  was  the  construction  of 
armored  vessels  be^nin.  On  (►etolier  17.  iM.Vi,  the  three  l-'rench  batteries 
which  were  the  first  results  of  this  new  dejiai'ture  went  into  action  off  Kin- 
burn,  in  the  ('rinu'a,  silencing;  in  four  hours  forts  which  had  held  at  bay  the 
combined  fleets  of  Knj,danil  and  France.  .Armor  had  won  its  first  victory,  and 
liiid  shown  m 


desi'Mi  o 


f  the  y 


ost  sij,nially  its  position  asone  of  the  main  factors  in  the  warshi] 


eai's  w 


hid 


I  were  to  i;ome 


These  vessids.  with  three  similar  iiattcries  constructed  immediately  there- 
after by  the  Uritish  ,i,'oveiiiment,  were  clad  with  solid  iron  plates  I.',  inches 
tlnck.  bai'ked  by  l.'7ii'  biches  of  oak,  comparative  exiierinn'Uts  at  Niiu'cnncs. 
|-'rancc.  haviiii,'  shown  the  m.irked  superiority  of  solid  over  lanunated  jilatini;. 
They  were,  however,  in  but  a  most  limited  sense  sea-,!,'oin;^  ships,  their  low- 
speed  and  other  inferior  ipialities  beiui,'  radical  defects  as  to  this.  France  led 
in  a  further  advance,  bej,nniun,y:  in  iN-'iTaml  eom|iletinj4  in  iS.V.t  the  transform- 
ation (d'  the  wooden  liue-of-batt le  ship  Napoleon  into  the  arnn)red  vessel  of 
."((MMi  tons,  which,  as  La  (Jloire,  is  fanmus  as  the  first  sea-iioinsj:  ironclad.  She 
carried  a  strake  uf    l^-ineli  plating;  at  the  water  line,  and    H.-inch   ]ilates  in 


wa 


kc  of  the  lialterx.      Kii'dand  answered  tin'  cli.ill 


eie^e  of  her  hereditary  fm 
w  ith  the  Warrior,  an  iron  vessel  id'  IL'K)  tons,  completed  in  ISI!].      While  her 
rival   had  a    fully  armored  side,  l)ut  -]-  of  the  Warrior's  :\S()  b'et  of  lrnL;tli 
carried  plating.      Its  thickness  was  U  inches. 

.\t  the  .lutlireak  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  rnited  States,  the  !,'overinneid 
appointed  a  special  n.ival  comniittee  to  report  upon  types  of  ii'onclads.  Thr 
eoiiclusions  id'  this  board  are  of  iiderest,  in  showiun  the  stale  of  armor 
devolopnient  at  that  period.     They  reipdred  rolled  armor  id'  solid  iron,  whose 


1,11  aioirt''  f fititiif)  IH^iT 


'HUrt'ior'  fKnt/l,i>ul)  7ft5i* 


.*»(  fti-  .'frrntir 
Jivri  A  to  .''in  Ijuminiitiul 


I'  S  •Monitor  'I'lissati.  lAMb.' 


/'t4  rrt't  .  /rnior 
Jrvri  llin   LtmnnatcH 


ln/lri,hlr  (F.n.jlund  )    IH; 


b'^U fiCitfltlt^i-'irmvr   / ri}fi 


,li,,,l„tl 


Dinlio     f/tuhf  I  /.S7C 
J1ilt,/r>n<ir    .Sfetl'   .bolij 


«arfrj/ptV.\i.AW.>r-»-/ 6j/iJ  ,  "  ftwifyxl  .,\i<kel  :iK!vl  Solid 


M  l' 


IM.ATK    VIII.       THK   (iliOWTIT   OK    AUMiMj. 


■  =  *'. 

•Aw 


8!! 


nuiMi'/is  .\.\n  \\n.\t)/:i:s  or  mi-:  .v/.v"  c/jmi/:) 


H 


iiiiiiiiiiuiii   tliirkiios   \v;i.s    1.^    iiiclio.      I'liicsMni's    Munitnr.   linuevn.   iMirinl 
l;iimii.il('(l  jiliiliii;^  liiPiii.'i  In  ."»  iihlics  ihicU  i>ii   licr   low   >ii|i'>.  atiil    ||    Livers. 

('lull  nlir  ilirh  llilcU.  nil  licl'  tliri'cl.  Tllis  r<i|l>l  I'lct  ioll,  wllii'll  lllr  il  lllii'lllt  lis 
ill  till'  liiillllli;irllll'i'  III  Miliil  |i|;ilr  ll<'ri'>>llllli'i|.  Illllili'  llir  I'l'i'nl'il  nl  rllilliraiirr 
ui  tills  t\|M'  t:il-  rinlll  j;iiim1.  'I'lir  ili'lnt  l;iv  lililililv  willi  lasli'liili'^  linllv 
wllirll  ln'nkr  I  ITi  |llrllt  I  \  .  I  lllis  Iimim'IiJiil;  1 1|'  iji'l  iirliili;;;  llic  siili-  lHllli  >l .  ;iliil  tin 
I II 'ill  Is  III'  nuts  III  \s  liirli,  ll\  iii^  nil  w  itii  vinli'iii'i'  w  lii'ii  I  lie  iiiiiinr  u;i^  >l  rui'lv  \>\ 
si  ml,  III  raiiir  sunn 'tiiiirs  I  at  ill  niis.sili's  a-^iiinsl  llinsr  w  illiiii  tlir  liirii'Is.  In  imi 
lra--t  uilii  tins,  llir  licliavinr  nf  tlir  Ni'W  I  I'liiisiilrs,  I'intin'il  Willi  sniiil  aiiiim. 


was  llinst    I'Nri'iii'llt.      Sill'  \va> 
i'IkIs,  Ik  r  jilatiiii,'  was  I,',  ii 


i-asi'iiialril    ii'niii'lail    iii'^atr  uitli    iiiiaiiiinri 


iclii-s  lliii'k.  ami  iiii'liiu'il  lliiniii^iinnl  tlir  rilaih-i.ai 
an  aiii,'li'  nl'  .'!<•  Iinm  liir  |H'r|i('iiilirnlai-.  {'"m  Iwn  vrars  sin-  was  siiIiJitIi'iI  In 
till'  iiin>i  M'M'ii'  ti'>l  tliat  a  war-\rssri  lnll^l  nirrl.iiii'  '.nssin'4  ami  stiaiiiiii,;^  nl 
liliM'kailr  liiitv  ami  tin'  lirrv  nnlrai  ni'  rlnsr  arlinii  w  itii  Inrt  ilii'atiniis.  In  lUii 
I'lli^M'^'rliirllt,  sill'  sllstailli'il  alnlir  a  li^'llt  ai^'aillst  till'  rnlilliiliril  tilr  nl  till'  lii|-t- 
III  <  liarlrstiin    liarlmr.  ami.   aillinu;4:li    strmk    mi    iirr   siilraiiiinr    si\t\   liiiu'-. 

raiiif  mil  ni  till'  st  iiil;;^!!'  iiniiurt.    'i'iir  ii nl    nt   tliis  siii|p  is  mir  wliicii  ilnr 

liminr  In  till'  ila;^'. 

rill'  ailiii'Mini'iit  nl  till'  ( 'miiriirrai'V  liiiiiiii,'  this  war.  in  tlu'  mattrf  nl 
ainmr.  was  rciiiarkaiilr.  Willi  iimi  wmlli  alnmsl  its  wi'i;;iil  in  !,'nlii.  ami  willi 
nin^l  liinitril  iaiilitifs  inr  nianiiiai'lnriiii;,  llii'V  \r\  snci'i'i'ili'il  in  rmislrmtiii'^ 

snlili'    ni    till'     llinst      inl  III  ii|ai>li'     ilnlll'lails    nl'    llli'lf    llav.       Till'     Ml'llilnar.     inr 

instaiici'  —  with  ."i-incli  aiiiinr.  in  Iwn  la\  rrs  nl  iiairnu  hais.  al  an  aii^ii'  nl 
.'III  willi  till'  lini'i/mitai  -sllstailli'il  im  mati'iiai  ilaina.^t'  tn  lii'i'  |ilaliiii;  imiii 
till'  lire  ni'  till'  Mmiitni' :  altlimi,i;li  liail  liir  lull  rliarn^i'  nl  .'ID  llis.  ni'  |inwi|ri' 
Im'i'Ii  iisi'il  in  till'  ll-inrii  sinnnt  li-lmri's  ni  till'  ialli'i,  till'  slnry  wniilil  liaM- 
lirili  (littciiiit.  I'",vi'l'\  lair  lilnw  wniilil  liavi'  siiiasiii'il  a  Imlr  rniii|>li'ti'l\ 
tlirmi'^li  thr  aniinr.  ami  ilii\t'ii  a  slmwiT  ni  spliiiti'is  alimit  tlic  iiatti'fv-ili'rk. 
A'^iiin.  till'  ainmr  n|  llir  Atlanta  ami  tin' 'ri'iiiH'ssci'  —  Imtli  (•asriiialril  sliiji-, 
w  illi  till'  siili's  111'  tlif  cilaiii'l  imlini'il  at  a  sliarp  aiij,'li'  In  llir  Imri/milal  —  \va-< 
siiilicii'iitiv  si  rntii,'.  willi  till'  ImiiiiT  vi'ssd.  In  willistaml,  at  .'ilMt  \  anis.  tin' 
ll-incli  iirnji'i'lili'  iiii'il  with  a  L'l'-llis.  i'liar'.,'r,  ami.  with  tlir  lattrr.  tin- saiin- 
shnl  |irart  ii'all\  at  thr  niii//h',  altlmu'^li  tln'  |.*i-iiii'li  iii'iijiTlili'  iunki'  tlirnu;^li 
rmii|ili'li'lv  in  linl  ii  I'asi's. 

It  is  iinnrri'ssary  In  Inllow  in  ilrtail.  lliiniii;h  its  nianv  ti'st^  in  |ii'arr,  tlif 
aihaiii'''  ni  irmi  ariimr.  Its  i;i'n\\th  in  st  irii,!,'tii.  as  llir  |inwi'r  ni  thi'i^un 
ili'\  i']n|ii'il.  rami'  alllliiNt  snlrly  ilnlil  illi'lrasi'  ill  thirklit'ss.  till'  lalli'l'  li'arhili^ 
it-  masiiiinni  wit  h  thr  Uritish  liiilr\ililr.  i'niii|ili'ti'il  in  ISTC".  wliiih  caiiir 
irmii  Kiln  L'l  iiirlirs  nl'  irmi  mi  Inr  ln'lt  ami  citailt'l.  'I'liis  plaliii'^,  Imu 
«'Vi'i'.  is  (li\iili'il  ami  •' samlw  irlicil  "  with  wnml.  iIhtc  liciiii,'.  rxtriinr  tn  th'- 
skin,  (')  im-lirs  nl  teak,  tlnn  IL' inrlii's  imn.  11  inrlirs  Irak,  ami  an  miter  IL' 
inch  plate.  ,\s  arnmr,  irmi  reeeived  its  ileath-hlnw  in  the  lanimis  tests  :ii 
S|ie/ia.  Ital\ .  diiriiii,' the  aiitiiinii  III    lS7(i.  when  the  iMO-tmi  <^n\\,  with   a    i'u! 


eliar'41'.  a 


I  a  laie'e  nl    HHt   \  anIs.  at taekeil   snliil   ami   ••  samlwieh  "  tai'L'e^ 


il'nii  ami    snliil    lar,!.;;ets   nt'  steel  —  the  sili!,'le  nr  a,i,'!,'re!,Mle   tliii'kliess    ni'   iiiel.i 
ill   eaeli  ease   lieiinj;  ■_"_'  inelii's.     Tliese  trials  were  iimlerlakeii  tliinii<j;|i  Ilals 
ilesiie  In  hiiihl,  in  the  Diiilin  and  l>aiiilnln.  the  iimst  inrniidalile  vessels  allni' 
Steel  wmi    the  ilav.  and  the   mar  nt   that   iniuldy  i^nii.  thiimleriiiLt   irniii    il 
S|ie/ia  tiriii!,' i4i'"'"i'l.  "^'"""''''1  ''"'   Uin'll   "I    i'""    iirii.nr.  dt'iirived   the   as   \. 


'/•///•;    <  7;.V  ■/  /  A'  )'S    \.  Ill/,    J'l.'tniL'HSS 


83 


ilaiiiK'lH'd    hillfxililr  III    lii'i'   I'lnwii    III    ins  iiliMTiiliililv .  iiihI  (Ifiiiaiiili'il,  Willi 


it    lr\  nlllt  lull     III    I  lir   alllH  H'    lliallll  liH'l  III')'   iil     luil'i 


\.>,  a  (•oiii|iiiiiiii.M' iii|iiiiiiiil  ariiHH'.  i.  i'..  iinn  lacril  witli  stni,  iMcaiin'  |i<i|>- 

ar  till' a  I  iiiir.      AnwiiIi    -^IitI,  il-^  In  ;^Miiiiiiii,'s  wnc  olil.  ijal  iii'^  liarlv   at    li'a>t. 

till'  srar  IS.'i".  Ilir  lir>t  |H'rtcrti'il  riii:i|iiiiiiii[  jilatr.  iiiailt'  ii\  ('aiiiiiii'l  \: 
...III    l'',ii;4laiiil.  was    trstcil    at    Slinrlim  \  hcsn   in   |S77.      It  wa^   cniniKiscd    ul' 

,lli||(>  111     ilnliwitlia    l-llnll  lair  III     >lfr|;    t  llr    1 1 1  Hi  lirill'^  la  Im'iI  ti  >  ;i  Wclilillj^ 

il  ami  till'  ninltrii  >li'il  |miiiiii|  mi  il>  tu|i.       Ijir    '^rcat    lual    jiartiallv  I'liscil 

niitai-t  tai'i'.  t  III'  t  wii  iiH'taU  wcir  nniti'il.  ami  t  iir  I'liinliinat  inn  was  as>iin'il 

iiiiiiii'iliiiti'  lulling;.     ( 'iiiii|miiiii|    iihitc--    s|iiaii;,'    in    Is77    tiniii    nli-rnrity  to 


iiiiai'it\  ;    li\    |n7'.>  iniii  aiiiinr  iiail  lii'i'niiii 


ll,>lllr|l'    W  It  II      |i|li'^|l'-<si 


\r    iiiival 


W  ITS, 


aini,  ill  ISSO,  iiiilli  i'iiiii|iiinnil  ami  ^Icri   |ilati'-<  liail 


li'arnril   sllrll  ili'VC 


iiii'iil  lliiil  tlir\  wciT  I'liiM'  ri\aU.  tin-  Irailiir,'  i'iini|iit  itnr^  ln'iii;^  ('aiiinii'l  in 
i  i;,'laiiil  ami  Si'linriilcr  in  {''laiu'r.  Slrrl,  Ikiwcsii,  >1iiw1\  tni'^cil  alirail  iliir- 
;,, ;  tilt'  iii'Xt  ilrraili' ;  and,  at  lis  rinse,  i'niii|innnd  ainmr  was  |iiai't  irali  v  nut  nf 
till'  rare.  In  stci'l's  victnrv.  its  allny  witli  nicki'l,  in  ininiiti'  |iin|iiiit  imis.  lias 
iii.itriialis  aidi'd:  t lii' (•niiiliinalinii  iiii|iarliii;,' hardness  witlmat  di'cii'asiir,' tlll• 
^.ll^dlln'ss  ul  I  lie  plate.  'I'liis  material  .i^a\e  Mi|ieriiir  leMilt^  linni  llie  ln'i^'in- 
,,,ii','.  Its  lil'st  jilate.  tested  ill  JSS'.t.  was'.t)|  ilielies  t'.Mrk;  it  was  |iieleed  liV 
,1  llnllzer   sliell.  w  liiise    lind\  did    lint    |ias>  w  Iinllx   lliinie^di   and  w  liiise  eiii'1'.^y 

u.l-   i.ti  t  illies  tliat      just     II ssai\    tn    lierlnrate    a    W  rnll),dil-ilnn     |ilate    nt      the 

s.iiae  tlii''l\lies.>  .  '\\t  the  ipeleasei  I  st  li'll'4:t  II  |^'i\fll  li\  IlieUel  tliele  has  liien 
,iiliii'il  a    lint  her  u;aiii  tiiniiii;li  the  a|>|ilieatiiin   nl'  laee  hanleiiin;^'   |ii'neesses  — 

-iiril  as  that   nt     the    Allielieall.   llalM'V  —  whii'h    lilnilliee  sllliellieial  eallinlli/a- 

liMii,  tiansrnnuin'4  the  Miilaee  inin  a  liiudi  ,i,'iade  nl  very  hard  steel,  withniit. 
till'  |irnnnlllii'ed  jilalie  III  delliaieatinli  lietWeeli  llietWii  ijllalities  (d'  llietal.  as 
111   llli'  weld  nl'    the  eii||l|inund  plate.       A    llt]-imh    IlieUel  steel    I  I  a  r\  ey  i/eil   plate. 

Ii'^led  at  the  Indian  Mead  rmviiiLT  <  imunds  in  j.S'.tL,'.  slmwi'd  a  streii^rth  whieji 
pii'\inusly  had  never  Keen  eipiaied  in  the  hi.-.lnry  id  artiinr.  and  estalilished 
liiMHid  ipieslinii  thexaliie  id  tiie  raeediarth'iiijii;  prneess.  w  liieji.  Iiy  variniis 
nietliiMls.  is  applied  tn  the  nieUel-steel  platiii;,,' nl'  to-day.  The  ilistrilintimi  nf 
iilliinrin  the  develnplllelit  i  d'  halt  leslii  p  I'nlist  met  inn  is  shown  liy  till'  s.iadi'd 
-iitimis  nil  I'lales  \l  and  Nil.  and  its  relati\e  thirKnesses,  on  viir'ous  vi-ssejs 


1 1 II I  III'. 


this  prui^ress.  I.y  I'lale  \'|||. 


VII.      1  in;   i;  \\\    wn    i  iik  'mni'i  i>n. 

I'nr  twn  tlinii sand  years  the  ram  —  the  ia/ni-ed,y;ed  ••  lieaU  "  .it  the  sw  ilt  i^alley 
was  the  e  hie  I  naval  weapnn.  With  the  advent  id  sail-|iiiwer  and  t  he  eniplny- 
iiniit  nl'  1,'iiiipiiwder,  it  vanished  tmni  the  seas;  Init  tn  reappeai when  tlie 
rniiiiiii,'  id  steam  i^iivi'  attain  emit  mllalile  prnpiilsinii.  In  JS.V.t  there  was  Imilt 
into  the  {''n'tieli  I'rii^'ate  Mu'^i  iita  a  sharp  spur,  —  the  first  nindfin  ram.  liritish 
I'liiistruetimi  nt  the  niiiilerii  era.  tmni  the  W'arrinr  dnwii.  has  alsn  leennni/.ed 
this  weapon,  and  it  is  tn-day  a  laitm'.  althnii'^h  a  minor  one,  in  the  desi'.;ii  oi' 
.dl  vessels  ol'  hi;^dl  speed. 

i'lie  rani  has.  Imwever,  Init  a  seaiit  reemd  id' service  in  action,  while  in  acci- 
ijiiilal  collisimi  it  has  wrnUL,dit  mme  than  mice  appalliiii,'  disaster.  The  irmi- 
ilad  Mcrriniac  rammed  and  sMik  in  Ilaniptmi  llnads.  in  .March.  JStiL'.  the 
t  lilted  States  sailin.n  sloop-id'war  ( 'iimlierland,  whidi.  under  the  urallant 
.Morris,  went  down   with   lmiiis  tliumleriii'j  and  eiisiMii   thin''.     <'ii  Jnlv   !'<•, 


'M 


m 


^* 


II 


i4i 


84 


TUIUMI'IIS  AM)    WuNimitS   OF  TUE  A7A'"  LUMLliY 


|.S<)(>,  iliiriii^'  til)'  id'tiiiM  lilt'  tilt'  islainl  nl  ^i^>il.  in  tlif  Ailiiatii',  tin'  Austrian 
tiii^Niii|i  Kcnliiiaiiil  .Maximilian  raiiiiiK'ii  tin-  Italian  ariiinri-lail  Kc  d' Italia, 
wliirli,  with  many  III  iirr  .siMt  mi'ii.  sank  vvitli  a  sw  iltm-ss  that  cliillcil  tin'  IiIoimI 
fd'  tlinsf  will)  wati'lii'ii.  Lilvc  this,  in  its  sinldcn  tiay:t'ily,  was  tin-  ilrstnii'tiun 
of  the  I'liitish  liattlt'slii|(  X'irturia  liv  Iht  rniisml,  tin-  (  amin'rilowii,  tilt'Tripi'li, 
Syria,  in  the  sumiin'r  smili,i;lit  ol  a  .liiiic  day  in  I.S'.t;;.  The  ram  ul'  the  latter 
vi'sst'l  cut  a  di'i'ii  and  fatal  j,Msh  in  the  \'ietiiria.  which  within  ten  iiiiimtes 
turned  huttum  ii|iwaril  and  went  dnwn.  how  lirst.  hearing,'  with  her  .'tl!!  ntlieer> 
mid  men,  wliu.se  iiiilalteriiii;  disci|iliiie  ^'ave  a  hemit;  splendor  to  their  einl. 
Despite  these  occasional  instances  of  its  deadly  power,  the  rum  holds  a  second- 
ary place  anioii!,'  naval  weapons.  To  strike  a  modern  vessel  at  liij,di  speed 
will  reipiire  more  than  the  skill  id'  the  swordsman. 

'i'lie  torpedo,  like  the  ironclad,  was  an  .\merican  invention,  whose  nej,dect 
liv  the  rnited  States  '.^overnnieiit  liroii'dit  letriliiition  when  this  deadlv  engine 


of  war  in  lN(>l-(>,"»  dcstioved  not  a  fe 


w  war-vessels  nyniLr  our  tiaj;.      husnm 


tl; 


of  ('onnecticiit  duriii'^  the  devolution  appears  to  Imve  invented  both  the  suii 
marine  Imat  and  the  marine  torpedo,  the  latter  hcin^'  tired  liy  clock-work 
Fulton  also  met   siicci' 


SS     III     s 


iniilar  work  diirini;  the  period  extending'  from 
ISOl    to   ISIL'.      .Ml  o|    till'  elements  of  modern   torpedo    warfare,  cxceptim; 

had 


e    powe 


the  use  of    steam,  compressed  air.  or    electricity  as    a    nioiiv 

lieeii   thus  conceived   Ity  the  early  ilawii   of  this  ceiiliiiy.      The   torpedoes  o| 

our  dav  are  practicallv  of  Imt  two  classes  :  the  ■•  mine.*"  or  statioiiarv  (either 


'*  buovant      or  ••  y;rounil 


its   position   in  the  water  i 


leteri 


lines),   and   tin 


automoliile.  or  ••  tish  "  torpedo.  The  former  type  is  tired  either  by  closiiiu 
ail  electric  circuit  in  a  stntion  on  shore,  or  by  the  ship  herself  in  contact,  oi 
in  electric  closure.  I>uriic4  the  Civil  War  nearly  thirty  vessels  were  sunk  li\ 
mines,  usually  wooden  iiarrels  tilled  with  i^unpnwiler  and  lired  liy  haiiliir^ 
lines  or  slow-buriiinn-  fuses.  It  was  a  inine-tield  over  which  Karrai^iit 
oharjjjeil  at  .Mobile  Hay.  when  he  uttered  his  laiiiuiis  oath  and  went  '•lull 
speed  ahead."  with  tliecaM'>  of  the  lortunately  impotent  tiupeiloes  strikiic^ 
the  Ilartfoid's  bottom;  it  was  a  niiiie  which,  it  is  claimed,  sunk  the   .Maiiu' ; 


and  it  was  a  minc-iicld 


which  kept  Saiiip.soirs  l)attleslii)is  from  entering,'  tin 


liarbiu'  of  Santiay;!!  d"  Cuba.     The  stationary  torpedo   is  now  cliai%fed  witl 
gun  cotton  or  other  lii^li  explosive. 

The  origin  of  the  most  proinineiit   of  the  autoiiiobili' torpedoes  is  due  ti 
Cajitain  l.iipuis  of  the  .\iistrian  navy,  and  its  development  from  \S{\\  onw.in 


to  Whitehead,  an  Mic'lisliii 


laii. 


It    i 


s  a  cijrar-shaped  submarine  vessi 


froii 


II  to  111  inches  iiiaximum  diameter  and  from  I  I  to  1">  feet  lon;^:.  which  i- 
blowii  I'rom  a  torprdu-tube  or  '..jiiii  within  the  ship  by  compii'ssed  air  m 
an    impulse  charge    of    j,MiniMPwder.     Twin-screw    dailies    contained   within 

rescivoir  therein.  dri\>' 
f    (Itm    vard^ 


Its  hul 


and   driven  bv  eoiniPii 


■d  air  stored  in 


111''!'      O 


it  at  about  thirty  knots  speed  throiiudi  an  effective  r 
111  its  nose  or  •■  war-head "  there  is  carrieil  a  lai;4e  chart^e  of  f,Miii  cottMii 
or  other  lii,i;h  explosive,  which  is  tired  by  contact  with  the  enemy's  hull. 
It  is  provided  with  bulh  hori/oiital  and  vertical  rudders,  the  depth  of  im- 
mersion beiiiii  i'ej,nila'ed  by  iiitrie.ite  niachiiieiy  contained  in  the  ••  balance 
chamber."     The  Whitehead   has  a  sumewhal   fiuniidable  rival   in   the  Initi"! 


Stilt 


es    in 


the    t 


oriiedo     llivelite 


IV    We.ir   Admiral    Howell.    V.  S.  N.     T 


automobile  torpedo  has  never  yet  scoi'cd  in  battle  against  ships  in  iiioti 


Ol! 


THE   CESrCliV'S   SAVAL   I'lUKillESS 


SB 


'■<  |i().sitioii  ill  tlu)  iiiival  Wiirlan'  n|  tin-  lutiuf  i>  _\it  luitixcil.  I'lu'  oiic  cfi- 
•Mty  is.  that  its  lilow  wlicn  struck  liunu'  is  aliimst  siiiflv  latal  to  sliijt  ami 
I'W.  Tiir  (li'vcl(i|iiiii  lit  lit  till'  MihiuariiH-  tnr|trilii-liiiat.  wlmsr  \Vfa|ii)ii  is  tlii> 
liiirlirail.  lias  ill  ii'i'i'iit  yiMis  iriTivnl  iiiiH'li  at ti'iit It'll  t liruiiy;li  tlir  lalinrsdt 
r  Aiiifriraii  llnllaiiil  ami  iilli<'r>.  I'laiirr.  in  tin'  (!ii>taviis  /i-iir,  ul  L'lill 
:i>.  lias  a  iliviiiji  l)iial  nl  this  rliarai'ti-r.  Inr  wliirli  iinirli  i>  rlaiiiiril. 


viii.      iiii:   iMii;i>  >r\ii>   i  1,1.1 


I   hill  till'  aiivi'iit  ut  tlir  iicim-iail.  tlir  ^lli|ls  ut  tlif  I'  iiilril  Stati'>  wi'ir  niiial, 

lint    >ii|irriiir.  ill   ^l•a\Vll^tllilll•^s  ami  li'^lit  iii'^' i|\ialitii.>  In  any  in   tin-   wmlil. 

,r  liij,'li  ^laihiaiil  M't    iiy  till'  ( 'nii^lltutinii    ami  Ik  i-  rla>s  ot    17".l7\vas   niaiii- 

iinid   lor   >i\tyyrars;  ami.  rsju'rially  ilmiii'^  tlir  pi  1  iml  rruni  |.S|<Mu    IStiO. 

I'll-  iitlirrrs   ami    llirll   111    till'   I'niti'il  Stairs    iiavv    trml  tin'  ilrrU>  nl'   till'    tilli'st 

ii|i«.  atluat.     'I'liry  IVll — as  tln'ir  >iii'i'.'ssiirs  IVi'l  —  tliai.tnii  tor  tnn  ami  f,'iiii 

;  1;  u'liii.  tliry  hail  im  lin'  lu  |rar.     'I'lir  i*arly  stfainns  nl  tlir  I'nwiiatan  class 

I'lilt   ill  the  late    l(»"s  witc  a  crcilit    tn  tin- nation  ;  the  live  screw  triu'iitcs  of 

'lie  Merriiiiac  type  i  l.S."»r>-.*»7)  anmM'il  the  ailniiratimi  ami  iiiiitatiiui  of  t'orei^'ii 

.-.|iiTts,  ami  the  live  einvetto  wliieh  lullnueil  them  in  IS."iS-.V,t-(>0.  of  which 

ti.e  iiiilile  llai'tforil  was  the  chier.  lioic  their  full  >haie  in  the  war  which  was 

>ii  soon  to  come.     'I"he  'gallant   l\car>ai''e  was  the  leailer  ot  a  new  class  intio- 


(incci 


1  in  is.V.r 


I'uiini.;  the  Civil  War  two  \e>sel>>.  the  .Monitor  ami  the  New  lroii>iiles, 
,ip|>careil  which  have  left  la^tiiiL:  traces  on  all  l)attleslii|i  construction  since 
tlnir  (lay.  'I'lie  "^leat  licet  ot  monitors,  ■■  tin-clails."  "'.Hi-ilay  ^'iinlioats," 
••iloiilih-eiiders."  ami  the  like  which  |iiei'e(leil  ami  foUoweil  theiii  iliiriii^j 
tliose  ilark  years,  serveil  their  country  well.  With  the  emlin;.,'  of  that  war, 
ill  the  internal  task  of  reconstruct  ion  ami  ileveloimieiit.  mir  niaritiine  powtM' 
\\:is  ni';.,'lei'leil  ami  olir  licet  ilwimlleil  away.  Its  rrinlissumr  dates  from 
fill'  aii|ioiiitMient  of  the  tirst  Naval  .\(lvisory  I'oanl  in  .lime.  ISSt.  'rhe 
<.:i<>u  th  since  then  has  lieeii  so  much  a  matter  of  national  interest  ami  priite 
tli;it  it  iieeils  110  (letaileil  recount iiii,'  here  ;  its  results  have  lieeii  siiiniiiari/eil 
]iii'vioiisly  herein. 

The  sea-i,'oini,'  |iersoiinel  of  the  I'liiteil  States  navy  iiiclmles  the  line,  med- 
ical. |iay.  and  mariii.'  otlicers.  the  cliai>lains  and  warrant  oMlcers  —  a  total  on 
.March  1.  IS".»'.»,  of  |.".S<>.  with  an  enlisted  force  of  ir.I'.Ki  lihu'-jackets  and 
.'lliHi  marines.  The  otlicers  who  serve  on  shore  are  the  naval  constructors, 
civil  engineers,  and  the  professors  of  mathematics,  a  total  of  (I'.t. 

Line  officers  are  the  conimamlers.  navii,'ators,  i;nniiers.  and.  l>y  recent 
law.  the  eimineers  of  oiir  ships  of  war.  .Marine  otlicers  have  cliar^je  of  the 
lii'liciin,' of  ships  and  shore-stations  and  of  the  j,'nns  of  li'^dit  calilire  afloat. 
The  duties  of  the  reniainiiiLj  otlicers  are  imlicated  liy  their  titles,  'riie  titles 
mI  line  otHcers  and  their  relative  rank,  as  compared  with  that  of  otlicers  of  the 
,mii\ .  are  :  — 


NAVY. 

Ailiiiinil Ociicral. 


Ml  MY 


Kciir  Ailiiiiral 
Ciiptaiii 


Miijcir  iir  HrlL'^ailicr  (IciiiTul. 

Cnllllicl, 


Cnmiiiuiiilcr I,iciitciiuiit('iiliiii(l, 


Liciitciiaiit  ('oininaiKliT 


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lljnr. 


I 


mi: 


M    Li 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Photogr^hic 

Sciences 

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TRIUMPHS  AM)    WOXDEHS   OF   Till-:   A/A'"'   CEXTUliV 

l.iciitciiiiiil C'a])tain. 

liiciitcimni  Jmiior  (Jiadc First  Lieutenant. 

Knsi'fii Scfond  Lieutenant. 


I. 


me  ;ui 


(1  iiiariiie  ottiecrs  niid  naval  ooiistniptor.s  arc  educated  at  the  I'liited 


States  Naval  Aeadeiuy  ;  all  other  ottiecvs  ai'i'  appointed  troni  civil  lite.  The 
Acatleniy  was  t'oiinded  in  liS4r>and  is  located  at  Aniiajxilis,  Md.  The  course 
comprises  ionr  years  at  the  school   and  two  years  at  sea  on   a  naval  vessel. 


Tl 


le  nun 


il)er  of  cadets  at  Ai 


map 


jlis  is  nsiiiillv  about  L'(!(l. 


It  is  by  reason  ol  wars  that  navies  exist,  and  a  few  words  as  to  our  —  now 
happily  ended  — contliet  with  S[iain,niay  fitly  close  this  review  of  naval  pro- 
gress. The  military  lessons  of  that  struf;j,de  have  been  fidly  set  forth  by 
able  writei's.  More  important,  by  far,  than  these  is  its  teaching  as  regard  to 
our  state  ami  future  as  a  nation.  The  world  has  learned  that  the  ])eople  of 
these  United  States  are  stirred  still  l)y  the  same  stern  and  dauntless  spirit 
which,  in  Hevolvition  and  Civil  War,  has  made  ami  ke])t  us  a  nation.  Fur- 
thermore, with  one  swift  stroke,  the  boniuls  which  in  theory  and  in  territory 
circumscribed  us  have  been  swe])t  away,  and  the  United  States  have  ])assed 
from  a  continental  to  a  world  ]iower.  This  is  not  (dianoe.  it  is  but  the  lead- 
ing onward  to  a  destiny  whose  splen(h)r  we  may  not  measure  now.  whose  light 
and  i)eace  and  prosperity  shall  traverse  a  hemisphere.  The  oiu'  note  of  sad- 
ness in  it  all  is  the  memory  of  the  gallant  dead,  of  the  heroes  who  fell  that 
this  might  be.  To  them,  in  C'id)a  and  the  l'hili])]iines.  Columbia  —  with  a 
smile  of  pride  and  a  sob  of  pain  —  drinks  in  the  wine  of  tears  to-day.  as  the 
smoke  of  battle  fades. 

GKOHdK  ■\V.vi,L.\(  K  Mklvii.i.i:. 


11; 


I 


I :  *  ii 


ASTRONOMY   DURING   THE   CENTURY 

ITS   PIKMJUESS,  ACHIKVKMKXTS,  AND   NOTABLE    llKSl'LTS 

AsTi!i»N()MV.  tilt!  oldest  of  iill  the  fniuilv  ol'  scicnct's.  is  not  a  wiiit  licliiiul 
its  sistri-  bi'aiiclii'S  in  activity  ot  research  and  hrilliiincc  of  discovci'x .  'I'lic 
assidnity  and  zeal  of  its  devotees  are  marvelous.  The  celestial  Held  is  so 
wide,  the  depths  of  space  Ijetween  the  stars  so  vast,  that  no  assurance  can 
ever  be  given  to  an  astronomer  that  a  lifetime  of  faithful  and  intelli.gent 
research  will  be  rewardeil  with  even  a  sin,t;le  discovery  of  importance.  In 
this  respect  it  differs  materially  from  other  branches  of  science. 

Nevertheles.s  the  patient  labor  of  those  who  serve  in  its  temple  has  randy 
failed  to  receive  an  adecpiate  rewartl.  The  discovery  made  in  Au<(ust,  1S77, 
by  I'rofessor  Asaj)]!  Hall,  of  Washington,  that  the  planet  Mars  is  attended 
by  two  satellites,  is  a  convincing  ilhistratiou  of  this  ])eculiarity  of  the  pur- 
suit of  astronomy  as  a  study.  An  indefatigable  watcher  of  tin;  skies  for 
many  years,  I'rofessor  Hall,  looking  at  this  planet  at  its  o])position  in  1S77, 
when  it  was  unusually  near  to  the  earth,  was  surprised  to  note  two  tiny 
[points  of  light  cpiite  close  to  it;  seeing  them  again  the  next  evening,  changed 
in  their  positions  relative  to  Mars,  it  Hashed  upon  him  that  the  firm  tradition 
that  .Mars  luul  no  moons  was  now  disproved.  His  name  will  be  forever 
as.sociated  with  these  two  bodies,  Deimos  and  IMiobo.s,  as  their  discoverer, 
although  they  are  but  wee  orbs,  only  seven  miles  in  diameter. 


im' 


I.       ASTKONOMV    A    <  i:\T(   1!V    A(io. 

The  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  found  the  Copernican  theory  of 
astronomy  well  established,  the  ])rinciples  laid  down  by  Kepler  and  Newton 
fully  elaborated,  and  the  a[iplication  of  the  higher  mathematics  to  the  nei'ds 
of  astronomy  complete.  lUit  there  were,  as  yet.  no  large  telescopes,  and 
observatories  wi're  few.  In  (Jermany,  a  great  dis|)osition  to  make  observa- 
tions in  this  science  and  in  meteorology  was  displayed  in  17S.")  and  for  a  b'W 
years  following,  and  the  records  then  made  have  pro'cd  of  much  value  in 
<'ontirming  discovei'ies  announced  at  later  periods. 

When  Sir  William  Herschtd.  on  March  l.'i.  17S1.  jioinled  out  a  little  stai' 
in  the  consttdlation  nH  the  Twins,  and  found  that  it  had  a  perceptible  disk 
and  a  slight  motion,  and  was  therefore  not  a  star,  but  a.  newly  found  planet, 
to  which  the  name  I'ranus  was  soon  given,  a  careful  inspection  of  the  note- 
books of  previous  ol)servers  showed  that  I'l'anus  had  been  observed  and 
recorded  .as  a  fixed  star  on  twenty  previous  occasions  in  that  century.  One 
man  had  .seen  it  twelve  times,  and  made  his  record  of  it  on  a  jiaper  bag  pur- 
chased at  a  ])erfumer's.  Had  lu>  been  a  man  of  sutHcient  order  and  mctlujd 
1o  have  ])enned  what  he  saw  on  the  regular  records  of  his  observatory,  to 
him  would  have  c(mu'  the  glorv  of  the  great  discovery  of  that  centurv. 


i 


W 


88 


TRIUMPHS   AM)    WOXDEIiS   OF   THE  XIX^"   CEXTL'HY 


!  18 


ri:): 


II.        now    "r.ODK  S     LAW         l'I!<»MMTi:i)    IJKSKAKCH. 

All  crroiifdus  ^micss.  it'  it  is  ;i  good  guess,  soinetiiues  ]»rodupes  excellent 
results.  In  177S.  I'xkIi'.  of  lit'iiiu.  jiuldished  a"lii\v"''  that  states  tlie  dis- 
tancfs  of  the  various  jilaucts  fnun  the  sun.  It  is  ofteu  e.vprcssi'd  siniiily  iu 
tliis  way  :  Set  down  4,  and  add  to  it  successively  the  uundRUS  M,  (J,  IL',  1*4, 
etc.,  and  the  sums  olitaincd.  viz..  4,  7,  lt»,  1(>,  L'S,  etc..  represent  the  relative 
distances  of  all  tlie  iilanets  from  tlie  sun.  viz..  Mercury  4.  Venus  7.  Karth  10, 
Mars  1(1.  [Asteroids  L'S].  dupiter  r>'J.  etc.  In  reference  to  all  the  i)lauets 
then  known  to  exist,  the  correspondence  of  tht(  alleged  law  to  the  I'la-ts  was 
remai'kalile.  The  one  ])oint  in  wliicdi  the  alleged  system  utterly  failed  was 
in  ifipiiring  the  existence  of  a  planet  to  till  the  gaji  between  Mars  and  -Fupi- 
tei'.  S(i  boldly  did  l>iela  press  his  convictions  of  the  correctness  of  this  law 
upon  the  notice  of  his  fellow-workers,  that  they  resolved,  iu  ISOO.  to  divide 
the  zodiac  into  tweuty-fnur  zones,  to  be  aiJjiortioiu'd  among  them,  for  the 
exjiress  pur[ios(?  of  searching  for  undiscovered  planets.  This  well-organized 
effort  was.  erelong,  rewarded  by  the  surprising  discovery  of  four  new 
jdanets.  the  first  one  on  the  first  night  of  the  m'w  century,  .January  1,  LSOl, 
and  three  nuu'c  soon  after.  As  no  nu»re  seemed  to  he  forthcoming,  the  search 
was  relinciuished  iu  ISKl.  A  fifth  was  found  in  l(S4r»,  ami  nearly  five  hun- 
dred since.  Since  1891  photography  has  been  wondrously  serviceable  in 
finding  these  bodies.  A  sensitive  i)late,  on  being  ex[)osed  toward  that  part 
of  the  sky  which  it  is  desired  to  examine,  will  record  all  the  perceptible  stars 
as  round  disks;  while  any  ])lanets  that  appear  in  the  fitdd  of  view  will,  by 
their  motion,  leave  their  trace  in  the  form  of  elongated  trails  or  streaks,  thus 
betraying  themselves  at  once  on  the  i)hotographs.  In  this  way  Chariots,  of 
Nice,  Italy,  has  found  nearly  ninety  small  ]danets.  All  these  planetoids, 
as  the  minor  planets  are  often  termed,  are  quite  snuill,  being  but  twenty  to 
one  hundred  miles  in  diameter,  ami  not  conseciuential  members  of  the  solar 
system.  J'xide's  hiw  thus  fulfilled  its  temjiorary  nnssion ;  but  egregiously 
failed  when  Nejitune  claimed  admission  to  a  place  in  the  solar  system,  for  its 
distance  from  the  sun  was  utterly  out  of  harmony  with  that  required  b}'  the 
law  of  ];ode. 


IIT.       HOW    XKI'TINK    WA.S    KOIXP. 

The  ]>atience  of  Job  had  a  strong  jtaralhd  in  the  labors  of  these  tireless 
toilers  to  whose  minute  computations  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  Xei)tune's 
path  in  the  skies.  For  this  tar-off  jdanet  was  discovered  not  by  the  use  of  a 
telesco])e,  or  any  oi)tical  instrument,  but  simply  by  a  ju'ocess  of  nuithenuiti- 
oal  reasoning.  The  story  is  simply  this.  For  sixty  years  after  I'ramis  was 
recognized,  there  were  irregularities  in  its  motion  that  could  not  be  satis- 
factorily accounted  for.  In  the  orbit  that  it  was  believed  to  juirsue,  it  was 
sometimes  in  advance  of  its  proper  position,  and  sonuitimes  it  seemed  to  fall 
btdiind.  Sonu'tinu's  it  apjieared  to  be  drawn  a  little  to  the  right,  and  at 
other  times  as  far  the  otluu-  way. 

The  tl)o\ight  at  last  came  separately  to  several  penetrating  nnnds,  not  that 
the  cibservations  of  its  ])osition  were  in  error,  but  that  I'rauns  nuist  ))e  drawn 
awaj'  from  its  supposed  path  by  the  attraction  exercised  upon  it  by  some 
unseen  body.  And  if  such  an  object  existed,  was  it  a  planet?  Where  was 
it  ?     How  large  was  it '.'     What  was  its  path  in  the  far-olf  ether  ? 


ASTHoyoMV  Dunisa  the  cestuhy 


80 


In  the  vear  1S4L'.  the  IJoyal  Society  oi  Sciences  of  (liitlingen  ]ir()])(ise(l  as 
1  prize  ([uestion  the  tall  ilisc\issi(in  of  the  thenrv  of  tlie  motions  of  Uranus. 
It  was  specially  sont,rht  to  learn  the  cause  of  the  large  ami  increasing  error 
.f  Bouvaril's  Tables  that  had  lieeu  relied  upon  to  show  its  motion  and   its 

recise  position  at  any  time.  Several  ahle  mathematicians  undertook  this 
iitrieate  problem.      Aiuftng  them  were  .loim  (.'.  Adams,  of  Cambridge  I'ni- 

I'rsity,  England,  Sears  (".  Walker,  of  Washington,  a  man  whose  sad  fate  it 
■vas  tu  pass  away  ere  his  magniticent,  abilities  could  receive  extended  recug- 


TllE   MOVKMKNT   OK    rUA.MS    AM)   NKI'TTNK. 

Till'  inner  circle  siiows  tlic  pnsitidii  (if  rraiius  at  vavinus  dates:  tlic  outer  circle  the  jinsition  of 
Ne]ituiie.     The  arrows  ^liow  the  direction  toward  which  I'raiuis  was  drawn. 

iiition.  and  ^F.  Le  Verrier.  of  Paris.  Working  unknown  to  eacli  other,  they 
reached  similar  conclusions  almost  at  the  same  time.  Though  not  the  first 
to  solve  the  problem,  the  brilliant  Krenehman  was  the  first  to  announce  hi.s 
result,  which  Ik^  did  by  writing  ii  letter  to  Dr.  (ialle.  of  th(!  P.erlin  Observa- 
tory, where  there  was  one  of  the  largest  telescopes  in  Kiiro]ie.  and  asking 
liim  to  seareh  for  his  eomimted  planet,  and  assigning  its  supposed  jilaee  in 
the  heavens.  The  very  night  he  received  the  letter  Dr.  (ialle  found  *^'  ' 
planet  within  one  degree  of  the  point  designated.  The  next  night  it  had 
Mioved  one  minute  of  space,  and  was  also  seen  to  have  a  jierceptilile  disk. 
This  settled  the  (piestion.  and  stamjied  it  as  a  jdanet.  Le  Verrier  well 
merited  the  title  bestowed  upon  him.  '■  I'irst  astronomer  of  the  age." 


m 


I .    ■  .  t 


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III! 


m 


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1 

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IB' 

1 

111    ■  a; 

' 

;ip.is' 

go 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDhltS   OF  THE  AVA'"'  CENTURY 


IV.       MKTKOIMTKS. 

The  niiieteeiitli  cciitiiry  will  be  forever  nieuioriible  lor  its  witiie.ssiiii;'  the 
elosiiiff  ('iireer  iiiid  Hiiiil  destruction  of  a  t'ainous  comet.  First  noticed  in 
Fran(!e,  in  1771',  and  rediscovered,  in  l.SL'O,  by  an  .\ustrian  otticer  named 
Uiela,  it  bears  his  name.  His  <;omiintation  showed  that  it  traversed  its 
orbit  in  si.\  and  one  lialf  years.  When  it  reapiteared  in  1840,  and  aj,'ain  in 
l<sr»l.',  it  was  seen  to  have  s|)lit  into  two  nne(|ual  t'raf,nnents.  It  has  not  been 
.seen  since  ;  Imt  at  every  time  when  its  return  should  have  taken  place  the 
earth  has  passed  throiiyh  showers  of  meteors  supposed  to  be  its  constituent 
jiarticles.  and  ti»  indicate  its  entire  disintegration. 

Ihiriny  the  meteoric  shower  of  iS.Si"),  on  the  L'7th  of  November,  a  large  iron 
meteorite  fell  in  Mazapil,  Mexico,  and  chemical  and  physical  investigation 
joined  to  pi'onounce  it  a  i)art  of  the  lost  lUela's  comet. 

The  large  cabinets  of  the  world  contain  hundreds  of  specimens  of  nu'teor- 
ites,  known  to  be  such  by  their  chemical  comi)osition,  but  oidy  a  few  have 
actually  been  seen  to  fall.  The  most  reniark;d)le  fall  ever  witnessed  was 
that  of  May  10,  1871),  in  Iowa,  in  which  the  heaviest  stone  weighed  4.'>7 
]K)unds.  On  April  S,  ISJ).'),  an  aerolite  fell  near  Osawatomie,  Kansas,  ami 
struck  the  monument  to  .John  lirown  that  had  been  erected  through  the 
efforts  of  Plorace  (Jreeley  in  ISdo.  The  meteor  broke  off  the  left  arm  of 
the  statue.  A  Texas  meteorite,  owned  by  Vale  Tniversit}-,  weighs  K).'!."') 
pounds.  A  meteorite  that  fell  in  .Jiminez,  in  1S91J,  now  deposited  in  the 
city  of  ]Mexieo,  weighs  twenty  tons ;  and  one  lying  on  the  coast  of  Labrador, 
which  it  is  proposed  to  bring  to  the  United  States,  is  said  to  be  still  more 
massive. 

v.       DO    JIKTKOUS    OFTKX    STltlKK    THK    K.VUTIl? 

It  uuist  not  be  thought  that  meteors  usually  strike  the  earth.  In  truth, 
but  few  of  them  do.  The  earth  is  surrounded  by  them,  cold,  dark,  invisible, 
because  unillumined.  It  is  only  when  they  become  he.ated  by  rapidly  im- 
pinging on  the  atmosphere  that  they  can  be  seen  at  all ;  and  unless  they 
come  near  enough  to  become  subject  to  the  dominant  power  of  the  earth's 
attraction,  they  pass  off  into  space  unnoticed,  and  their  ])resence  unsuspected. 

A  case  i;.  ])()int  is  the  brilliant  -tire-ball"  of  July  20,  liSOO,  that  moved 
rapidly  over  the  I'nited  States,  fi'om  Wisconsin  to  C!ape  Cod,  and  then  pa-ssed 
off  into  the  skies.  The  entire  time  of  its  visible  flight  over  a  path  of  thir- 
teen hundred  miles  was  .about  two  minutes.  It  was  seen  about  ten  o'clock 
in  the  evening.  It  was  estimated  to  be  from  one  Inmdred  to  five  hun<lred 
feet  in  diameter,  allowing  for  an  increase  as  it  expanded  bj'  reason  of  its 
striking  with  such  velocity  the  lower  and  denser  layers  of  the  air.  Its  size 
and  brilliancy  were  such  as  to  arrest  the  attention  of  liundreds  of  ])ers<)ns. 
some  of  whom  crouched  in  fear,  and  even  alleged  that  they  heard  it  hiss  a> 
it  Hew  over  their  heads.  Some  fishermen  in  Lake  Huron  had  ropes  over  the 
sides  ()♦'  th'.'ir  boat,  reudy  to  spring  into  the  w;iter  if  it  came  too  near. 

.lames  II.  CofHn,  LL.  1).,  then  Professor  of  A.strouomy  in  Lafayette  College, 
made  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  unusual  phenomenon,  and,  luider  the  jiiit 
ronage  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  published  a  volume  containing  many 
observations  that  he  collected,  with  the  mathematical  results  derived  from 


ASTIloyOMV   IKlilNG    Till-:   CICSTmY 


01 


lliciii.      I'mt'i'ssor  .1.  Ilaim.  of  N'iciiiiii.  tlif  lii,<j;lii'st  itutliority  on  tliis  subject:, 
said  that  it  was  the  most  ('oiiiiprchcii- 
sivc  study  of  a  iiictcnr's  patli  ever  ac- 
t'()iii])lislit'(l.     Six  years  Averc  spent  in 
making,'  tlie  coniinitatioiis. 

Seli'-illuniiiied  by  tiie  lieat  evolved  in 
strikiiiK  tli»!  various  layers  of  the  eaith's 
atmosi»hpre,  itbeoanie  sutticieiitly  iirighfc 
to  be  first  seen  when  s(>venty  miles 
above  the  siirfaee  of  the  earth,  it  was 
witliin  forty  miles  of  touchin','  lis  at 
the  time  it  was  over  the  Hudson  lliver. 
when  the  jjfreat  heat  acquired  by  its 
rai»id  transit  caused  it  to  burst  into  two 
masses,  which  —  like  IWela's  (roniet  — 
continued  to  ])ursue  separate  courses. 
sidt>  by  side,  until  they  were  lost,  to 
view  in  their  aseendiuii-  Hi.ijht,  beiiii;'  last 
seen  from  the  deck  of  a  vessel  off  the 
island  of  Nantucket. 

No  part  of  the  tire -ball  stru(d<  the 
earth.     Its  orbit  was  an  hvperbola.  a 

,        1..  1.  1     •       "     ,  ,     l.ali'  I'nifi's^or  of  Asti'onoiiiv,  Liilin  file  Colk'Ke, 

curve  not  orten  found   in  nature,  and  ..„  ,  „  ,■,.'        •  "  ' 

such  that   it  can  never  come  near   us 

again  unless,  by  the  superior  ;ittractiou  of  some  celestial  body,  its  (!ourse 
may  be  changed,  and  a  new  orbit  result. 


lAMKS    H.    COKKIN, 


VI.       ASTKONOMICAI,    OltSK  I!  V.VTOKl  KS. 

The  Royal  Observatory,  at  (Ireenwich.  Knglaud,  was  founded  by  Charles 
the  Second  in  1(575.  Its  main  purpose  was  to  e.xteiid  astronomical  know- 
ledge, so  that  navigators  might  better  find  the  jtosition  of  their  shijjs  at  sea. 
This  institution  retains  its  prominence.  All  the  longitudes  on  our  maps  are 
reckoned  from  it,  and  (Jreenwich  time  is  used  on  every  ship  that  traverses 
the  ocean.  The  "Nautical  Almanac,'' issued  by  the  Observatory,  was  an 
indispensable  ])art  of  the  outfit  of  every  sea  captain  until,  in  l.Sr»l,\  the 
United  States  provided  its  own  American  Ephemeris,  a  collection  of  tables 
of  the  motions  ami  phices  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  jdanets  for  every  day  and 
hour,  and  occultations  of  the  stars,  with  rules  for  calculating  longitude 
and  the  like. 

Many  valuable  observations  of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  17(>'.>  were  made  at 
points  near  riiiladidphia  ;  but  almost  seventy  years  ensued  before  America 
witnessed  the  erection  of  any  permanent  buildings  devoted  to  the  purposes 
of  this  science. 

I'resideiit  John  Quiney  Adams,  who  was  highly  versed  in  science,  and  held 
the  position  of  ])r(>sideut  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in 
Boston  for  twenty  years,  often  urged  this  nuitter  on  the  attention  of  Con- 
gress, but  without  success. 

President  Thomas  Jefferson,  who  was  also  a  nuui  of  no  small  scientific 
information,  as  evidenced  in  his  keejiing  a  systematic  weather  record  at  his 


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92 


Tlill'MI'IIS   AM)    WONDEIIS   OF   THE   MX'"   CESrUltY 


liiMiit'  ill  MoiiticfUd.  N'ir^qiiiu.  jhoikisimI  mi  cliilioriitc  survcv  of  tlic  iiiitictiuil 
cimsr,  Tliis  Wits  iiiitlmrizcd  liy  Cuii.tjrcss  in  1S()7.  In  tlu'  yt'iir  ls;»L',  in 
I'l'viviii;^'  an  iwt  tnr  tin-  (Miiitiiinanco  of  tlio  Coast  Survey,  ( 'on.tjrt'ss  was  caie- 
liil  til  apiiciKl  the  pnivisd  "tliat  iiotliiiiLj  in  tlic  act  should  lie  oonstnuMl 
to  aiitiiori/c  tlio  crt'ctioii  or  niaintiMiaiici'  ol'  a  iifi'iiiancnt  astronoiiiiral 
oliscr\at(iry." 

Till'  fx|it'('t('il  ri'turn  of  I  [alley's  eoiiiet  in  l.S.">,"»  a.Ljaiu  stimulated  ]io]iular 
interest  in  the  science,  and  aroused  an  intense  desire  to  prnviile  servicealtle 
instruments,  and  to  estalilish  luiildiiiixs  suitable  for  their  care  and  use.  To 
Williams  College,  .Massachusetts,  lielouns  the  honor  of  ereetin",',  in  l.S.'KJ,  the 
first  astronomical  observatory  on  this  continent.  I'nder  its  rcvolvin.i,^  ilonu^ 
was  mounted  an  llerschelian  teh'-seojie  of  ten  feet  focus,  which  later  hecanie 
the  proiierty  of  Lafayette  College,  when-  it  is  still  preserved.  In  1S4.'>.  .lohn 
(i>uin('y  Adams  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  Lougworth  Obsevviitory  in  Cin- 
cinnati, and  (hdivered  a  commemorative  address,  his  last  great  oration.  The 
construction  of  the  I'liited  States  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington  soon 
followed,  and  bid'ore  1S."»0  there  were  fourteen  observatories  estaiilished  in 
this  country.  Nearly  all  the  instruments  they  contained  were  made  abroad, 
ciiietly  in  Munich  and  London.  Since  then  the  number  has  risen  to  two 
hundred  recognized  observatories,  of  which  twenty-four  are  of  sujierior 
order,  where  systematiit  work  is  daily  jiursued,  and  the  results  are  regidarly 
imlilished  in  book  form.  About  two  hundred  olKservatories  e.xist  in  other 
nations. 

VII.       IMl'IIOVKI)    INSTHIMKNTS  ;     TnKIR    Kl'FKCT    oX    TlIK    SCIKNCK. 

The  great  imjirovements  in  telesco]»es  made  during  the  century  have  been 
fruitful  in  two  ways;  a  better  knowledge  of  the  surface  of  the  moon  and  of 
the  jilanets  has  been  gained,  and  we  have  been  enabled  to  learn  with  pre- 
cision the  exact  motions  and  times  of  revolution  of  these  bodies  and  of  their 
accompanying  moons.  This  informatitm.  by  the  use  of  the  laws  ascertained 
by  Kepler  and  La  I'lace.  gives  us  their  exact  <listance.  dimensions,  and  mass. 
"With  the  increase  of  telescopic  power,  the  census  of  the  starry  host  has  been 
so  augmented  that  the  number  of  stars  v.'ithin  reach  of  our  modern  instru- 
ments exceeds  12r>.00(MMMI,  lUit  we  had  gone  little  beyond  this  sort  of 
information  nntil  the  invention  of  the  spectroscope. 

I'revions  to  the  year  lS."i9  a  few  meteors,  composed  chiefly  of  stone  or 
iron,  some  of  which  had  been  actually  seen  to  fall  from  the  sky,  had  been 
subjected  to  chemical  analysis ;  but  outside  of  this  naught  was  known  of  the 
physiccal  constitution  of  other  worlds  than  ours.  Onr  ignorance  on  this  i»oint 
was  com]ilete.  All  our  attempts  to  liecoiue  better  accpiainted  with  the  struc- 
tui'e  of  the  jilanets.  the  composition  of  the  sun.  and  the  nature  of  the  lixed 
stars  Wi.mld  probably  have  been  in  vain  but  for  the  invention  of  the  sjiectro- 
scope.  This  surprising  instrument  is  a  master-key  with  which  to  unlock 
many  of  Nature's  mysteries;  her  recesses  are  brought  to  view,  and  the 
farthest  star  is  subjected  to  an  accurate  chemical  analysis,  so  far  as  the 
light  that  comes  from  it  is  sufficient  to  disclose  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
composed. 

The  wondrous  use  of  (dectricity  as  an  agent  for  the  [iroduction  of  light, 
heat,  and  power  is  no  greater  achievement,  in  its  way,  than   is  Spectrum 


m 


i\M. 


'i- 


I*  in 


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i>^:;i  ii-Ji-; 


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m 


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04 


TIIIIMI'IIS   AM)    \\(K\1>/':US   OF   TIIK  A7.V'"   <h.\Ttliy 


Analysis  in  liriiii;iiix'  to  niir  curt  lily  liili(irati»rit's  tlir  work  dl  tlu'  IHvinc 
lliiinl  iii'i'i'oniKMl  ill  iliNtiiiit  ri'j;iniis  oi'  s|(iicc.  \'ct  tlic  Ntiny  nl'  t  lie  s|)ccti(i- 
sropc  is  I'lisily  t(iM.  Ill  its  cssfiitial  cli'iiii'iits  it  is  merely  this:  A  lay  of 
lii;lit,  entering  a  ilai'keiied  niiuii  tliniii;j;li  a  Imle  in  the  wintlnw  shutter,  pio- 
(liices  a  l)ri,Ltht   beam  im   the  (i|i|insite  wall.      A  1  riaie^iilar  ;4lass  prisiii   held 


tlie 

Hie 


(•lose  to  the  ereviee  turns  this  lieani  into  a  liaiiil  ot  raiiiiiow  hue: 
Iinle  can  he  eliaiiged  into  a  small  slit,  say  one  Inurtli  ol  an  iiieh  hii;h  and  i 
liilieth  of  an  iiiidi  wide,  and  it  the  li^ht  can  iuither  he  made  to  pass  in  siic- 
t'es>ion  tliroin;li  several  prisms,  instead  ot  tlinnn^li  one,  the  hand  will  he  so 
ehuii^fated  theieiiy  that  its  various  and  siiiprisiiii,'  marking's  can  he  thoroui;hlv 
traced  and  fully  studied. 

To  this  hand  of  bright  culors  Sir  Isaac   Newton   i;a,ve  the    name   id'    the 


Tllli   Sl'EirUOSt  Ol'K 


solar  spectrum.      The  imat,'e   formed  by  the  li,<j;ht  of   any  luminous   body, 
after  it  has  passed  throuL,'h  a  prism,  is  said  to  be  the  spectrum  of  tluit  body. 

VIII.        Till':    SI'Kl  TK'OSCOI'I';     AMI     ITS     r  I.' I  f  AI  I'lIS. 

The  spectrosi'ope  consists  essentially  of  three  tubes  joined  in  the  i'onii  of 
the  letter  \'.  one  of  which  is  a  small  telescojie.  in  the  focus  of  \vhi(di  a 
narrow  slit  is  plae(!(l  to  admit  the  ray  of  light  that  is  to  \w  examined; 
a  prism,  or  a  ruled  grating  that  disperses  the  light,  so  as  to  form  a  spei'- 
trum  ;  and  a  view  tcdescope.  with  whiidi  to  observe  the  various  ])arts  of  the 
sjteetrum. 

l>y  using  a  small  t(descope  to  view  the  s])ectriim  of  the  sun,  Fraunhofer.  a 
(rcrmaii  optician,  in  1S14.  discovered  that  the  whole  length  of  the  s])eetruiii 
was  crowded  with  (hirk  lines,  very  narrow,  indeed,  but  scattered  all  throiigii 
the  seven  hues.     lie  fouiiil  that  sunlight,  whether  taken  directly  or  reflected 


"1 

. 

UumulBfll 

>  ■ 

I'WUHIimI 

.r 

^B  (J^HBIbO  h 

i] 

<i]vIbMHi 

,"  ' 

miiii 

i>n    'I 


■.  'l#ll*r'*' 


if 


YKUKKS   TELKSCOPE.    UNIVKItSITY    OF   (  IIICAdO. 
Large^^t  in  tlu'  W'oilil 


iillL, 


p  II 


W) 


riur.Mi'iis  AM)  i\()\i>h:i{s  of  the  a/.v"  cestluy 


i||''i 


ii  1 '  I 


1^  IBi 


Irdin  cIdikIs  or  Inmi  tlif  iikiihi  it  pliUh'ts,  inviiiiiililv  yiivc  tlic  same  spt'ctniui ; 
l)iit  in  lui  I'a.sf  did  lij,'lit   Irum  the  Ktarw  yivt-  a  .siH'ctniin  ot  tliu  suiuu  surt 


as 
tliat  t'nmi  tlif  sun. 

Dr.  Kirchlion'.  (d  Ilcididlicr;,'.  in  IN.'O.  cxplaint'd  tin-  (ui^'in  (if  tlii'  dark 
lines,  and  slmwcd  tliat  tiitTf  arc  tliffc  iiinds  ol'  spectra:  tirst,  that  (d'  an 
ini-andrsccnt  sidid  or  liipud,  wlutdi  is  always  perfect l_v  <Mintinu<ius,  sliowinj; 
ncitluT  dark  lines  nor  ltri,!.,dit  ;  seeond,  the  speetrnni  of  a  ),do\vinj,'  ^jas,  whieh 
consists  of  liiif,dit  lines  or  liands  sejiarated  !>'•  dark  spaces.  'I'lies*'  lines  are 
characteristic  of  tho  chemical  cienn-nts  that  cause  tiieni;  and  so.  from  the 
t'omiiosition  of  the  liri^dit  lines  in  a  siiectrnm,  it  is  possihle  to  ttdl  tiieir 
()ri},'in.  Tlnrd,  a  si)ectrnm  crossed  liy  dark  lines;  whicli  occurs  when  an  incan- 
descent soliil  is  viewt'd  throu^di  ahsorltent  vapors. 

In  the  scdar  eclipse  of  iSdS,  .^^.  .lanssen  tirst  noticed  that  the  solar 
prominences  <,'ave  a  spectrum  of  the  second  kind,  and  thus  proved  tliat  the 
jiromineiices  consist  of  .^lowing  ^ms.  Since  that  tinie  tlu'  march  of  iliscuvery 
lias  been  exceedingly  rajiid. 

This  simple  instrument  has  thus  led  the  way  to  a  knowlcdjre  of  the  idt;- 
incnts  composinj^'  every  heavenly  liody.  no  matter  what  its  distance,  jirovided 
only  it  is  j,nvin,i,'  out  lii,dit  intense  enon,y;h  to  rea(di  our  ga/e.  For  the  ]icriec- 
tion  Itoth  <d'  the  telescope  and  spectroscope  we  owe  much  to  the  ojitical  skill 
and  me(diaiiical  dexterity  of  tlu' ('larks  and  Iiowland,  Hastinj,'s  and  l>rashear, 
all  Amciicans. 

Ahont  forty  chemical  elements  have  now  been  vecoyni/ed  in  the  sun.  The 
most  ]»rominent  are  iron,  calcium.  hydroi,'en,  ni<'ktd.  and  sodium.  A  distor- 
tion, or  displacement,  of  some  of  the  lines  in  the  spectrum  enahles  lis  to  cal- 
culate the  speed  at  which  the  yases  are  rnshiny;  toward  or  from  ns.  A  <,dven 
line  in  the  spectrum  of  .Mdebaran  is  displaced  toward  the  violet  in  suck  a 
way  .as  to  show  that  the  star  is  approatdiinj,'  the  sun  at  the  rate  of  thirty 
miles  a  second;  while  a  similar  line,  in  the  case  of  Altair,  so  deviates  toward 
the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  as  to  ]>rove  that  it  is  rci'edin.n-  from  the  solar 
.system  ar  a  velocity  of  twenty -four  miles  a  second.  l>y  this  principle.  reco<f- 
ni/ed  by  J)o])pler  in  lcS4l.'.  the  motions  (d'  about  one  hundred  stars  toward  or 
from  the  solar  system  have  been  ascertained. 

There  is  no  (luestion  but  that  the  solar  system,  as  a  whole,  is  steadily 
movinj;  away  from  Sirins,  and  toward  the  constt'llation  of  Hercules;  whether 
faster  than  at  a  rate  (d'  twidve  miles  every  second  is  still  scarcely  decided; 
but  this  rate  would  be  about  a  million  miles  a  day,  or  three  hundred  and 
seventy  million  miles  a  year. 

IX,     WHAT   IS  iioXK   IN   A   i.Ai.Mii:  onsi:i;vA'roi;v ;    its  woiik. 

A  visitor  who  wants  to  know  what  is  done  in  a  ^^nwi  ob.servatory  might 
go  to  Harvard  some  evening.  He  would  ]irob;U)ly  find  the  large  refractor 
jiointed  toward  the  satellites  of  fFupiter,  rranus,  or  Xe])tnne.  with  a  view  of 
noting  their  ])recise  ])laces.  so  as  to  com])ute  tables  of  their  exact  motions; 
or  he  might  find  a  laborious  observer  watching  such  double  stars  as  have  con- 
siderable jtroper  motion,  and  making  drawings  of  conspicuous  nelnihe,  so  that 
future  astronomers  may  be  able  to  dt>cide  whether  time  has  wrought  any 
changes  in  their  constitution  or  figure.  The  great  glass  at  Princeton,  under 
the  charge  of  Professor  Charles  A.  Young,  is  largely  used  for  spectroscopic 


ASTtiOXOMV   IHIilSd    THE   CENTUUY 


07 


work,  cxuiuiiiiii^'  the  sun's  pliotdsiilicrc  lij-  day,  uiid  noting,'  tlif  s|iL'ctrii  til'  tlu> 
tars  at  ni^'lit.  Siicctnil  olisi-rvatinii  is  an  iiii|iortaiil  part  of  the  iimtiiic  at 
hi'  Vt'iUfs  ( thscrvatory  in  Wiscdnsin. 

Many  taint  <M)inft,s  liavc  lii'cn  sncci'sst'uUy  |ili()t(ij;i'a|tlic(l  at  tin-  l^ick  ( (liscr- 
.itdi'y,  iin  .Mniint  Hamilton,  Calil'nrnia,  and  flsfwliric  l»y  tin;  nsi-  ol'  very 
riisitivf  platt's  anil  a.  lonv,'  cxposiiif. 

S.  \V.  IJurnliani,  dI'  Cliica^'n,  is  lanicd  lor  his  anilfMrss  of  vision.  Icstrd  in 
lavin;;  dctt'i-tcd  and  nifasurtul  over  oiir  tlionsand  donlili'  stars  wliicli  to  otlicr 
■\i's  had  appcart'd  oidy  as  sinj^lf  stars,  'i'lir  discovery  of  these  objeets 
iii'ion^'S  wholly  to  the  ninett;<Mith  eentury  ;  I'or  in  ISO.'!.  Sir  William  llersehel 
iirst  annonneed  the  existence  of  sidereal  systems  I'omposed  u\  two  stars,  one 
u'Volviwj,'  around  the  other,  or  both  movinj;  about  a  common  ci'iitfe.  Some 
.il  these  binary  systems  have  periotls  of  as  \i,vvA\  a  len,i,'th  as  lifteen  hundred 
vears  ;  ami  sonut  un*  as  bri(d'  as  four,  and  even  two  days.  Some  ol  tln-m 
id'I'ord  curious  instances  of  contrasted  colors,  the  larLjer  star  red  or  ('ran,i;e, 
and  the  smaller  star  blue  or  ,i,n'een. 


t't,  II 


X.       TMI':    NA'rioNAI.    oltsKI£V.ATO;!V     A  r    \V  A  Sill  \  ( iTuN. 

I'rofessor  William  llarkness.  I'.  S.  N.,   M.  1).,  liL.  1)..  is  widel_\    known  as 

the   autlu)r  of   nnmerous    astronomical  _„,__._; _ 

and  physical  jiapers  and  books.     He  has  '  I 

also  (h'signed  u  number  of  instrup  •  ts 
and  uuidti  imports. t  discoveries,  lie  | 
lias  lonj,'  been  connected  with  the  Unit-  1 
cd  States  Maval  ( Miservatory.  and  now 
holds  the  position  of  .\stronomical  Di- 
rector. His  report  for  the  year  IS'.KS 
.^liows  thiit  thu  twenty-six  inch  rellector 
at  Washinj,'ton  is  now  nii^htly  en|J;ai,^'d  in 
iiiappuig-  the  relative  positions  of  Kliea 
iind  lapetus,  the  fifth  and  eighth  satel- 
lites of  Saturn,  with  tlic  intention  of 
.sccurin<4;  a  new  and  final  determination 
of  the  mass  of  that  ])lanet.  which  has 
iiccn  heretofore  I'ecdvoiied  as  one  .'M'.^Ud 
of  the  sun.  The  twelve-inch  ttdescopo 
is  chiefly  eni|»h)yed  in  studying'  comets 
and  asteroids,  and  on  'I'hursday  ev<'n- 
iic^s  is  at  the  service  of  the  public.  In 
the  year  l.S'.KS,  ;i77S  observations  were 
made  with  the  nine-inch  transit  circle,  for  which  two  men  were  detailed, 
with  tlui  services  of  live  computers. 

A  transit  circle  and  an  altazimuth  instrument.  ea(di  turned  out  of  solid 
steel,  have  recently  been  added  to  the  eipiiinuent.  and  are  oj'  a  winkmanshii) 
tiiat  compares  favorably  with  anythiii!:;' ever  nianufaetureil  in  Europe.  Iris 
asserted  that  the  latter  instrument  will  give  more  accurate  nut-asurements  of 
declination  tliaii  a  transit  circle,  which  is  an  innovation  on  loiiif-cherished 
ideas. 

Professor  Simon  Xewcouib,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  is  about  to  issue 
7 


ntOKKSSOI!    WII.I.IAM     n.M!KNI>S, 

A«li(iMiiiiiiial  liircrlor  I".  S.  Nm\  iil  <  Hi-iTVatiuy, 

\V;i-liiii^li>ii,  1).  (.'. 


F'P 


OT 


98 


T/iiriMPHS  AND    WOXDKliS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


new  tables  of  .Mars,  Uraims,  and  Neptune,  and  a  "  Catalogue  of  Fundamental 
Stars  for  the  Epoch  1900."  During  the  year  1,S!)S  three  thousand  copies  of 
the  Ameriean  Nautieal  Almanac  were  i)ul)lished.  This  is  but  an  illustration 
of  the  seientitic  labor  accomplished  at  this  busy  liive  of  industry.  During 
the  year  this  observatory  issued  to  tlu;  navy  L\')0  elironometers,  UOO  sextants 
and  octants,  and  1400  other  nautical  instruments  of  value. 


V   I'      I: 


XI.       STAU    MAI'S     AM>    (  ATALOCilKS, 

In  the  year  IL'S  li.  c.  llijiparciuis  ]iut  out  a  catalogue  of  102")  stars 
observed  at  Rhodes.  Twent}'  such  works  succeeded  this  uj)  to  the  year 
ISOl,  wiien  Lalande.  of  I'aris,  brought  out  a  list  of  47,.3JH)  stars.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  few  stars  have  names,  except  those  known  to  the  Arabians 
of  old,  but  are  designated  by  their  jtositions  in  the  heavens.  It  is  custuniary 
to  refer  to  them  by  their  declinations  and  right  ascensions,  as  so  many 
degrees  north  or  south  of  the  celestial  equator,  and  so  many  degrees,  or 
hours,  east  of  the  vernal  e(iuiiu)X  —  tifb^en  degrees  being  the  ecpiivalent  of 
an  hour  of  right  ascension  —  just  like  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  cities 
on  a  common  globe. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  many  celestial  atlases  and  astronomical 
catalogues  have  been  published.  These  contain  lists  of  comets  and  nebnhe, 
and  the  places  of  the  double  stars  and  of  the  fixed  stars.  Of  the  latter  alone 
over  one  hundred  have  api)eai'ed,  of  which  Argelander's  is  by  far  the  largest, 
as  it  contains  tlu!  i)laces  of  more  than  310,000  stars.  The  catalogue  prepared 
by  the  llritish  Associaticm  in  1845  is  of  great  value,  containing  S;}77  stars. 
^'arnal^s,  of  10,(558  stars,  i)ublished  in  "Washington  in  1873,  is  most  acces- 
sible to  us. 

Professor  C.  H.  F.  I'eters.  of  the  Hamilton  College  Observatory,  Clinton, 
N.  Y..  the  discoverer  of  so  many  asteroids,  has  prepai'ed  a  valuable  series  of 
star  charts.  V>y  dividing  the  lu>avens  into  small  scpiares  and  carefully  ])lu)to- 
graphing  each  of  them,  the  places  of  a  vast  inimber  of  stars  can  be  I'ecorded 
Avith  far  greater  accuracy  than  by  the  old  jjlan  of  a  separate  instrumental 
measurement  of  the  position  of  the  stars.  liy  the  use  of  microscoi)es  the 
determination  of  their  j)ositions  can  be  made  with  ])recision.  These  i)lates 
are  preserved  with  care,  and  when  those  of  the  same  region  of  the  skies, 
made  in  different  years,  are  com])ared,  any  variation  in  the  relative  jiositions 
of  the  objects  can  be  detected  with  certainty.  The  ])erfection  of  this  method 
of  star-ma] (ping  is  justly  deemed  one  of  the  most  important  acdiievements  of 
the  century. 

For  an  amateur  star-gazer  who  is  not  provided  with  a  set  of  maps,  "\^'hital^s 
I'lanisphere  is  a  very  ready  aid,  as  it  can  be  instantly  adjusted  to  any  day 
and  hour.  The  inexperienced,  and  those  who  have  no  instruments,  can  use 
it  with  ease  and  satisfaction  to  locate  a  thousand  of  the  most  conspicuous 
stars. 


XH.       ASTIiONOMKAri    HOOKS    AXD    THEIK    WKITKRS. 

In  England  this  attractive  study  has  been  ])opularized  chiefly  by  the  inter- 
esting works  of  the  two  Hersehels,  who  were  voluminous  writers,  the  lectures 
of  I'roctor.  and  the  admirable  com])end  of  facts  so  assiduously  gathered  by 
(}.  F.  Chambers  in  his  delightful  treatise  on  astronomy. 


\'   '-i 


ASTROyOMV  DUllL\U    THE   CENTURY 


IMt 


111  inir  own  tiouiitry  tin*  lu'ij;lits  of  tlicoit'tu-al  astronomy  have  been  scaled 
iiy  such  niiiids  as  licnjaniin  I'ieree,  the  profouml  niatlieiiiatician  of  Harvard 
I'liiversity;  James  C  Watson,  of  Ann  Arbor,  whose  early  death  was  a  threat 
loss  to  science;  and  Simon  Newcomb.  the  jj;enial  savant  of  Washington. 
Cliaiivenet  and  Loomis  have  tanght  us  the  meaning  of  iiractieal  astronomy  ; 
.111(1  (Hmsted,  Vonng,  Todd,  and  not  a  few  others  of  distinetion  have  prepared 
te.Kt-books  that  fully  present  the  elements  of  the  science. 

Xor  is  this  fascinating  study  limited  to  the  students  tif  the  4S4  colleges 

and  universities  of  tluf  land.     The  last  rejiort  of  the  I'liited  States  (Vmiiiiis- 

Moner  of  Education  shows  that  in  the  public  and  private  high  schools  of  tiie 

lation  there  are  over  nine  thousand  boys  and  si.\teen  thousand  girls  pursuing 

;  he  study  of  astronomy. 


xiii.      riiK  i'iiA(  rn  AL   rsi:s  of    asti!uN'o:\iv  as  a\   aid    ro  VAVKiAriox 

AM)    (iEODKSV. 

The  ])ractical  value  of  this  science  is  best  appreciated  by  the  navigator, 
vho  sees  in  the  sun  and  moon  his  clock,  and  in  the  stars  and  jilanets  the 
ready  means  of  learning  his  latitude  and  longitude.  It  is  one  of  tlu^  first 
lasks  of  the  midshipman  to  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  sextant,  by 
n  liici.  he  works  out  the  problem  of  ascertaining  the  exact  place  of  the  ship 
upon  the  ocean.  Navigation  is  lielpless  without  tht^  assistance  of  astronomy. 
\'et  it  is  only  the  A,  li,  C  of  the  science  that  the  sailor  has  any  use  for;  its 
higher  mysteries  are  away  beyond  his  needs  and  of  no  practical  profit  to  iiim. 

Nathaniel  Howditch,  of  Salem,  Mass..  in  1S02,  issued  a  book  entitled  "Tlie 
New  American  Practical  Navigator,''  which  is  still  a  standard  treatise  for 
seamen.  J  lis  rare  acquirements  as  a  mathenuitician  were  signally  displayed, 
mid  in  a  form  that  lias  proved  enduring,  when,  in  1S14-17,  he  translated  into 
l''-iiglish,  accompanied  with  copious  notes  of  his  own,  the  profound  work, 
••Celestial  Mechanics."  penned  by  the  gifted  La  l'lac«>  in  17119.  Although  in 
name  a  translation  of  a  foreign  book  with  a  commentary,  it  is  in  many 
ri'sjiects  an  original  work.  I'rofessor  Elias  Lo(miis,  who  left  to  ^'ale  I'lii- 
versity three  hundred  thousand  dollars  as  an  endowment  fund  to  aid  in 
prosecuting  astronomical  research,  said  of  him.  in  iSoO,  "IJowditch  has  prob- 
ably done  more  for  the  improvement  of  physical  astronomy  than  all  other 
Americans  combined."  Dr.  Jiowditch  ])ublislied  the  work  in  four  ponderous 
(piarto  volumes  wholly  at  liis  own  private  cost.  These  volumes  he  did  not 
expose  for  sale,  but  generously  gave  them  to  such  jiersons  as  proved  to  him 
tlieir  ability  to  apjn^eciate  and  comiirehend  them.  This  outlay  impaired  the 
lortunes  of  his  family,  but  became  his  own  uni(pie  monument. 

This  work  remains  one  of  the  most  profound  efforts  of  mathematical 
research  on  record.  Uowditch's  accuracy  has  passed  into  a  proverb.  He 
gave  the  latitude  of  all  the  ])rinci])al  seaports  of  the  world  with  marked  jire- 
fision  ;  while  some  of  the  longitudes  are  now  found  to  be  slightly  in  error,  it 
is  surprising  that  his  determinations  of  those  of  IJoston  and  riiiladeliihia 
should  be  exaxitly  the  same  as  those  obtained  by  the  best  methods  in  use 
to-day.  lUit  he  makes  San  Francisco  and  Halifax  seven  miles  too  far  to  the 
•Mst,  and  New  York  eight  miles  too  far  west.  I>ut  we  are  to  remember  that 
for  this  computation  the  best  available  instruments  were  the  chronometers 
of  a  centuiy  ago,  and  that  lunar  observations  were  made  with  the  old-time 
sextant. 


1 1 


n 


100 


TRIUMPHS   AM)    WONDEliS    OF   THE   XIX™  CENTURY 


As  applied  to  geodesy,  astronomy  lias  added  a  process  of  ascertaining  geo- 
graphical latitude  with  marvelous  accuracy  and  speed  by  the  use  of  the 
zenith  telescope,  an  instrument  devised  by  ]\[ajor  Talcott  in  ISoo.  This 
instrument  can  be  set  in  a  verti(!al  direction  with  ease,  and  be  pointed  alter- 


7.KMTU    TEI.KSCOPE. 
RI;iiU'  fur  I'liiviTsily  of  Pennsylvania  by  Warner  &  Swiisey. 

iiately  to  two  stars  thiit  cross  the  meridian  at  a  brief  interval  of  time,  the  one 
north  and  the  otlier  south  of  the  zenith.  JUtticulties  tiiat  arise  from  refnic 
tion  are  avoided,  and  the  residting  latitude  is  (luickly  comjmted.  This 
method  is  largely  enqdoyed  in  the  surveys  of  tlu^  public  lands,  as  also  in 
establishing  the  bouiularv  between  the  I'nited  States  and  British  Aniei'ica. 


m  ■ 


XIV, 


ASTROXOMY  DURING   THE  CENTURY 


XOTAlU,K    KIMXHS    IN    TlIK    MNM:TI:KNTH    CKN'TrKY. 


101 


Wortli  iniirkiiiL(  as  epochs  ut'  tlie  iiinetetMith  coiitmy  were  such  dates  as 
October  10,  1S4(),  when  the  tirst  (leteriniiiation  of  (litt'ereiice  of  loiij,'itU(le  of 
two  phices  was  made  hy  tlie  use  of  the  teh'j,M'ai)h  wire.  Sears  ('.  Walker,  in 
Washiu<;ton,  and  E.  Otis  Ivendall,  in  I'liihuU'lphia,  compared  their  ch)c,ks  hy 
interchanging  telegraphic  signals,  and  thus  found  their  respective  longitudes. 

In  1.S50,  Trofessor  William  ('.  ]>ond,  of  Harvard  College,  invented  the 
chronograph.  Through  the  urgency  of  Sir  David  Brewster,  it  was  slu>wn  in 
the  great  exhibition  of  that  year  in  London,  where  a  medal  was  awarded  for 
it.  The  chronograph  was  s[)ee(lily  adopted  throughout  Europe,  and  together 
with  other  a[>iiaratus  made  by  I»ond  constituted  what  there  became  known  as 
the  •' American  method"  of  recording  observations.  Through  it  the  errors 
for  which  the  ''personal  eciuation  "  is  a  partial  remedy  are  largely  elimi- 
nated, and  a  superior  detiniteness  of  record  is  obtained. 

On  August  7,  1S(>'.>,  the  tirst  apiilication  of  the  sjiectroscope  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  corona  of  the  sun  was  the  beginning  of  the  revelation  of  the  inner 
mysteries  of  the  constitution  and  activities  of  the  great  luminary.  The  tran- 
sit of  Venus  that  occurred  on  December  (>,  ISSL',  was  fruitful  in  measure- 
ments, by  which  the  estimates  of  the  distance  of  the  sun  were  reduced  from 
the  long-accepted  figures,  9;")  to  91.*  millions  of  miles.  Vet  this  loss  of  three 
millions  of  miles  resulted  from  the  ap])arently  trifling  change  of  reckoning 
the  sun's  parallax  at  S.Sl*",  instead  of  >>.'u".  An  occurrence  of  vast  practical 
advantage  to  the  whole  nation  was  that  of  November  1<S,  1<S.S.'5,  when  the  four 
standard  meridians  of  railroad  time  were  adoi)ted  and  ])ut  into  use.  Frftm 
that  day  the  clocks  of  the  Union  were  set  to  keep  either  Eastern,  Central, 
Mountain,  or  Pacific  Coast  time. 

Professor  Edward  E.  Uarnard  had  used  the  nuigniticent  telescope  of  thirty- 
six  inches  ajjcrture,  belonging  to  the  Lick  Observatory  in  California,  but  a 
short  time  before  he  astonished  the  world  by  discovering  fi  fifth  satellite  of 
Jupiter,  although  it  appeared  as  but  a  faint  speck  of  light.  Resides  other 
honors  for  this  achievement,  in  1S94  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  him  the  Arago  medal,  of  the  value  of  a  thousand  francs,  a  distinc- 
tion given  but  twice  before,  tirst  to  Le  Verrier,  for  the  discovery  of  Neptune 
in  l.S4(),  and  to  Asa])h  Hall,  for  finding  the  two  moons  of  ^fars  in  1877. 

"  Personal  equation  "'  is  the  name  given  to  tlu'  amount  of  error  to  which 
any  person  is  habitually  liable  in  attempting  to  note  the  time  of  a  tixed 
occurrence.  When  the  astrononu^r  looks  at  a  star  jiassing  the  cross-wires  of 
ins  transit,  he  is  likely  to  make  the  record  one  or  two  tenths  of  a  second 
after  the  true  time,  or  ])0ssibly  a  like  small  amount  of  time  before  the  actual 
occurrence,  by  antici])ation.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  wrong  intention,  nor 
due  to  willfulness.  l»ut  in  i)recise  observations,  es])ecially  where  compari- 
sons are  to  be  made  between  the  records  of  several  ]iersons,  the  ''personal 
equation"  must  l)e  determined,  if  possible,  and  allowed  for.  Various 
methods  of  correcting  this  inaccuracy  have  been  used.  P>ut  the  best  is  that 
of  Frank  H.  P>igelow,  of  the  Xauticid  Almanac  Ottice.  Washington,  who,  in 
lS9t>,  devised  a  process  of  taking  star  transits  by  jihotographj-.  It  entirely 
does  away  with  this  source  of  error,  and  has  proved  of  great  value. 


i: 


i 


S: 


lOJ  T/lirMPHS  A XI)    WOXDEliS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CEXTUIIY 


XV, 


I>IS('.\KI>KI>     IXXTRIXKS    ANT)    A  HAXDOXKl)    THKAS. 


A  few  f^ciifvatioiis  ;i<4(j  ati  cijflit-clay  clock  was  to  be  found  only  in  tlip 
honu's  of  \vcll-to-<lo  |)coi)le,  and  a  .ijold  watcli  was  a  symbol  of  wealth,  snch 
as  to  subject  its  wearer  to  a  special  tax.  In  this  a,t,'e  of  (h)llar  clocks  and 
Watcrbury  watches,  almanacs  are  no  lon.Ljer  indispensable.  We  do  not  regu- 
late our  time-jiieces  by  the  risin<f  and  setting  of  the  sun:  nor  can  a  future 
.lay  (iould  lay  the  foundation  of  his  fortune,  as  did  the  oiu' best  known  by 
that  name,  by  setting  up  rural  noon-marks  for  a  fixed  fee. 

Some  ])leasant  dreams  of  past  decades  have  vanished  in  the  light  of  recent 
knowledge.  The  nebular  hypothesis,  that  wondrous  conce])tion  of  Sweden- 
borg,  elal)orated  by  Jia  I'lace  and  esjunised  by  William  llerscliel  and  so  many 
others,  as  affording  a  full  ex|)lanation  of  the  nu'thod  by  which  our  worlds 
were  sha])ed  into  thciir  jjresent  forms,  has  ceased  to  have  general  acce])tance. 
AI.  Maedler,  director  of  tlie  Dorpat  (H)servatory  in  1S4(>.  had  a  firm  ])ersua- 
sion  that  the  collective  body  of  stars  visible  to  us  has  a  movenu'ut  of  revolu- 
tion al)out  a  centre  situated  in  the  group  of  the  Pleiades,  and  corresjtonding 
to  the  star  Alcyone.  I>ut  this  notion  of  a  central  sun  around  which  all  the 
solar  system  is  circling  has  lost  ground. 

The  distortion  in  the  orbit  of  the  planet  ]Mercury  has  been  accounted  for 
by  the  urgent  suggestion  that  there  must  be  some  planet,  as  yet  undiscovered, 
that  disturbs  the  regularity  of  Mercury's  movenuMits,  but  whose  orbit  is  so 
near  to  the  sun  as  to  bafHe  all  ordinary  efforts  to  see  it.  It  has  received,  by 
antici])ation,  the  ])i'enatal  name  of  A'ulcan.  Many  eyes  have  peered  nu)st 
intently  into  the  region  indicated,  and  .some  few  have  inuigined  they  had 
found  what  they  sought.  A  physician  of  the  village  of  Orgeres,  France. 
]M.  Lescarbault  by  name,  on  ]\Iarch  2(5,  18iV.».  saw  such  an  object  ])ass  over 
the  sun's  disk.  The  skillful  J^e  Verrier  was  nuudi  im])ressed  by  this  ]»hysi- 
cian's  minute  account  of  tlu^  occurrence.  Hut  there  was  lu)  confirmation  of 
the  alleged  discovery.  At  the  time  of  sid)se(pUMit  ecli])ses  that  ])art  of  the 
heavens  has  been  repeatedly  examined  clo.sely,  but  in  vain.  So  we  must 
wait  longer  before  believing  that  Vulcan  does  exist. 

When,  in  1S77.  Trofcssor  Hall,  through  the  ]iowerful  telesco])e  at  Wash- 
ington, saw  that  ,Mars  was  attended  by  two  tiny  satellites,  he  jtut  a  jierma- 
nent  injunction  on  the  further  use  of  the  once  favorite  ])hrase, 

"  I'lu'  >iiii\vy  |)iilcs  iif  in(iciiilf>>  M:hn." 

And  so  of  the  (pu>stion  oft  di.sousssed  in  the  old-time  debating  societies, 
"  Are  the  ])lancts  inhabited  ?  "  It  may  still  be  left  in  tiie  hands  of  young 
collegians,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  o\ir  largest  telesco{ies  give  only 
negative  testimony. 

In  a  solar  eclipse  in  I'Vbruary,  17">('>,  that  was  annular  in  shape,  just  before 
the  sun  was  completely  hidden,  the  narrow  horn  of  light  seenu'd  to  break 
into  a  series  of  dots,  or  luminous  jioints,  which,  wlien  noted  again  a  century 
later  and  described  1)V  Francis  Uaily.  received  the  name  of  '•  P>aily  i>eads." 
It  was  attempted  to  explain  this  as  caused  by  the  moon's  mountains  cutting 
off  the  last  rays  of  sunlight,  or  else  as  ])roduced  by  irradiation.  lUit  with 
the  advent  of  stronger  telescopic  power  the  phenomenon  has  cinne  to  an  end. 

David  Kittenhouse,  of  Xorristown.  whom  Thomas  .fefferson  consi(h'red  •'  sec- 


ASTJioyoMy  JX'iiiya  the  cEXTiiiV 


U)\\ 


iiid  to  no  iistirmoiiit'r  liviii;^'.''  built  an  orrery  worth  a  tliousand  dollars,  to 
illustrate  incchaiiiciiUy  the  motions  of  all  the  planets,  anil  tlio)i,<^li  the  instru- 
iii'ut  is  still  treasured  in  the  Tniversity  of  Pennsylvania,  and  its  dujilieiite 
il  I'rineeton,  among  the  relics  of  a  jiast  atje,  it  is  assigned  to  the  category 


lllllKK-lNt  11    TI!AN> 


liY    WAHNKK   &    SWASKY. 


(if  toys.  Mural  circles,  nnieh  th'])eiided  uimui  1o  meiisure  the  declination  of 
lieavenly  bodies,  ha\-e  fallen  into  disuse,  su[)[ilanted  by  improved  tniUbit 
instniinents. 


M 


my  jirobleins 


XVI.     I'l.'oiu.i'.Ms   I'oi;   I'l  ri  itK  sri  dv. 

are  in  store  lor  the  future.  The  tield  for  research  still 
u|iens  wide.  How  the  solar  activity  is  to  lie  nuiintained  was  answered  by 
Newton  in  the  suggestion  that  comets  falling  into  it  kept  up  its  supply  of 
matter  and  energy.  Waterston.  in  IS.").".,  propounded  the  thought  that  mete- 
oric matter  may  be  the  aliment  of  the  sun.     Now  the  prevalent  theory  is 


li'lP 


;m1!^J»* 


'x-m 


104 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOyDHIiS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


tliat  a  ooiitractioii  of  the  sun's  volume,  oonstaiitly  in  ]trof,M-('ss,  but  so  slif^lit 
as  to  he  invisiltlc  to  tlie  most  jiowevt'ul  tcU'scojK",  is  coinjit'tcnt  to  turnisli  a 
lit'at  suiijily  ecjual  to  all  that  can  have  been  cmittetl  durinff  historic  periods. 

ri'ofessor  Mewcomb  answers  the  (juestion,  "How  loni,^  will  the  sun  en- 
dure?" by  saying,  "The  physical  conclusion  to  which  we  ar(^  led  by  a  sttidy 
of  the  laws  of  nature  is  that  tlie  sun,  like  a  living  being,  must  have  a  birth 
and  will  have  an  end.  From  the  known  amount  of  heat  which  it  radiates  we 
i'an,  even  in  a  rude  way,  calculate  the  probable  length  of  its  lii'e.  From 
tifteen  to  twenty  millions  of  years  seems  to  be  the  limit  of  its  age  in  tht; 
liast.  and  it  may  exist  a  few  millions  of  years,  perhajis  live  or  ten,  in  the 
future." 

Si'.I.DKN    J.    CoKKIX. 


:(    ii- 


ji 


r.\IU)I,fS    MNN.K.rs   OK   S\VKI>i:\.    fathku   ok   MOHKUN    KOTANY. 

Tliis  illiistrntinn  wns  prppnrcil  liy  a  S\vHili>ili  society,  ami  reprospiits  the  fammis  liotanist  aftor  his 
return  from  the  exphiratioii  of  Lapland,  and  with  a  Imnch  nf  his  favorite  tiowtr  (Liiimun  burt- 
(illg\  in  his  liaiid. 

STORY  OF  PLANT  AND  FLOWER 

Botany,  in  its  ;j;pneral  souse,  si.^nitics  the  kiiowlcdLto  of  plants.  In  the 
oai'licr  periods  of  Inuuan  liistoiy  plants  appealed  to  mankind  as  material  for 
fond  or  medicine;  and  down  to  eomparatively  recent  times  Itotanioal  studies 
were  ]mrsued  mainly  in  these  directions.  Dioscorides.  a  (ireek,  wlio  lived  in 
tlie  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  is  the  earliest  writer  of  whom  ■«'»•  have 
knowled,iie  that  can  lay  a  claim  to  hotanieal  distinction,  hut  the  medical 
]iidpertv  <d'  jdants  was  evidently  tlie  chief  incentive  to  his  task.  It  was 
not  luitil  the  he<,nnnintj;  of  th«^  sixteenth  century  tiiat  hotany,  in  its  broad 
sense,  became  a  study,  and  Lt' Clluse.  a  French  iihysician.  wlio  died  in  l(i(»<», 
may  be  ref^arded  as  one  of  its  ])atriarchs.  Still  the  medical  uses  of  plants 
were  steadily  kept  in  view.  The  Knglish  botanist.  John  (lerarde,  who  was  a 
contemiiorary  of  Le  Cluse,  or  Clusius.  as  botanists  usually  call  him.  wrote 
a  remarkable  work  on  botany,  —  remarkable  for  his  time.  —  but  this  was 
styled  a  "  Herbal."  iis  Mere  other  famous  botanical  works  down  to  the  begin- 
nin<f  of  the  present  century. 


••■i  ti 


at. 


l\  1 11 


n 


106 


TRIUMrUS  AM)    WOXhKIlS   (H'  THE  XIX'"   CKNTURY 


li' 


Following  the  yt!iii'  1700,  (he  kiiowlctlgo  of  jiIhiiIs  iiidivithiiilly  lu'caim'  so 
oxtciuhMl  tliiit  systciiiatif  anaii^yciiit'iit  iM'caiiu;  dcsirahlc.  'I'lic  first  real 
ailvaiict'  ill  tiiis  (liicctioii  was  made  by  Carl  Von  liiiuic',  commonly  known  by 
its  Latin  form,  Linna'us,  a  Swede,  born  in  170".  and  whoso  tab-nts  for  botani- 
cal at'(|iiir('nii'nts  sccincd  almost  in- 
iiat*'.  In  bis  tw»  "ty-tbir<l  year  br 
saw  tbc  nt't'd  (d'  a  luittcr  system, 
and  coinnM'iiccd  at  oiici'  tlif  great 
work  of  botaiii(!al  reform.  He  .saw 
tbat  plants  with  a  certain  nniuber 
(d'  stamens  and  jii-stils  were  corre- 
lated, and  he  founded  das.ses  and 
orders  on  tiiem.  Klowers  with  live 
stamens  or  six  stamens  would  be- 
long to  his  class  ]ientandria  or  liex- 
audria.  respectively,  and  those  with 
iive  pistils  or  six  pistils  ])eiita- 
gynia,  or  hexagyiiia,  accordingly ; 
and  so  on  up  to  ])olyandria.  or 
ixdygyiiia  — many  stamens  or  pis- 
tils—  of  which  our  common  l)ut- 
tereup  is  an  illustration,  lie  fur- 
ther showed  that  two  names  only 
were  all  that  is  necessary  to  de- 
note any  jdaiit.  the  generic  name 
and  its  adjective,  as,  for  instance, 
L'oniiis  albii,  the  white  Dogwood; 
and  that  the  deseri|»tioiis  should 
be  brief,  covering  only  the  essen- 
tial ])oints  when'iii  one  species  of 
]>lant  (littered  from  another.  This 
became  known  as  the  sexiuil  sy.s- 
tem.  It  fairly  electrified  intelligent 
circles.  I'eojjle  generally  took  to 
counting  stamens  and  ])istils,  and 
large  numbers  took  jn'ide  in  being 
botanists  because  they  could  trace  so  easily  the  classes  and  orders  of  the 
jjlauts  they  met.  The  grand  old  man  died  in  177S,  and  though  his  artificial 
system  had  to  give  way  to  a  more  natural  method,  he  is  justly  regarded  as 
the  father  of  inoilern  botany. 

With  the  incoming  of  the  nineteenth  century,  botany  took  a  rapid  start. 
It  ceased  to  bo  a  mere  handmaid  to  the  study  of  medicine.  Chemistry,  geo- 
grai)hy,  ttdeology.  and  indeed  the  chief  foundations  of  biology  had  become 
closely  interwoven  with  botanical  studies;  and  thus  the  jirogress  of  botany 
through  the  century  li;is  to  be  viewed  from  many  standpoints. 

In  classification,  what  is  known  as  the  natural  system  has  replaced  the 
sexual.  I'lants  are  grouju'd  according  to  their  apparent  relationships.  Those 
resembling  in  general  character  the  Kose  form  the  order  h'dsori'd' :  the  Lily. 
J/iliiici'iv.     Sometimes,  however,  a  striking  characteristic  is  adopted  for  the 


TITK    fiin-.KN    liOSI.. 
Flower  witli  lo.ives  fur  pi'tals. 


•t        (1 


STOIIV  OF  PLANT  AND  FLOWEIt 


107 


liiiiiily  iKiiuc,  as  ('oiii/iiisifif.  or  ('(iin|iiiiiiiil  Howcr.  tor  tlic  daisy  and  astor- 
llowcrcd  jilaiits;  f'iii/ir//lfrrii;  or  iiinlx'l-Howcrini^,  as  in  carrot  or  paisley; 
Lri/iniiliii)S(f,  having,'  tiic  st-cd  vessels  as  lei^iimes,  like  peas  and  iieaiis. 

('lassiti(!iition  lias,  liowever.  derived  imieii  assistance  Ironi  a  wiiolly  new 
iiraneh  of  the  science  known  as  Morphology.  'I'his  teaches  that  all  jiarts  of 
|ilants  are  niodilications  of  other  parts.  Wiiat  Nature  may  have  intiMided  to 
lie  a  U'af  may  hccome  a  stem;  the  outer  series  of  floral  envelo|»es.  or  calyx, 
nay  hccomc  ]i('tiils ;  petals  may  Itecome  stamens;  and  even  pistils  may  lie- 
•ome  leaves,  or  ev«'n  hranches.  The  {j;reen  ros<'  of  the  tiorists  is  a  cast'  in 
which  tluf  leaves  that  should  have  been  chanj^ed  into  petals  to  form  a  perfect 
lose  flower  hav((  ]iersisted  in  continuinj,'  green  leaves,  though  mas(picradin},' 
,is  petals;  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  in  the  rose  case::!  when-  the  pistils 
liave  reverted  to  their  original  destination  as  tiie  analogue  of  l)ranches.  and 
have  started  a  growth  from  the  (H-ntre  of  the  flower.  So  in  an  orange,  the 
i'ar|iels,  or  divisions,  are  metamoridiosiMl  primary  leaves.  Two  series  of  five 
each  make  the  ten  divisions.  Sometimes  the  axis  starts  to  make  another 
Ljrowth,  as  noted  in  the  ro.so,  hut  does  not  get  far  before  it  is  arrosted,  and 
then  we  have  a  small  orange  insidt^  a  larger  one,  as  in  the 


navel  orange, 


.lust  the  rov«'rse  occurs  sometimes. 


Til 


lower  series  is  supi>ressed,  and  tnily  tlm  upper  one  devel- 
o])s  to  a  fruiting  stage,  when  the  small  red  oranges  known 
as  the  Tangerines  are  the  results.  Illustrations  of  these 
tiansformations  of  one  organ  to  another  are  freipient  if 


,e  h)ok  for  then 


The   annexed   illustration  sliows  a 


condition  of  the  white  clover,  which,  instead  of  the  usual 
round  head,  has  startcMl  on  as  a  racu'iiie  or  spike. 

These  wanderings  from  general  forms  were  formerly 
regarded  as  monsters,  of  no  particular  use  to  the  l)otani- 
( al  stu(h'nt,  Imt  are  now  wcdcomed  as  guiding  stars  to 
tiie  central  features  of  .Morjiliology.  The  importance  of 
branch  of  hotanv,  in  connection  with  classification. 


this 


can  rea( 


lily  1 


)(>  seen. 


The  studies  in  the  behavior  of  ]dants  have  mad<'  ic- 
iiiarkahle  ]»rogress  during  the  century,  and  this  also  de- 
rives much  aid  from  morphology.  The  strawberry  sends 
out  runners  from  which  new  plants  are  formed;  but.  tir- 
ing of  this,  event  lally  sends  the  runner  ui)ward  to  act  as 
a  tiower  stalk.      \^'lr'<-  might  have  been   but  a  bunch  of 


.*|^^<^!i«^v  " 


ives  and  roots  at  the  end  of  the  rnniu'r  is  i 


low  con- 


verted into  a  mass  of  Howers  and  pedicels  at  the  end  of 
a  I'ommon  jieduncle.  In  some  cases  Nature  reverses  this 
plan.  .M'ter  starting  the  structure  as  an  erect  friiit-be;ir- 
iug  stem,  it  sends  it  back  to  ]»ierce  the  ground  as  a  root 
sliouhl  do.     This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  ]>eanut. 

In  the  common   i'la-ro,  the  more  tropical  species  have 
erect  stems ;  but  in  the  form  known  in  gardens  as  Ad- 
am's needle  and  thread — Yiicru  HlnvwntDsii  —  the  erect 
stem  is  .sent  down  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is  then  a  rhizome, 
instead  of  a  caudex,  or  stem. 


IIKAI)  OK  WIIITK  CI.O- 
Viai,  WITH  A  llliANCII 
KIIOM    Till:  (  KNTIJK. 


lii  .1 


los 


TIUUMrilS  AND   WOSUEHS   OF  rilK  XIX'"  CKSrUllY 


Modificiitioii  ill  (umuectioii  with  l)phiivior  is  tuitlicr  ilhistrattul  by  the 
^Miiiioviiic  iiiid  Virginia  cn'cper.  Tlic  wliolo  It'iuliiij,'  slioot  is  licit!  pushed 
aside  by  tlie  develdpiiieiit  of  a  bud  at  tiie  Itase  of  tlie  h-af,  tiiat  takes  tlio  plaee 
of  a  h'ading  slioot.  Tlut  original  leader  then  beeoinos  a  teinh'il,  and  serves 
ill  the  economy  of  the  plant  by  clinying  to  trees  or  rocks,  or  in  coilinfr  around 


rF-ANI'T. 
A  poll  iiiiijinifietl. 


other  jtlants  in  support.  Great  jirogress  lias  been  made  in  this  department 
of  botany  within  recent  years.  i)arwin  has  shown  that  the  tendrils  of  sonic 
jtlaiits  continue  in  motion  for  some  time  in  order  to  find  something  to  cliiit; 
to.  The  grapevine  especially  spends  a  hmg  time  in  this  labor  if  there  is 
ditticulty  in  reaching  a  host.  The  plant  preserves  vital  jiower  all  this  time, 
but  no  sooner  is  support  found,  than  nutrition  is  cut  off,  and  the  tendril  dies, 
though,  hard  and  wiry,  it  serves  its  parent  plant  as  a  sujiport  better  dead 


sTonr  (H'  i'Last  .\m>  flower 


1(H.) 


liiiii  iilivo.  The  iim(»<iiit  of  nutrition  sju'iit  in  siistainiiij^  motion  is  louml  to 
ic  t'nonuous.  A  vine  tliiit  ciin  liMil  ready  moans  of  support  ^tows  with  a 
iiiu'li  UKirt'  lu'altliy  vi,i;nr  tiian  one  tiiat  lias  ditficulty  in  lindiuj,'  it.  Many 
^ijants  present  illustrations. 

Much  advance  lias  been  made  in  the  knowledi,'!'  ol  tiie  motions  of  plants  as 
I e^'ards  their  various  forms.  (Irowth  in  plants  is  not  continuous.  Iiut  is  a 
cries  of  rests  and  advances.  In  other 
.vords  it  is  rhythmic.  The  nodes,  or 
aiots,  in  the  stems  cd'  jjrasses  are  rcst- 
ii^'-lilaues.  When  a  rest  occurs,  ener.Ljy 
luay  be  exerted  in  a  iliiferent  direc- 
iioii,  and  a  clianj,n'  of  form  result. 
This  is  \V(dl  illustrated  by  the  com- 
mon Dof^wood  of  northern  woods,  Cur- 
iiiis  ^fforli/ii  on  the  eastern,  and  Cnnnis 
Xiifffif/i!  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
American  continent.  On  the  aitproach 
of  winter  tiu'  leaf  is  reduced  to  a  bud 
s<'ale,  and  then  rests.  When  sjirin;^'  re- 
Imns  these  scales  resume  i,'rowth  and 
iippear  as  white  bracts.  In  the  annexed 
iUustration  the  scales  that  served  for 
winter  ]trotection  to  the  buds  are  seen 
at  the  a])ex  of  the  bracts.  In  other 
species  of  Dogwood  the  bud  scales  do 
not  resume  j;rowth.  Knertfy  is  spent 
ill  another  dire(;tion.      In  this  nuinner 

\vc  have  an  insij;ht  as  to  the  cause  of  variation,  which  was  not  perceived  even 
so  recently  as  Darwin's  time.  ^Ve  now  say  that  variation  results  from  vary- 
uij,'  dejfrees  of  rhythmic  t,M'owth  —  force  ;  and  that  this  ajj;ain  is  governed  by 
varying  powers  of  assimilatit»n. 

The  Darwinian  view,  that  form  results  from  external  conditions  of  which 
the  plant  avails  itself  in  a  struggle  lor  existence,  is  still  widely  accc])tcd  as 
a  leading  factor  in  the  origin  of  species.  Those  which  can  assume  the 
strongest  weapons  of  defense  continue  to  exi.^t  iindi'r  the  changed  coiulitions. 
The  weaker  ones  do  not  survive,  and  we  only  know  of  them  as  fossils.  This 
is  termed  tlu'  doctrine  of  natural  selection. 

The  origin  ami  development  of  ]ilant-life.  or.  as  it  is  termed,  evolution,  has 
made  rapid  advancement  as  a  study  during  the  century.  That  there  has  Ix-en 
an  adaptation  to  conditions  in  somt^  respei-ts,  as  contended  by  .Mr.  Darwin 
and  his  followers,  nnist  be  correct.  The  oak  and  other  species  of  trees  nnist 
have  been  fornu'd  before  mistletoe  and  (jtlier  j)ai'asites  could  grow  on  them. 
In  the  common  Dod(h'r  —  species  of  Ciisriifa  —  the  seeds  germinate  in  the 
ground  like  ordinary  plants.  As  soon  as  they  find  something  to  attach  them- 
selves to,  they  cut  loose  from  mother  earth  and  live  wholly  on  the  host.  As 
a  speculation  it  seems  ])lausible  that  all  jiarasites  have  arisen  in  this  way. 
Some,  like  the  mistletoe,  liaving  the  i)ower,  at  length,  to  have  their  seeds 
germinate  on  the  host-plant,  have  left  their  terrestrial  origin  in  the  past 
uncertain.     A  number  of  parasites,  however,  do  not  seem  to  live  wholly  on 


OITI.INK  OK  A  WniTK    nodWOOM    KI.OWI.lt 

(CiiniiiM  Jhiri'lii),  snowiNo  in  D  s(  ai.ks 

OKVKI.OCKn   To    lUIACrs. 


IS 


I!'!! 


ill 


ii  iH '' 


I  (i 


flliii!: 


■ii,|' 


1:1  , 

I  ,   IS  '    .    !     >l 


110 


Tiur.Mi'iis  AM)  no.\i>i-:i,'s  or  riih:  .\i\"'  i/jyTUJiv 


tlir  |illlllls  tlii'V  ;ittiirll  tliciusi'lvcs  to.  'I'licsc  illr  iisil;ill_V  tlt'stitlllc  tit  j;iccli 
cnldl'.  'I'lir  llirliltll  |iipl>.  SlliiW  |iliillt  <•!'  tllf  I'ilcitic  Ciiast,  illlil  Si|||;i\V  limt,  (i| 
I  lie  Kaslrni  Stiitfs  iirc  i'Xiiiii|ilrs  ;  the  luriiici' fiillt'il  ^'liosl-tlnwrr  liniu  its  )iiilc- 
iifss.  'I'lu'sc  |iliiiits  Iiiivi'  little  ciirlMiiiiict'niis  iiiiittcr  in  tlicir  stnictiirt'.  iiml 
liciicc  lire  ri'j,'iir(k'(l  as  liiivin(,'  tDniird  a  Uiiiil  of  |iaitiM'rslii|>  with  l'mij,'i.  This 
is  known  now  as  synihiosis.  or  livin;^'  to^i'tlnT  of  dissiniilai'  orj,'anisnis.  •■ach 
<|i'|i('iiili'nl  niiitnallv.  'I'hc  fun,L,'ns  ami  llir  tlowciin^'  |ilant  in  llit-si' cases  are 
necessary  to  the  existence  of  each  other.  'I'in'v  (leniaud  nitro^'cn  instead  of 
eailioidiyilroids.  The  Sqnaw  inot.  ( 'niiiifi/ni/ls  .luirrlcaiin,  thoii^di  attached  to 
the  sniiterranean  portions  ot  the  tniidvs  ol  tri'cs.  is  proiiaidy  snstained  hv 
the  fiini^Mis  material  in  the  old  harU.  or  even  in  the  wood,  ratlicr  than  by  tiie 
orilinary  food  of  llowerin,!:,'  plants.  liiehcns.  as  it  is  now  well  known,  are  a 
t'omponnd  of  fnnyi  and  water  weeds  (al^^aM.  and  this  doctrine  of  syndiiosis 

is   ref,'arded  as  one  of  the  j,'reiit  advances  of  the 
eentnry. 

It  is  liut  fair  to  say  that  the  doctrine  of  evo- 
hitiou  liy  the  intlnence  of  external  conditions  in 
the  chan;j;e  of  form.  tlionj,di  widely  accepted  at 
this  time,  is  not  witliont  strong'  opponents,  who 
jioiiit  to  tlu'  occasional  devtdopment  or  suppres- 
sion of  parts  on  the  same  jthint,  though  the  exter- 
nal conditioiis  must  be  the  same.  For  instance, 
there  are  tiowers  that  Iiav*'  all  their  piirts  regu- 
lar, as  in  the  petals  of  a  buttercup;  and  irregular, 
as  in  th(^  snajwlragon  or  fox-glove.  J>iit  it  has 
been  noted  that  irregular  flowers  have  jjcudulous 
stalks,  while  tlu^  regular  ones  are  usually  erect. 
I>ut  once  in  a  while,  on  the  same  jilant.  tiowers 
normally  drooping  will  beeouie  erect.  In  these 
cases  the  tiowers  are  regular.  In  the  wild  snap- 
dragttn  or  yellow  toad-tlax,  Luinrla  I'li/f/ai'is,  one 
of  the  ]»etals  is  develo])ed  into  a  long  spur;  tin,' 
other  four  petals  have,  in  early  life,  become  con- 
nate and  transformed  into  parts  of  the  flower 
wlndly  uidike  ordinary  petals.  Hut  now  and  then 
the  original  jjctals  will  all  develop  spurs,  result- 
ing in  the  condition  technically  known  as  i)eloria. 
Linna'us  gave  this  nauu;  to  this  condition  be- 
cause it  was  supposed  to  be  "  monstrous,"  or  souu'- 
thing  op])Osed  to  law  and  order.  Through  the 
advance  in  niorjdiological  botany  we  have  learned 
to  regard  it  as  the  re.sidt  of  some  normal  law  of 
develo])ment,  innate  to  the  jdant,  and  wduch  could 
as  well  be  the  regular  as  the  occasional  condition. 
In  other  words,  there  is  no  reason  why  Nature 
might  not  make  the  tive-sjnnred  Hower  as  continuous  in  a  wild  sna])-dragon 
as  in  a  columbine.  Many  similar  facts  are  used  by  those  who  (piestion  the 
Darwinian  law  of  development. 

That  nutrition  has  more  to  do  in  the  evolution  of  form  than  external 


YEI.I.OW    TO.\D-Fl,.\X. 
Flower  in  tlie  peloria  state. 


sTony  in'  r/..\\T  .i.\i>  ri.nWEn 


111 


Idiccs   lias  r ivcil  iiiiicli  aiil.  iis  :i   tlicory.  fnnii   tlic  ailvitiicc  iliuiiij,'   rcrt'iit. 

nines    ol'   a    study  of  tlif   sciiaratr  scxi-s  nl'  llmvcrs.     (di  iMiiiitcroiis  trfcs. 

uotalily  till'   lirs.   itiiifs.   and  siinici's.  the  male  and   Icniale  llnwrrs  ari'  |in>- 

ilnci'd    s('|iaratrly.     'I'lu'    IVnialr.   wliicli  tinally  yii'ld  tlic  cnui's,   arc   always 

lioruf   tin  tlic    must  vi,i,'<H'iMiN    Inani-lics.      NVIicn    tlicsc    luanclics    lia\t!   tlicir 

-.iiplily  of  nntritinn  sliorti'iit'd  and   Ihtouh' weak,  only  niali'  Howi-rs  arc  pro- 

ihii'cd.    On  tilt'  tttlitT  iiand, 

liranflii's     noriiially    wt-ak 

will  at  tiuifs  j,'iiiii  incM't-ast'tl 

■;trt'n^tli,iiiitl  tlifii  tlif  malt- 

tltiwiTs   i^ivt'    ft'Mialo  ones. 

Tliis  is  iiftfu  seen  in  corn 

licltls.    'I'lif  j,'t'iii'rally  weak 

tasstd  will  have  grains  t)f 

ciirn  tiii-tnigli  it.     It  is  ntit 

mfretiuent    tit    find    what 

shoidd  nttrnially  In*  peilt'ft 

cars  itu  stalks  wcakiM'  tlian 

usual.      In  tht'Sf    i-ast-s  thts 

u])per  jKU'tittnof  tht't'ar  will 

Isivc  male  Howers  only. 

In  eoniipotioii  with  the 
doctrine  of  devidttpinent, 
nuudi  attention  has  been 
t,'iveu  tlnring  the  century 
to  fertilization  of  flowers 
antl  the  agency  <d'  insects 
in  connection  therewith. 
On  the  one  hantl  it  is  con- 

teiidetl  that  in  all  iirohahility  the  flowers  in  the  earlier  perituls  of  the  worliVs 
history  had  neither  color  nor  fragrance.  In  this  contlition  they  were  self-fer- 
tilizers, that  is,  were  fecundated  bj-  their  own  ptdlen.  In  modern  phraseology 
they  were  in  antl  in  Itreeth'rs.  Wlien  the  struggle  for  existence  becanit'  neces- 
sary, tht>se  whitdi  tuttdtl  get  a  cross  with  o\itsitle  ra(!es  became  more  vigorous  in 
their  progeny,  and  thus  hatl  an  advantage  in  the  struggle.  In  brief,  without  an 
ticcasional  introd\ictit»n  of  new  blood,  as  it  might  be  termed,  there  was  danger 
of  a  race  flying  out.  Tt)  sujiport  this  view,  .Mr.  Darwin  i)id)lishetl  the  result 
of  a  mimber  of  exi)eriments.  Many  of  them  t'avoretl  either  side,  btit  the  aver- 
age was  in  favor  of  the  view  that  crossing  was  advantageous.  Against  this  it 
has  been  urged  that  an  average  in  such  cases  is  not  conclusive.  If  a  num- 
ber, though  the  minor  niunber  of  cases,  showed  superiority  by  close  breeding 
in  his  limited  exjierinuints,  a  new  set  of  t)bservations  might  have  changeil  thts 
averages,  so  as  tt)  make  the  minor  figures  in  one  instaiu-e  the  major  in  others. 
.\gain,  it  is  contended  that  to  int^'ease  a  plant  by  tither  means  than  by  seetls 
must  be  the  closest  kintl  of  rejmxluction ;  yet  some  plants,  coeval  with  the 
history  of  man,  have  been  continuetl  by  offsets  antl  are  as  strong  and  vigtir- 
ous  as  ever.  Tlit^  IJanana  is  an  illustratitju.  I'mler  cultivatit)n  it  prt)duces 
only  seedless  fruits,  it  is  raist^d  wholly  from  young  suckers  or  offsets  from 
the  roots.  Mythology  gives  it  a  prominent  phute  in  the  (lartlen  of  Ktlen. 
and  its  botanical  name,  Miisa  p(trailisi(i<:u,  originated  in  this  legend. 


«iU.\INKn   COKNTASSKl 


i'r7J 


llti 


TRIUMPHS   AXh    WONJtKIlS   OF   TllIC  XIX'"   CENTURY 


■  i  '  '^  ■*  ;t  , 


Tli(ni!:,'h  much  lias  Immmi  rcconU'd  in  tliis  line  to  weaken  the  I'oice  of  the 
spcHuihitioiis  that  tlowers  late  in  the  historv  nt  the  earth  developed  eoloraiid 
sweet  st^cretioiis  in  order  to  attract  insects  to  aid  in  cross-fertilization,  they 
are  strongly  su])])orted  hy  the  laet  that  a  large  nundjer  of  species,  notably  of 
orchids,  an'  seldom  fertilized  without  insect  aid  in  pollination. 

l>ut  there  are  anomalies  even  here.  Some  plants  ea])ture  and  literally  eat 
the  instH^ts  that  should  he  regarded  as  their  benefactors.  These  are  classified 
as  insectivorous  jilants.  Some  seem  to  catch  the  insects  in  mere  sport,  while 
in  the  act  of  conveying  jiollen  to  them.  Tlu'se  are  known  as  cruel  jilaiits. 
There  are  numerous  illustrations  oi  this  among  the  families  of  J.sv/fy^/V/.s' and 

^■l/xici/innii,  thi-  milk-weed  fam- 
ily. In  our  gardens  a  Brazil- 
ian {■VuuXh'v,  Araiit/d,  or  I'/n/si- 
avflius  ii//iriis,  is  frcMpiently 
grown  for  its  waxy  flowers 
and  delicious  odor,  but  the 
treacherous  blossoms  are  fre- 
(piently  strung  with  the  in- 
sects it  lias  caught. 

in  the  nortliern  part  of 
America  a  common  wild  flower 
of  one  of  these  families,  .l/^"//- 
iiinii  iiii</n>siiiii/i)/!inii,  has  this 
insect-catching  habit.  Miimer- 
ous  small  insects  meet  death, 
and  hang  to  the  flowers  like 
scalps  to  the  wild  Indian. 

Considerable    advance    has 
been  made  in  vegetable  physi- 
ology, though   no  one   has  as 
yet  been  able  to  reach  tiii'  ori- 
gin of  the  life-power  in  plants. 
T'he  power  that  enables  an  oak 
to  maintain  its  liuge  branches 
in    a   horizontal    direction,   or 
thai  can  lift  or  overturn  huge 
rocks,  or  split  them  apart  as 
the  lightning  rifts  a  tree  trunk,  is  yet  uukiiowii.     <>ii  the  oi)posite  jiage  is  an 
illustration  of  a  circunislauce   fre(pientlv  observed,  wherein  even  a  delicate 
root  libit'  can  pierce  a  jiotato  or  otlier  structures. 

I'ossilily  tiie  greatest  botaiii<'al  advance  of  (he  century  is  in  relation  to 
eryptoganiii^  plants,  those  low  organisms  which  as  mildews  and  moulds  are 
most  familiar  to  ])eople  geuerallv.  .\s  niicroseoiies  increase  in  power,  new 
forms  are  discovered.  ( )ver  forty  thousand  sjiecies  have  ah'eaily  been  descrilied, 
and  we  may  fairly  say  that  there  are  nearly  half  as  many  forms  of  vegetable 
life  invisilih'  to  tiie  naked  eye  as  can  be  seen  by  our  unaided  visual  organs. 
Their  wants  and  beiiaviors  are  very  iiiucli  the  same  as  in  the  flowering  plants 
or  higher  orders,  as  they  are  usually  termed.  Ibit  there  is  one  great  difference 
in  this,  that  thev  feed  mainlvou  nitrogen,  and  have  no  use  for  carbon.     Tlie\ 


n.VNA.NA    Ki.OWiatS. 


STORY   OF  PLANT  AXI)  FLOWIUi 


113 


like 

liiis 
liliysi- 
;is  as 
|i'  (iri- 

iints. 
Ill  oak 

iiclu's 
111.   or 

Illlii'C 

Irt  as 
lis  an 
lii'uto 

1)11  to 

are 

j  IH'W 

li.'(l, 
lalile 
tans, 
tints 

'llCf 

riu'v 


TFIK    (  nrKI.-n.ANT. 
Huttertlv  caii,t;ht  in  tlu'  iIowit. 


care   little   for    liijht,    but   yet    have    an    iiiiward    teiideney   under    oortaiu 

loruis,  as  do  those  wliieli  seek  the  liglit.  The  agaries  that  revel  in  the  dark- 
ness of  a  coal  mine,  yet  eiirve  upward 

IS  heartily  as  a  corn  sju'out  in  the 

ipen  air.    .hist  as  in  Howering  plants, 

dso,  they  are  mostly  innocaioiis,  and 

iideed  many  ahsoliitely  heneticial  to 

aan,  a  very  small  portion  only  being 

iioisonous,  or  eonneeted  with  the  dis- 

(■ases  of  the   human  race.     Even  in 

■  hese    eases   their    power    is   eloseiy 

L;iiarded   by  nature.      The  spores  of 

luiigi  are  found  to  re(piire  siieh  a  nice 

mmbination  of  conditions  before  they 

L;t'rminate,  that,  nidess    these   occur, 

tliey  will  retain  their  vegetative  power 

many  years  in  a  state  of  absolute  rest.    The  mycelium  of  the  miisliidoni.  as  the 

ival  plant  —  the  cobwebby  portion  under  ground  —  only  starts  to  grow  when 

just  so  many  degrees  of  heat,  neither  more  nor  less,  witli  just  so  iiiucli  mois- 
ture. an<l  the  proper  food,  are  all 
at  hand  together;  and  large  num- 
bers are  known  to  be  very  select 
in  tiie  kind  of  food  they  will 
make  use  of  at  all.  One  genus, 
known  as  Cnri/ifcf/is.  will  only 
start  when  the  spore  comes  in 
contact  with  the  head  of  a  catier- 
jiillar.  And  various  species  of 
tlie  genus  will  avoid  a  kiiul  of 
caterpillar  that  another  would 
enjoy.  In  our  own  country  we 
have  one  that  feeds  on  the  larvae 
of  tlie  .May  l>eetle.  and  is  known 
as  ( 'iirdf/cr/is  Mr/ii/iiiif/nr,  In 
C       ~^>'|R|j^HHBb^|^'^^,^I||HHBN  Australia    is  a  very  jiretty  spe- 

\  nVRIiMHlliffilililR&annS^'^N         '''''^-  ^^liieh  takes  on  the  a])i)ear- 

aiice  of  llie  antlers  of  a  deer. 
This  is  known  as  Cordi/ii/is  Ati- 
</rrirsi!. 

The  most  minute  of  these  are 
known  as  microbi's.  They  are 
chietly  composed  of  a  single  cell, 
ill  tlie  midst  of  wliicli  is  tlie  pro- 
toplasm, or  material  in  which 
lite  resides,  but  the  exact  na- 
ture of  which  is  still  a  mys- 
tery. 

One  of  the  most   useful   and 
fascinating  studies  in  modern  times  is  CJeograpliical  Itotany.     It  is  found  to 


OI.U   POTATO   PKM'.TItATKn   ItV    UOOTI.KT   WITH 
A    NKW    I'orATO. 


i  I! 


114         TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


have  a  close  relation  to  the  history  of  man,  and  to  the  changes  which  have 
occurred  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Plants  fol- 
low man  wherever  he  wanders ;  and  though  every 
other  trace  of  man  should  be  abolished  on  the 
American  continent,  the  plants  that  came  with 
him  from  the  ( )ld  World  would  enable  the  future 
historian  to  follow  liis  tracks  here  pretty  well. 
No  one  has  any  historical  evidence  that  what  is 
now  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  once  land,  and  that 
the  area  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  ^lis- 
sissiii})i  was  once  a  huge  sea,  but  botany  tells  the 
plain  story.  Only  for  botany  we  should  not 
know  that  the  land  now  serving  as  the  poles  was 
once  within  the  tropics ;  and  mainly  by  fossil 
gum  trees  on  the  American  continent,  and  the 
existence  still  of  a  few  plants  coninnm  to  Aus- 
tralia, have  we  the  knowledge  of  some  land  con- 
nection between  these  distant  shores.  Island 
floras,  some  of  the  species  of  which  are  now 
found  only  in  very  limited  areas,  tell  of  large 
tracts  submerged  of  which  only  the  nioiuitain 
peaks  are  left  as  small  islands,  lonely  in  a  wide 
ex))ans('  of  water,  while  other  islands,  with  only 
a  limited  number  of  well  known  species,  tell  of 
new  upheavals  within  modern  times. 

It  is  in  these 
lines  chiefly 
that  botany  has 
advanced  dur- 
ing the  cen- 
tury. Herbari- 
ums for  dryand 
b  o  t  a  n  i  c  gar- 
dens for  living  plants  are  essential.  The  latter  are  not  as  necessary  to  the 
study  as  formerly,  as  the  facilities  for  travel  bring  the  votaries  of  the  science 
to  distant  places  in  a  short  time.  Nature  furnishes  the  living  nuiterial  for 
study  at  a  less  outlay  of  time  and  money  than  in  the  old  way  of  growing  the 
plants  for  the  purpose.  Few  modern  botanic  gardens  have  the  fame  of  those 
of  the  i)ast.  It  is  the  great  Herbarium  of  Kew,  rather  than  the  living  plants, 
that  makes  that  famous  spot  the  great  school  for  botany  to-day.  In  our  own 
country,  the  Herbariums  of  (.'ambridge,  Mass. ;  Columbia  College,  New  York ; 
the  National  at  Washington ;  and  that  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia,  are  the  most  famous  in  America. 

Thomas  Meehan. 


A  FUNGUS  {Cordyceps  Andnimi)  grow  no  from  the  head 

OF   A  CATERPILLAR. 


PROGRESS   OF   WOMEN   WITHIN  THE  CENTURY 

TnK  whole  woman  question  may  be  brietly  summed  up  as  a  century-old 
struggle  between  conservatism  and  progress.  Women  are  moving  irregularly, 
and  perhaps  illogically,  along  certain  lines  of  development  toward  a  point 
that  will  probably  be  reached;  while  conservatism,  halting  and  fearful,  is 
struggling  blindly  to  hold  points  and  maintain  lines  that  must  be  given  up. 

Unfortunately  for  the  rapidity  of  women's  advancement,  women  them- 
selves have  no  thoroughness,  no  clearness,  as  to  the  fundamental  cause  of 
their  grievances  or  the  ends  to  be  attained,  and  are  not  yet  alive  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  fact  that  the  rpu>stiou  of  woman's  rights  is  simply  and 
jiurely  a  question  of  human  rights,  the  basic  solution  of  which,  on  the  broad 
plane  of  justice,  will  solve  all  the  social,  political,  and  industrial  problems  of 
wliich  the  woman  cpiestion  forms  a  part. 

The  time  when  woman  suffered  silently  and  toiled  patiently  without  once 
(luestioning  the  justice  of  her  lot  has  happily  passed  forever.  Confusion  and 
antagonism  are  engendered  because  of  misunderstanding  of  tlu!  real  move- 
ment. Women  are  consciously  or  unconsciously  struggling  for  that  selfhood 
which  has  hitherto  been  denied  them,  and  are  seeking  for  0[)portunity  to 
develop  that  personality  which  Hrowning,  Kuskin.  and  other  broad  thinkers 
declare  "  is  the  good  of  the  race."  The  most  discouraging  feature  of  the 
situation  is  the  fact  that  women  as  a  whole  do  not  realize  that  a  politically 
inferior  class  is  a  degraded  class;  a  disfranchised  class,  an  oppressed  class; 
and  that  her  economic  dependence  upon  man  is  the  basic  cause  of  her 
inferiority. 

The  grievances  openly  proclaimed  by  the  advocates  of  woman  suffrage  as 
causes  of  hostility  are  too  frequently  childish,  unreasonable,  and  unworthy 
(if  serious  attention.  In  the  majority  of  cases  they  centre  ai'ound  some 
fancied  wrong  that  is  a  result  rather  than  a  cause.  The  keynote  not  only  to 
the  woman  ([uestion,  but  to  the  labor  cpu'stion  may  be  found  in  the  words  of 
that  deep  thinker  and  aide  writer,  August  J5ebel :  "The  basis  of  all  oppres- 
sion is  economic  dependence  ui)on  the  opjn-essor."  The  widespread  discon- 
tent with  present  social  conditions  is  an  augury  of  hope  for  the  future. 
There  is  no  element  in  the  unrest  which  need  excite  grave  a])]»rehension. 
Thoughtful  people  perceive  clearly  that  women  are  intensely  human,  nothing 
more,  and  that  as  human  beings  they  are  entitled  not  onlj'  to  food,  clothes, 
and  shelter,  but  to  an  opportunity  for  development. 

It  is  oidy  as  Ave  are  familiar  with  the  opj)ression  that  has  been  the  common 
lot  of  women  since  the  beginning  fif  time  that  we  can  realize  that  her  lot  has 
been  sweetened,  her  condition  ameliorate*!,  and  her  progress  within  the  cen- 
tury marvelous  indeed.  The  woman  (piestion,  historically  considered,  con- 
tains all  the  ])hvsical  subjugation  and  consequent  inferiority  which  consti- 
tuted all  the  differentiation  between  the  physical  and  mental  powers  of  men 


I! 


I 


'  I'-! 


I  1:1 


lift 


TRILMPHS  A\J)    n'OMJhUS   OF   TIIK   XIX'"  CENTUllY 


i  I 


li^ 


ii 


t    Ml 


and  wonu'ii.  It  <M)iitaiiis  all  the  luiiniliatiuii,  uncertainty,  and  ultimate  hope 
of  her  t'litiire.  The  history  of  the  woman  (juestiitn  is  analoj^otis  witii  the 
history  of  the  lalxir  (juestion,  with  tiie  difference  tiuit  woman  slavery  had  its 
origin  in  the  peculiarities  ot  her  sexual  being,  while  the  laborer's  slavery 
began  when  he  was  robbed  of  the  land  wliich  is  the  birthright  of  every 
human  being.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  woman's  slavery  antedates  the 
thralldom  of  the  thrall,  and  -was  more  humiliating,  more  degrading,  because 
she  was  treated  and  regarded  by  the  laborer  as  his  servant,  his  inferior." 
This  condition  largely  j)revails  among  laborers  to-(hiy.  and  was  indirectly 
given  utterance  to  a  few  weeks  ago,  when  some  of  the  members  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  fornudated  a  traditional  resohition  demanding 
that  "  wonu'U  be  excluded  from  all  pidWic  work  and  relegated  to  the  liome." — 
a  demand  that  would  be  to  sonu'  extent  reasonable,  and  no  doubt  acceptable, 
to  the  great  army  of  workiug-wonu'n.  had  the  chivalrous  laborers  who  fornui- 
lated  the  demand  the  ability  and  industry  to  j)rovide  a  home  for  th(^  women 
■whom  they  would  render  paupers  by  de])rivation  of  work,  and  for  the  chil- 
dren for  whom  their  fathers  were  unable  to  provide.  It  is  gratifying  to 
know  that  this  resolution  Avas  lost  in  the  committee  room,  and  thai  ts 
formulation  was  greeted  b}'  the  press  of  the  wliole  country  with  ■  storm  of 
deserved  disapjjroval. 

Inasmuch  as  the  ra])idly  increasing  number  of  bread-winners  among  women 
makes  it  evident  that  men  are  either  unable  or  incompetent  to  provide  for 
them,  it  remains  for  the  working-women  of  the  country  to  formulate  a  reso- 
lution demanding  that  men  be  excluded  from  all  work  that  ha.s  hitherto  been 
considered  as  belonging  to  or  peeidiarly  adapted  to  women.  ^Vhat  an  army 
of  mosquito-leggeil  men  from  the  eating-houses,  laundries,  and  dry-goods 
establishments  would  rise  up  to  proclaim  the  idiocy  of  women  ami  i)rotest 
against  such  injustice  ! 

On  the  threshold  of  the  world's  morning,  says  a  distinguished  writer  and 
worker  in  the  German  Reichstag  of  to-day.  we  may  correctly  assume  that 
wonum  was  man's  etjual  in  mental  and  i)hysical  power.  But  she  became  liis 
inferior  -[diysically,  and  conseiiuently  dejtendent  upon  his  bounty,  during 
periods  of  ])regnaney.  childbirth,  and  child-rearing,  when  her  helplessness 
forced  her  to  look  t(j  him  for  food  and  shelter.  ]n  the  childhood  of  the  race 
might  made  right ;  brute  strength  was  tlie  standard  of  superiority  ;  the 
struggle  for  existence  was  cnule  and  savage;  ami  thus  this  occasional  help- 
lessness becanu'  the  nmnner  of  her  bomhtge. 

That  nature  is  ])rimarily  res])ousii»le  for  the  centuries  of  woman's  enslave- 
ment there  can  be  no  doubt.  And  as  nature's  laws  are  unchanging,  the 
advocates  of  woman's  jjolitical  advancement  would  do  well  to  rememl)er  tliat 
woman's  greatest  importance  as  a  public  factor  can  only  begin  when  the 
function  of  motherhood  ceases.  "In  a  real  sense,  as  a  factory  is  meant  to 
turn  out  locomotives  or  clocks,  the  machinery  of  nature  is  designed  in  the 
la.st  resort  to  turn  out  mothers.  Life  to  the  human  species  is  not  a  random 
series  of  random  efforts;  its  course  is  set  as  rigidly  as-  the  ])athway  of  the 
stars;  its  laws  are  as  imnuitable  as  the  laws  of  the  ^ledes  and  I'ersians." 
(  Drummond's  Ascent  of  Man.) 

Nature's  great  work  for  the  individual  is  re])roduction  and  care  of  the 
species.     The  first,  Drummond  terms  the  cosmic  process;    the  second,  tlit 


I'JloaliKSS   OF    noMKX    WITIIIX   THE   CHMUHY 


111 


uini'iil  ]tro('t'ss.  Statistics  sIkiw  that  oin'  I'liiid  out  of  every  tlircc  dies  bct'oro 
iiiaturity,  uml  iiatim-'s  task  is  iiicdiuplctt'  unless  at  least  two  children  lie 
reared  to  the  adult  fi^e  liy  every  ianiily.  Kvery  couple,  then,  at  miirriaj^;*', 
assuuu'S  the  respousiliility  to  society  aud  |posterity  of  hriuj^ini^  three  children 
into  the  world.  Woman's  ])art  in  the  stujiendous  eeononiy  of  nature  is  first 
lud  distiiu'tively  most  important,  that  of  motherhood.  She  can  only  jiay  lu'r 
leiit  to  nature,  f'ultill  her  mission  to  the  world,  and  discharge  her  olili,i;ations 


m 

i. 

I 

T 

1 

MAUV    ELlZABKin    I.KASK 

to  hunuuiity  by  faithfully  disehars^iui,'  the  duties  of  motherhood.  I>ut  as  tlie 
function  of  motherhood  ceases  when  the  woman  is  in  the  prime  of  life, 
ripened  by  ex{»erieuce  and  fortified  by  maternal  ties,  she  may  yet  have  ample 
o|i]iortunity  to  exert  her  far-reachiusj:  intluenee  in  ])ublic  work  wlien  slie  lias 
cxemplitied  in  her  own  life  the  words,  Home,  T-ove.  Mother.  And  there  is, 
there  can  be.  no  rational  objection  to  lirantint;-  the  fullest  suffrage  to  woman 
lit  this  period. 

Having  located  the  basic  cause  of  her  dependence,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
only  solution  possible  for  the  complete  emaiu'ipation  and  nuuital  and  pliysi- 
r;il  development  of  woman  is  to  reiuh-r  her,  through  industrial  freedom,  so 
iconomieally  independent  in  every  way  of  man's  grudging  bounty  that  she 


si 


M:l 


111 


;::l 


I  '\'} 


nyj 


I  i, 


1,  rt 


118 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


will  scorn  his  pity,  resent  his  abuse,  and  claim  her  right  to  fullest  intlividual- 
itv  and  opportunity  as  .-i  human  hoing. 

For  countless  aj,'es  women  were  separated  from  the  world  by  a  barrier  as 
effective  as  the  myriad-miled  wall  of  China;  vaeiUating  between  the  eon- 
diti(m  of  slave  and  HU])erintendt'nt  of  the  kitchen;  taught  nothing  but  those 
flimsy  accomplishments  that  would  catch  the  eye  of  tiie  prospective  husband 
and  master;  sneered  at,  ridiculed,  and  abused  whenever  shi;  attempted  to 
cross  tlu>  line  which  lioary  prophets  and  patriarchal  slaveholders  had  marked 
across  her  path;  subject  to  man's  whim  and  caprice;  her  physical  develoji- 
ment.  in  time,  became  meagre  and  crippled.  And  as  her  mental  faculties 
were  repressed  and  imi)risoned  in  the  narrowest  circle  of  feminine  ojjinions, 
it  became  difhcidt  for  her  to  rise  above  the  most  commonplace  trivialities  of 
life.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  term  "  Weaker  Sex,"' originally  used  to 
convey  oidy  the  acknowledged  truth  that  women  are  inferior  to  men  in 
physical  strength,  came  to  include  the  mind  as  well  as  body.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  tlit>  jiositiou  of  women  for  long  centuries  was  inevitably  one  of  extreme 
cruelty  and  oppression.  Countless  bitter  and  unnecessary  limitations  hedged 
her  pathway  and  obstructed  her  development  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave. 
It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  she  in  time  became  so  inured  to  her  degrad- 
ing servituch'  as  to  accept  it  as  her  natural  position.  Madame  De  Stael  has 
truly  said,  "Of  all  the  gifts  and  faculties  which  imture  has  lavishly  bestowed 
ui)oii  woman,  she  has  been  allowed  to  exercise  fully  but  one.  the  faculty  to 
suffer."  The  extent  of  this  suffering  and  the  deteriorating  influence  which 
it  has  exerted  upon  the  race  can  never  be  estimated  till  Finis  is  written  to 
the  story  of  humanity. 

In  the  noonday  of  (Jrecian  power  and  learning,  woman  trod  not  beside 
man  as  helpmate  and  com])anion,  but  followed  as  his  slave.  Demosthenes 
defines  the  wife  as  the  "bearer  of  children,  the  faithful  watch-dog  who 
guards  the  house  for  her  master."  At  the  Council  of  ^Nlacon,  held  in  the 
sixth  century,  the  question  of  the  soul  and  humanity  of  women  was  gravely 
■weighed  and  debated,  profound  doctors  of  theology  maintaining  that  "woman 
is  not  a  subject  but  an  object  for  man's  use  and  pleasure."  For  centuries 
theological  divines  whetted  their  wit  on  helpless  woman ;  and  the  church  in 
holy  zeal  persecuted  the  woman  who  was  guilty  of  a  fault  as  a  "  daughter  of 
the  devil,"  and  held  her  u])  to  publie  contumely  as  the  concentration  of  all 
evil. 

Christianity,  indeed,  offered  emanci])ation  to  women.  It  proclaimed  :; 
startling  doctrine.  —  the  equality  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  weak  and  the 
strong,  in  the  sight  of  God  the  Father.  And  it  became  evident  that  such 
teachings  would  inevitably  break  down  the  barriers  of  class  and  caste, 
eliminate  injustice,  and  usher  in  a  time  when  all  should  stand  e(p\al  before 
the  law.  llut  alas,  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  isolated  and  individual 
instances,  has  never  been  offered  an  oi)i)ortunity  to  test  the  efficacy  of  the 
all-corrective  principles  of  the  religion  which  Christ  gave  to  the  world.  The 
repression  of  women  biasi'd  the  reformatory  tendencies  of  Christianity,  ami 
rendered  it  as  ineffective  as  a  medium  of  relief  to  the  oppressed  as  our  one 
sided  jiolitical  system  of  to-day.  Christianity,  under  masculine  domination, 
was  lost  in  the  rubbish  of  churchianity,  which,  ]»rofessing  but  failing  to  ]irac 
tice  the  religion  of  Christ,  has  held  woman  in  the  same  contempt  in  whicl' 


■K! 


1^ 

i 


PIWGUESS   OF   WOMEN    WITHIN    THE   CENTURY 


119 


iividuiil- 

irrier  us 
the  con- 
ut  those 
husband 
ipttnl  t" 
.  mavkcd 
dovidop- 
facultics 
:i])ini()iis, 
alities  of 
used  to 
men  in 
this  as  it 
:  extreme 
IS  hedged 
he  grave. 
r  degrad- 
Stai'l  has 
bestowed 
faeulty  to 
ice  which 
written  to 

ot   besiile 

osthenes 

rdog  who 

lid  in  tlie 

Is  gravely 

"  woman 

[centuries 

dinrcli  in 

[.ighter  of 

m  of  all 

laimed  ". 
and  the 
|iat  such 
Id  caste. 
Ill  be  fori' 
idividual 
|v  of  til." 
id.     The 
lity,  and 
Ipur  one- 
Unation. 
[to  prae- 
li  whicl' 


she  lias  been  held  by  all  the  ancient  and  idolatrous  religions  of  the  world. 
Vet  despite  the  fact  that  the  great  Master,  were  lie  to  come  to-tlay,  would 
scarcely  recognize  in  tlie  dnirches  a  trace  of  tin;  code  which  He  lived  and 
lied  to  exemplify,  it  must  not  l)e  forgotten  that  the  vital  i)rinciple  of  religion 
never  dies.  It  eventually  attains  fullest  development,  and  becomes  identified 
with  the  progress  of  civilization  and  the  highest  |mrj)ose  of  a  people.  There- 
fore, we  may  reverently  believer 
hat  in  the  idtinuittt  triumi>ii  and 
rehabilitation  of  practical  (.Jhris- 
lianity  lies  tin?  hope  of  the  oj)- 
jiressed,  and  true  liberty  not  only 
tor  women,  but  for  every  human 
lieing. 

Even  now  tlie  mists  are  lifting. 
The  great  change  in  the  position 
of  women  —  legal,  social,  and  edu- 
cational —  within  a  hundred  years 
is  breaking  even  the  hard  siiell  of 
(irtho(h)X  usage.  Whole  denomi- 
nations have  dr()i)j)ed  the  word 
'•  obey  "  from  the  marriage  service. 
Many  ministers  fre(piently  omit 
it.  or,  if  administered,  it  is  pro- 
iioiniced  by  the  bride  with  mental 
reservation  and  looked  upon  as  a 
word  that  has  only  the  most  re- 
mote and  shadowy  significance. 
The  new  Avine  is  breaking  the  old 
lu)ttles;  the  spirit  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  too  ])rogressive 
for  the  usages  and  traditions  of 
the  eleventh  century.  ]\Iodern  churchianity,  realizing  that  women  constitute 
three  fourths  of  its  mend)ership,  no  longer  wages  a  merciless  warfare  upon 
them.  It  has  relaxed  its  Pauline  grip  u]K)n  her  throat,  "  1  suffer  not  a 
woman  to  speak  in  the  churches."  And  the  more  advanced  theological 
!)odies  have  offered  her  the  intellectual  hosjntality  of  the  ])uli)it,  where  her 
eloquence  is  a  jtleasing  change  to  those  who  have  grown  tired  of  ))reaehers' 
platitudes.  Clerical  decrees  are  no  longer  hurled  at  her  defenseless  head. 
The  doors  of  chundies,  schools,  and  colleges  are  swinging  wide  at  her 
ajiproach,  though  they  sometimes  creak  on  their  hinges.  The  ministers  no 
longer  openly  advocate  that  the  gates  of  opportunity  be  bolted  and  barred 
against  her.  There  is  everything  to  stinuilate  hope ;  the  wings  of  feminine 
nature  have  expanded  till  a  return  to  the  chrysalis  is  impossible. 

It  is  true  that  a  very  large  munber  yet  ])rofess  to  believe  that  a  woman 
fulfills  her  whole  mission  in  the  world  when  she  makes  herself  as  pretty  and 
agreeable  ,as  possible,  and  devotes  all  her  time  and  attention  to  the  discharge 
of  domestic  duties.  I>ut  there  has  been  a  wonderfid  modification  of  oi)inion 
since  Schopenhauer  declared  that  "  woman  is  not  called  to  great  things. 
She  pays  her  debt  to  life  by  the  throes  of  birth,  care  of  the  children,  and 


\-.% 


;  ?4, 


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V 


:'f|i' 

ii:' :: 

MM 

^1811 

iif 

■  jina  1 

11 

120 


TRIUMPHS   A XI)    nOMJKRS   OF   THE   XIX'"   VEXTURY 


sulijootioii  to  lii'i"  IiusIkhkI."  Two  thiii<rs  liiive  tt'iitl'vl  to  briiif,'  about  this 
iiioditication  of  oi>iiU(iii;  tlic  broadiT  education  and  iiiLTcast'd  opportunitii's 
tor  developniont  attendant  ui)on  the  growth  of  indivi(Uial  liberty  and  roimb- 
lican  forms  of  government;  and  the  eiipability  of  self-maintenanee  due  to 
imi)roved  meehanieal  applianees.  It  is  not  mere  inelination  on  the  part  of 
the  indivichial,  nor  is  it  the  voice  of  tiie  agitator,  that  is  bringing  aboi't  these 
changes ;  it  is  the  irresistible  logic  of  events. 

One  hundred  years  ago  the  education  of  women  in  the  most  ]»rogressive 
and  wealthy  families  went  little  beyond  reading  aiul  writing.  In  ISli),  when 
Mrs.  Emma  Willard  issued  iin  address  to  the  members  of  the  New  York 
legislature  advocating  the  endowment  of  an  institution  for  the  higher 
education  of  women,  there  was  not  a  college  in  the  country  for  girls,  in 
IS'.L'.  the  colleges  of  the  United  States  nuudjered  more  than  oO.CKK)  female 
students.  In  ISSS,  the  ratio  of  female  students  to  the  whole  innnber  of 
students  .pursuing  a  higher  course  of  education  in  universities  aiul  colleges 
in  this  country  was  L'lK.'i  i)er  centum,  or  a  little  more  than  one  fourth.  At 
the  same  time  the  ratio  in  England  was  11  per  centum;  in  France,  li  per 
centum ;  while  in  (Jermany,  Austria,  and  Italy  the  ratio  was  so  slight  as  to 
be  but  a  mere  fraction  of  1  per  centum. 

Such  a  thing  as  a  fenuile  president  of  a  college  was  unknown  and  probably 
uiulreanuMl  of  in  the  eighteenth  century;  but  we  learn  from  the  Keport  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  IScST-SS  that  there  are  in  the  United 
States  forty-two  colleges  and  institutions  for  the  superior  instruction  of 
women  having  a  woman  for  president. 

In  the  high  ami  secondary  schools,  in  1S(S<S.  over  oiu>  half  of  the  students 
were  girls.  And  in  the  same  year,  tabulated  statistics  reveal  that  (J3  per 
centum  of  the  teachers  were  women.  Ami  this  percentage  will  become 
greater  and  greater  as  we  grasp  the  truth  that  woman  is,  by  gift  of  greater 
intuition  and  sympathy,  the  natural  instructor  of  the  human  race.  The 
salaries  paid  to  women  teachers  are  grossly  luifair  wheu  compared  to  the 
pay  of  nuile  teachers  for  the  same  or  less  work.  But  as  the  difference  in 
compensation  is  growing  smaller  every  decade,  there  is  at  least  room  for  hope 
that  this  injustice  will  soon  be  righted. 

The  law  of  evolution  is  the  <liscoverer  and  formulator  of  woman's  advance- 
ment. The  invention  and  use  of  gunpowder  placed  the  peasant  on  an  equal 
war-footing  with  the  mailed  knight.  The  enormous  increase  in  mechanical 
appliances  and  i)roductive  machinery  has  taken  woman  out  of  the  rank  of 
unpaid  menials,  lias  given  her  leisure  for  mental  develo))meut,  opportunity 
to  receive  recompense  for  toil,  and  is  largely  breaking  down  the  physical 
barriers  which  had  hitherto  been  considered  unsurmountable.  Statistics 
show  that  there  are  forms  of  machinery  in  the  operation  of  which  the 
production  of  a  woman  is  even  greater  than  that  of  a  man,  thus  furnishing 
an  actual  proof  of  the  falsity  of  the  idea  that  woman  is  incapacitated  for 
competition  with  man  in  the  physical  world.  And  the  trend  of  events  is 
indicated  by  the  statistics  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor, 
from  which  we  learn  that  in  some  trades  and  professions  the  percentage  of 
women  engaged  has  increased  fivefold  in  the  last  decade. 

While  woman's  work  has  always  been  a  recognized  factor  in  the  world's 
progress,  yet  her  admittance  to  the  field  of  remunerative  work  is  limited  to 


PROGRESS  OF   WOMEN    WITHIN   THE   CENTURY 


rji 


tlu!  last  one  Imiwlrt'd  years;  is.  in  fat't,  the  ])n)iiiiiieiit  tVature  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  There  is  overwiielming  eviclenee  tliat  her  work  in  every 
(li'liartnient  to  wliicii  she  lias  heen  adniitteij  is  as  rapahle,  aecejitahle,  and  in 
every  way  as  t'aitht'ully  iierfornied  as  the  work  of  lier  brother  man.  In  the 
last  century  it  is  estimated  that  not  more  than  1  per  centum  of  artists  and 
teachers  of  art  were  women;  while  in  iS'.Kt  women  comprised  4S.()S  per 
centum,  or  nearly  one  half  of  tluit  professitjn.  Nearly  the  sanu^  proi>ortion 
of  increase  is  i'ouu<l  in  the  raidcs  of  teachers  and  musicians,  —  women  now 
forming  over  ('»(•  per  centum  of  the  teachers  of  the  I'nited  States. 

There  are  now  ahout  three  million  women  and  girls  in  this  country  who 
earn  their  own  livelihood.  And  the  eleventh  census  reveals  the  startling 
information  that  in  the  city  of  New  York  there  are  twenty-seven  thousand 
nu'ii  who  are  sujiportcd  by  their  wives.  Vet  these  men.  useless  to  society,  a 
burden  to  the  women  who  support  them,  are  jiermitted  tlie  immunities  and 
'privileges  of  law  and  custom,  while  wonu'U  have  ecpiality  only  in  the  duties 
and  punishments. 

At  the  begiiuiing  of  the  eighteenth  century  tliere  were  but  fi'W  occupations 
in  which  women  were  permitted  to  engage.  'I'iicir  abilities  and  ambitions 
were  restricted  to  the  school  and  the  liome.  In  tlie  latter  tliey  received  bxxl 
and  shelter  as  compensation;  in  the  birmer.  but  one  half  or  one  third  the 
salary  aUowed  to  male  teachers.  Tlie  tirst  noticeable  change  in  woman's 
condition,  when  she  became  something  mure  than  a  mere  houseiiold  drudge, 
whose  busy  hands  carded  and  wove, 
spun  and  knit,  the  family  supply  of 
cloth,  dates  from  the  tirst  bale  of  cot- 
ton grown  in  this  country  in  the  early 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
that  bale  of  cotton  lay  the  seeds  of  not 
only  a  new  movement  in  labor,  but  the 
beginning  of  a  new  epoch  for  woman, 
in  which  her  work  and  wages  were des- 
tined to  take  coherent  slia[ie  and  form. 
In  all  industrial  progress  since  that 
time  women  have  taken  an  active  ])art 
while  receiving  a  meagre  share  of  the 
product.  Forced  by  the  course  of  events 
to  emerge  from  secdusion  and  repres- 
sion, .she  has  passeil  from  one  stage  of 
development  to  another,  always  a  step 
or  two  behind  man  in  the  ])rogress 
of  social  evohition.  till  the  close  of 
the  nineteenth  century  reveals  myriad 

changes  and  the  actual  realization  of  Tennyson's  prophetic,  lines  in  the 
••  Trinc'ss."  "We  have  ])rudes  for  ])roctors,  dowagers  for  de;ins." 

One  hundred  years  ago  it  was  the  duty  of  a  woman  to  efface  herself.  She 
was  expected  to  make  of  herself  a  mental  blank-book  ujion  whicdi  her  hus- 
band might  inscribe  what  he  woidd.  Tluis  it  is  only  lately  that  women  have 
begun  actively  to  comjiete  with  nuMi  in  exjiression  of  any  kind.  Indeed,  pre- 
vi(ais  to  that  time,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  they  were  denied  recog- 


k 

//& 

H, 

I  4m 

^^^^>^'^fl 

9kL. 

^^^ 

p  liv  -i 

K^  ■ 

m 

GEOUUK    KiaOT. 


i  ¥h 


189 


rniUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  A/A'"'  CENTURY 


iilM^ 


iiition  (if  iiidividiiiil  lit'u.  The  woiiiiiii,  if  uiimiiiried,  wjis  merged  in  the 
fiiiiiily,  or,  if  luarriud,  merged  in  the  hushund.  Jler  name,  her  religion,  lier 
gods,  wore  changed  on  marriage.  l>ut,  married  or  single,  the  absorption 
was  comjdete.  So  it  has  happened  that  woman,  throbbing  with  jtoetic  sym- 
pathy, lias,  with  the  excejition  of  fc>aj)iiho,  jirodueed  less  high  and  unmis- 
takable ]K)etry  than  man.  With  more  hanuony,  more  music  in  her  nature, 
her  very  soul  attuned  to  symjihony  and  rhythm,  she  has  been  little  known 
as  a  oomposer.  With  far  vision  and  (dear  literary  insight,  slie  has  been 
su])pressed  in  art  and  litcu-ature.  (Jeorge  Kliot  gave  her  sublime  literarv 
productions  to  the  world  under  a  masculin*;  nnm  ih;  phnne,  because  of  the 
jtrejudice  of  even  that  not  remote  day.  Fanny  Mend(dssohn  was  compelled 
by  her  family  to  publish  \wv  musical  compositions  as  luir  brother's.  Mary 
Somerville  nu^t  only  disc(mragement  and  ridicule  in  lier  inathenuitical  studies. 
In  every  si)here.  in  every  department  of  scien(!e  and  art,  abuse,  injustice,  and 
the  croaking  of  reactionary  frogs  have  greeted  each  stc])  of  her  upward  way. 
The  wonder  is.  then,  not  that  she  has  ac(!oinplished  .so  litth;,  but  that  she  is 
not  in  the  sanu?  (Mindition  to-day  that  she  was  when  Paul  thru.st  a  gag  in  her 
mouth  in  the  shape  of  a  Corinthian  text,  '•  And  if  a  woman  would  learn  any- 
thing, let  her  ask  her  husband  at  home."  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
the  oft-re])eated  assertion  that  women  have;  not  given  to  the  world  as  much 
evidence  of  genius  as  men  is  a  liilli])utian  assertion  tainted  sonuiwhat  with 
envy.  "There  has  been  no  Shakesiu'aie  anutng  women,"  .says  the  advocates 
of  man's  su])rema(!y.  With  all  the  world  as  their  own,  and  the  gates  of 
boundless  opjiortunities  swinging  wide,  there  lias  been  but  one  Shakespeare 
among  men.  It  has  been  asserted  that  Ciecn-ge  Eliot  is  the  Shakespeare 
among  women  and  .Mrs.  Browning  the  counterpart  of  liacoii.  But  their 
immortality  has  not  been  tested.  They  lived  but  a  little  while  ag(j.  But 
there  is  one  woman,  at  least,  who  has  established  her  claim  thoroughly,  and 
whose  genius  twenty-live  centuries  have  testtnl.  Sappho  is  truly  immortal. 
Her  fame  and  genius  have  been  sealed  by  the  api)roval  of  all  the  great 
literati  of  the  centuries.  Coleridge,  who  occupies  no  uncertain  ])lace  in  the 
world  of  letters,  says  of  her,  '-Of  all  the  poets  of  the  world,  of  all  the 
illustrious  artists  of  all  literature,  Sappho  is  the  one  whose  every  Avord 
has  a  jieculiar  and  unmistakable  ])oetic  perfume,  a  seal  of  absolute  jierfectioii 
and  illimitable  grace."  Swinburne,  the  greatest  living  master  in  the  world 
of  verbal  music,  declares  that.  "  Her  verses  are  the  supreme  success,  the 
final  achievement,  of  poetic  art."  Sapjjho's  claim  to  immortality  exceeds 
that  of  Shakes])eare"s  by  twenty -three  hundred  years. 

]\[en,  viewing  the  literarv  ])roductions  of  women,  are  apt  to  give  them  the 
color  and  bias  of  masculine  thought.  As  instance  the  poetic  critic  of  a 
New  York  periodical,  who  wantonly  affronts  the  gifted  author  of  "Poems 
of  Passion"  by  declaring  that  her  "fervent  verses  are  but  the  burning  of 
unseemly  stubble  that  fails  to  give  forth  light  or  heat."  Yet  Ella  Wlu^eler 
Wilcox,  all  fair-minded  critics  will  admit,  has  won  a  ])lace  in  the  ranks  of 
poetic  genius.  Her  poems  throb  with  human  symiiathy,  and  from  the  exalted 
plane  of  her  sidendid  womanhood  she  reaches  down,  fulfilling  the  law  of 
Christly  service,  to  lift  up  the  fallen  and  soothe  and  bind  the  bruised  and 
bleeding.  Such  masculine  criticism  is  dying  out,  but  it  has  not  been  uncom- 
mon in  the  past.    ^Mrs.  Browning  and  Jaiie  Austen  were  accused  of  "  breaking 


PROG  mess   OF    WOMEN    WITHIN    THE   VENTUHY 


I'JM 


down  by  tlu'ir  writings  the  s.afeguanls  of  society."  uud  tlit-y  wt'if  iuliiionislicd 
to  "cc'iiso  tlieiriitcrary  efforts  and  devote  tlicinsclvfs  to  sewing  and  wasliing 
dishes  if  tliey  would  n-tain  tlie  cliivalrous  respect  of  jnen."  ".lane  Kyre" 
was  pronounced  too  immoral  to  be  ranked  as  decent  literature.  "  Adam  IJede  " 
was  classed  as  the  "  vihf  outpourings  of  a  lewd  woman's  mind."  Vet  Charlotte 
lironti-,  (}eorg((  Kliot,  Mrs.  iJrowning,  and  .lane  .Vusten  have  won  an  exalted 
and  enviable  place;  in  tiie  ranks  of  literature.  Their  writings  have  thrilled, 
\ij)liftcd,  and  sweetened  humanity. 

The  test  of  literary  genius  is  to  create  a  character  of  universal  acceptance. 
The  record  of  half  a  century  has  but  on(*  world-wide,  world-known  character 
of  that  kind.  That  character  was  (^'cated  by  a  woman.  In  all  literatui'e,  no 
book  since  the  IJible  lias  been  so  widely  circulated,  so  extensively  translated, 
or  has  so  thorrmghly  commanded  tlu!  profound  attention  of  all  classes  iis 
Harriet  Heecher  Stowe's  '•  I'ncle  Tom's  Cabin."  Mrs.  Stowe  imitresscd  her 
i,'enius  upon  the  race  and  time,  and  marked  a  new  epoch  for  freedom.  Pre- 
vious to  the  ]iublication  of  her  book  only  a  few  men  recognized  slavery  as 
wrong,  but  a  woman's  sympathetic  heart  and  til  robbing  genius  laid  bare  the 
evil  and  disclosed  to  a  horrified  world 
the  wrong  underlying  slavery. 

In  i)hilanthropy  and  the  domain  of 
morals  there  is  none  who  is  doing  more 
lieroifi  and  etfective  work  than  ^Frs.  Kliz- 
aljeth  r>.  (Jr.annis.  She  deals  nf)t  with 
theories,  but  with  real  conditions.  Her 
symi)athies.  her  broad  work,  her  maui- 
told  charities,  go  oiit  to  flesh  and  blood, 
men  and  women.  She  has  the  intuitive 
facultj'  of  probing  deej)  into  human  na- 
ture, leading  those  she  would  reform  to 
iiinurn  real  defects,  rejoice  in  real  victo- 
I'ies,  and  hope  and  struggle  for  better 
things. 

The  constantly  broadening  sphere  of 
woman's  usefulness  is  in  a  large  mea- 
sure due  to  the  organized  forms  of  intel- 
lectual activity  among  women  known 
as  (ilubs.     Half  a  century  ago  club-life 

for  women  was  unknown.  Their  social  symi)athies  were  limited  to  the  ])oliti- 
<'al  party  that  claimed  the  franchise  of  their  male  relatives,  or  the  church 
at  whose  shrine  the  women  worshiped.  But  so  rapid  has  been  woman's 
(leveloi)ment  in  this  direction  that  to-day  women's  clubs  form  a  chain  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  binding  them  as  one  great  whole  The  effect  upon  the  mem- 
bers is  magical;  nature  is  enlarged;  charity  broadened ;  cai)acity  for  judg- 
ment increased ;  and  hitherto  unsiisjiected  facvdties  are  caDed  into  life  and 
|)ower. 

The  first  organized  demand  by  women  for  i)olitical  recognition  in  the 
I'liited  States  was  made  in  1848,  at  what  was  known  as  the  Seneca  Falls 
Convention.  Ridicided,  persecuted,  kicked  like  a  football  from  one  genera- 
lion  to  another,  this  brave  demand  for  political  recognition  was  destined  to 


FU.WCKS    WII.I.AItn 


I  I, 


! 


I'.'l 


TUirMrilS   ASIt    WOMtKllS  OF  TIIK  A7A'"'  CKSTUHY 


III  M'M 


.11     ,!: 


lircoiut'  iiii  ancncv  tliat  wmild  wink  ii  iiciU'ct'iil  n-volutioii.  Tliat.  the  iiinve- 
iiH'iit  is  prcLfn'ssiii),'.  iiiid  will  cvt'iitiially  siiccct'd,  is  eviiict'd  liy  tlu'  rccoid  of 
liidt'  :i  CI  iitniT.  lit  ti.iit  time  si-IkmiI  siit't'iiij,'ii  has  Ih'cii  j,Maiitt'd  in  twcnty-tlirrt' 
States  and  IVnitorit's,  partial  siiHra^f  for  jnihlic  iinprctvi'iiicMts  in  tlircc 
States,  iiniiiicipal  siit't'ra^'c  in  (Hii',  and  in  t'uur  States  full  political  eipiality. 
Wyoniin};'  was  tho  first  State  to  accord  citzensliip  to  her  women,  and  she  hears 
testimony  to  its  etfieacy  in  the  proj,'ress,  honor,  and  sobriety  of  her  people.  In 
IS'.t,'!,  the  Wyoming'  state  lej^islatnre  passed  resolutions  highly  commendatory 
of  woman  sulfraj^e  and  its  results,  aiul  among  other  things  said.  "  We  point 
with  pride  to  the  fact  that  after  nearly  twenty-tive  years  of  woman  suffrage, 
nor  one  county  in  Wyoming  has  a  jioor-house,  that  our  jails  are  almost  empty, 
and  crime,  except  that  by  strangers  in  the  State,  is  almost  unknown." 

From  the  hanks  of  the  far-off  N'olga  come  the  good  tidings  that  even  IJussia 
is  preparing  to  take  a  great  step  in  advance  by  granting  to  women  many  legal 
and  jiolitical  privileges  now  enjoyed  only  by  men.  Kngland  granted  muni- 
cipal suffrage  to  wonu-n  a  (puirter  of  a  century  ago,  and  has  nion;  recently 
grunted  jiartial  parliamentary  suffrage.  And  to  the  inHuence  of  Knglish  law, 
more  particularly  the  .Married  Women's  Act,  is  largely  due  the  betterment  ot 
thi'h'gal  status  of  women  throughout  the  world.  In  Kngland  we  Hml  women 
l)rominent  in  art,  literature,  politics,  the  school  ami  the  church.  While  in 
this  country  the  middle  classes  liave  lieretofore  carried  on  the  suffrage  agita- 
tion, in  Kngland  it  finds  active  workers  anumg  the  peerage. 

Woman  in  j»olities  meets  with  the  op])osition  of  job  politicians,  but  she 
realizes  that  every  step  of  her  jirogress,  from  the  luiveiling  of  her  face  to  a 
seat  in  the  legislature  of  a  State,  has  been  taken  in  the  face  of  tierce  opposi- 
tion and  in  violation  of  conventionalities  and  customs.  Undismayed  she 
advances  for  tlie  ultinuite  betterment  of  humanity. 

The  historian  of  the  future  will  record  the  nineteenth  century  as  the  Ue- 
naissance  of  womankind.  And  the  ultimate  effect  upon  tlie  human  race  of 
having  individuals,  not  servants,  as  mothers  will  surpass  the  progress  made 
in  science  and  in  art. 

Tlie  eigliteenth  century  found  woman  an  ajipendage ;  the  nineteenth  trans- 
formed lier  into  an  individual.  The  wonderful  altruistic  twentieth  century, 
whose  dawn  even  now  is  breaking,  will  so  develop  this  individuality  that 
women  will  contend  for  all  the  rights  of  the  individual,  coiiperating  with  the 
nati«)n  in  the  fultillment  of  its  mission,  and  with  the  world  in  the  development 
of  the  eternal  law  of  progress. 

"Tlirouf;li  till-  liarsli  void's  of  our  day 
A  low,  >.v('ft  pri'liidr  liiids  its  way  ; 
Tliroufjl:  i-loi  IS  of  (loiil)t  and  storms  of  fi'ar 
A  liglit  is  .)ivakiiij4;  calm  and  cU'ar." 

Mary  Elizabeth  Lease. 


THE  CENTURY'S  TEXTILE  PROGRESS 


li\, 


AxTUjt'iTV  conct'uls  nothing  more  completely  than  the  origin  of  the  textile 
'luUustry.  I!;ic  k  in  the  dark  ages  and  beyond  aiitlientie  records,  evidence  is 
tarnished  thill  this  iirt  was  not  unknown.  Egyjitian  mummies  sjjrouded  in 
line  linen  fabrics  give  their  silent  testimony  of  ancient  knowledge,  l)iit  when 
or  ■where  the  art  had  its  inception  still  remains  wrapped  in  mystery,  Isearly 
every  nation  of  the  earth  lays  claim  to  its  invention  at  soiiie  epoch  in  tradi- 
tional existence.  Thus  the  Chinese  attrihnte  it  to  the  wife  of  their  first 
iinperor,  the  Kgyptians  to  Isis,  the  (Jreeks  to  Minerva;  l)ut  prol)ably  it  had 
its  birth  in  the  ( h-ient,  where  the  making  of  cloth  was  known  and  practiced 
from  the  earliest  times. 

Whatever  the  merits  of  rival  claimants,  certain  it  is  that  for  many  cen- 
turies the  simple  distaff  and  spindle  were  the'  only  instrnments  used  for 
spinning,  while  the  warjt  and  weft  were  woven  together  by  hand  implements 
not  less  primitive  in  structure. 

In  the  first  sjnnning  device,  a  mass  of  fibre  was  arranged  on  a  forked  stick, 
and,  as  drawn  therefrom  by  hand,  it  was  twisted  between  the  lingers  and 
wound  on  a  spindle.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  Vlll.  of  England,  however, 
the  spinning-wheel  replaced  the  distaff  and  spindle,  and  in  every  cottage  and 
palace  it  became  an  indispensable  article  of  lu)usehold  e(piii)ment.  The  young 
women  in  all  walks  of  life  were  taught  to  spin.  Spinning  became  the  female 
occupation  of  the  age,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  modern  term 
spinster,  meaning  an  unmarried  woman  of  advanced  age,  here  had  its  origin. 

The  spinning-wheel,  though  superior  to  the  distaff  and  si)indle,  was  yet  a 
crude  machine.  It  consisted  of  a  stand  on  which  was  mounted  in  horizontal 
bearings  a  spindle  driven  by  a  band  from  a  large  wheel  ])ropelled  by  hand  or 
foot,  and  as  twist  was  imparted  to  the  fibre  drawn  through  the  fingers,  the 
residting  yarn  was  wound  on  the  spindle. 

The  art  of  weaving  was  not  more  advanced.  It  is  true  that  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  found  the  hand  loom  developed  from  the  original 
Indian  structure  to  contain  many  of  the  essentials  of  the  modern  ]»ower 
loom.  It  embodied  the  heddles,  the  lay,  the  take-up  and  let-off  beams,  tlie 
sluittle  for  passing  the  wefti,  and  in  1740,  John  Kay  added  the  Hy  shuttle 
motion,  whereby  tlie  shuttle  was  thrown  through  the  shed  by  a  sudden  pull 
tin  the  i)i(!kin'g  stic^k ;  then  in  17()(t,  Kobert  Kay,  son  of  .Tohn  Kay,  invented 
the  drop  box,  whereby  several  colors  of  tilling  might  be  emidoyed. 

Brilliant  as  these  achievements  were,  the  hand  loom  remained  the  crude 
embodiment  of  the  sim))le  principles  of  weaving  until  near  the  dawn  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when,  by  the  invention  of  Cartwright,  a  period  of 
development  was  introduced  in  all  lines  of  textile  manufacture  unsurpassed 
in  the  annals  of  industrial  progress.  The  lii'st  great  stride,  and  that  which 
ojjened  the  door  for  further  advance,  was  the  creation  of  the  spinning-jenny. 


I!         ''.'• 


m 


iii 


!,!':! 


1'2G 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XL\"'  CENTURY 


DISTAFK   AND   S1'INDI,K. 


in  Engl.'ind,  by  1  largroavt's,  alnmb  17G7,  wlieri'by  eiglit  or  ten  yarns  could  be 
sjnin  at  oni'  tinio.     DrawinL;  ioIUts  were  subse(|ucntly  added  by  Arkwriglit, 

ami  tlit'ii  tiavcrsi'  motion  was  given  the  bobbins  in 
onh'r  to  aiitoiuatioally  build  the  yarn  into  a  cop. 
Jt  has  (k'voloiied  since  that  the  drawing-rollers  con- 
stituted one  of  the  most  important  lundanioiital  im- 
jn'ovenients  in  the  spinning  art.  Tlu-ir  function  was 
to  draw  out  the  liluvs  into  a  projx'r  size  of  roving, 
and  to  feed  this  to  be  spun.  Without  them  tlie 
modern  spinning-frame  would  not  have  been  possi- 
ble. Arkwright's  drawing-rollers  and  Iliirgreaves's 
spinning-jenny  combined  under  the  ii:veution  of 
Crompton  to  produce,  in  principle  at  least,  the  mod- 
ern spinning-nude. 

Fairly  good  machines  were  thus  jirovided  on  the 
advent  of  the  nineteenth  century  for  siiinning  unlim- 
ited (juantities  of  yarn,  but  this,  in  turn,  required 
proper  loom  structures  to  use  the  same  and  a  cor- 
responding supply  of  raw  material,  inventive  genius  was  abroad,  and  the 
necessity  met  by  Eli  Whitney,  who,  while  at  the  home  of  (Jeneral  (Jreeue, 
of  (icorgia,  built  the  first  practical  machine  for  separating  cotton  fibre  from 
its  seed. 

Whitney's  gin  was  constructed  on  the  broad  and  simple  principle  that  cot- 
ton fibre  could  be  drawn  thnnigh  a  smaller  space  th.an  the  attached  seed,  and 
this  same  principle  is  the  .soul  and  spirit  of  every  .vaw-gin  of  the  ])resent  day. 
Trior  to  Wliitney's  gin,  cotton  fibre  was  separated  from  the  seed  by  hand,  a 
day's  work  being  representi'd  by  two  or  three  pounds  of  cleaned  fibre.  The 
daily  i)rodiU't  of  the  gin  now  reaches  between  three  and  four  thousand  pounds. 
Such  figures  demonstrate  the  imjiortant  position  taken  l)y  the  . otton  gin 
among  the  developing  agents  of  the  cotton 
growing  States.  It  has  rendered  ])ossible 
aiul  profitable  the  cultivation  of  large  dis- 
tricts of  otherwise  waste  lands  ;  it  has  stim- 
ulated cotton  i)roduction  ;  given  employment 
to  tlamsands  of  idle  Iiands ;  cheapened  the 
])rice  itf  cotton  cloths,  and  jilaced  within 
tlu'  reach  of  the  hund)lcst  jjcople  wearing 
apjiarel  of  fine  and  beautiful  textiu'e. 

I'nlimited  su])ply  of  raw  material  being 
thus  ])rovided,  attentit)n  reverted  to  pei'fect- 
ing  the  machines  for  spinning  it,  and  uiuler 
the  nuigical  touch  of  Kichard  Jioberts,  of 
Manchester,  Ki;gland,  in  IS.'iO,  the  crude 
mule  of  ('roiu]tton  took  i>ractical  shape.  Ife  gave  to  it  the  (piadrant  windinu' 
motion,  provided  for  the  liarmonious  working  of  the  ccmnter  and  co])pi;ii; 
faller  wires,  perfected  the  "backing  off"  and  "drawing  u])"  mechanisms,  and 
gave  attention  to  construction  of  details  that  placed  the  mule  before  tjic 
world  as  a  ])ractici),l  success. 

E(juipped  in  its  present  form,  the  self-acting  mule  presents  one  of   th> 


SIMN.MNO    WUKKI, 


^;:^. 


THE   CESTURY'S   TEXTILE   PROGliESS 


127 


most  striking;  {•xani|)lps  of  C()iiii)lox  autduiiitic  inochaiiisius  that  can  ho  found 
in  tht'  industrial  worhl.  TUi'  work  of  tho  attcntlant  is  conliiicd  to  pii'cing 
hrokt'U  ends  and  suitplyiug  roviuj;,  thu  machine  passing,'  throut,di  tht;  cntiro 
cvch'  of  its  coniiilifati'd  niovrnu'nts  without  inuuiMi  diri'ction.  An  idea  may 
he  liad  of  its  (U'licato  and  avcuratf  operation  wl.'  n  it  is  consiiU'rcd  that  out* 
pound  of  cotton  has  hccn  spun  l>y  it  into  a  tlircad  one  innuh't'd  and  sixty- 
seven  miles  loni,'.  Improvements  have  been  made,  indeed,  on  Uoberts's  nude, 
hut  aside  from  changes  in  details  and  form,  the  machine,  as  it  hd't  the  hands 
of  this  mechanical  genius  in  ISoO,  remains  unchanged. 

During  this   period,  the  Hy  frame  was   developt-d   from   the  machines  of 


rUlMITIVK    HANI)    LOOM. 


Ilavgreavos  and  Arkwright,  hut  while  it  constituted  a  gr(>at  udvanco  over 
these  machines,  it  jtreseided  no  radical  de])arture  in  principle. 

We  may  pause  here,  as  we  jtass  through  the  third  decade  of  the  jjresent 
century,  to  'vitr."'s  the  introduction  of  a  spinning-frame,  which,  for  origi- 
nality of  eoiii'c;  .  "  <;:id  far  reaching  inHiicnce  on  the  textile  industry,  chisely 
iqipiMxiiiates  tlie  achievements  of  the  pioneer  inventions  of  this  art.  Ivei'er- 
enee  is  u'  ile  to  the  ring  frame  in  whicli  tin-  ilyer  is  omitted,  the  liohliin 
lieiiig  ai,t.i,'!ie('  to  the  spindle  and  revolving  v.-ith  it.  On  the  traverse  rail, 
and  s\U'roi  lii'ing  each  hohhin.  is  secured  a  t^  ■  ,  ,.  ring  having  loosely  sprung 
thereon  .i.  'ight  traveler,  through  which  the  yarn,  as  it  (^imes  from  the  draw- 
ing-rolls, i ;  k'll  to  the  hohhin.  Ifevolution  of  the  hohhin  carries  the  travehu' 
around  the  ring  imparting  twist  to  the  yarn,  and  as  it  is  spun  it  is  wound  on 
the  liohhin  in  proportion  to  the  feed  of  the  drawing-rolls. 

The  invention  (d'  this  niachnie  i.-^  ;'.tt^rih,.ted  to  .lohn  'rhori>e,  (d'  ivhode 
Island,  in  1S2.S,  and  so  popular  iiid  it  hecome  hy  reason  of  decreased  power 
necessary  to  driv  it,  incidenud  t )  t.ic  onnssion  of   the   flyers,  and  good 


128 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOSDERS   OF   THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 


(luality  of  yarn  pniduciMl,  that,  between  IS(»(I  and  lS(i."),  it  nearly  replaced  all 
other  maehines  in  Anieriea  I'or  spinnini;  cotton. 

Tho  speed  of  the  ring  frame,  as  well  as  its  output,  ajjpeared  unbounded; 
but  at  high  speeds,  under  unbahuK'ed  loads,  the  spindles  were  found  to 
vibrate  in  their  bearings,  and  the  (]uality  of  yarn,  in  cousecpienee,  degener- 
ated, the  spindle  bearings  Ijecanie  worn,  and  the  limit  seemed  to  be  reached 
at  five  thousand  revolutions  per  minute.  A  careful  examination  of  the  ring 
frame  revealed  no  vulnerable  jiart  of  its  general  structure  tliat  could  be 
improved  so  us   to   readily   secure   increased  speed   and   steadiness   of   the 


l!,i' 


M. 


KAUI.Y    SlMNMNCi   jIKNNV. 


►  till- 


siiiiidles  when  unevenly  loaded  ;  but  with  admirable  foresight,  developing 
intellects  set  to  imiu-ove  the  spin>iles  themselves,  and,  in  ISTI,  .lacob  ]I, 
Sawyer  intioduced  and  j)atented  a  spindle  and  bearing,  Avhich  was  one  of  the 
most  im])ortant  improvements  in  the  ring  frame.  Jle  chambered  the  bobb'  ,. 
and  by  carrying  the  bolster  T  well  up  inside  supjjorted  the  former  near  t, 
load  centre. 

The  evtdution  of  the  spindle  was  not  yet  complete.  The  Sawyer  t.,  pe.  at 
more  than  seven  thousand  rev(dutions,  would  vibiate,  and  of  the  many 
attemi)ts  to  cure  the  defect  none  succeeded  fully  until  the  very  siniph' 
change  made  by  ^Nlr.  Habbcth  in  1S7.S.  He  gave  the  sjiindle  a  sma'i  amount 
of  ])lay  by  making  the  bolster  loose  in  its  supi)orting  case,  and  ])laced  a  pack- 
ing betwe«'n  the  two. 

A.  H.  Sherman  improved  upon  the  Kabbetli  stnu'ture  by  making  tlie  bol- 
ster and  step  in  one  jiiece  and  omitting  the  packing,  the  cushioning  bei  ig 
dependent  upon  the  lubricating  oil. 


V'. 

I 


i 


(ilNMNd    COTTON.       Till;   Ol.I)    WAY.    I'KIOU    lO    \Wi). 


!f 


!l 


m\ 


§ 


<ilN.MN(i    COl  TON.       TUI-.    Ni;\V    WAY. 


% 


\m\ 


!(| 


m^' 


i:m» 


TliJUMJ'JIS  AND    W ONI) /ins   OF   TIIH  A'/A™  CENTUllY 


The  acme  of  (levelojniieiit  in  this  small  but  most  iiiiiiortant  i)art  oi'  the 
rill},'  frame  Avas  now  reached  ;  and  in  its  apjiroved  form  it  emhodies  tlu' 
sleeve  whirl  extendin};  into  the  l)()l)l)iii,  the  ioos(!,  yet  adjiistahlti  bolster, 
taperiii}];  spindle,  removable  step,  and  luliricating  reservoir.  Siadi  sjiindles 
are  <'apal)le  of  unlimited  speeils,  —  twenty  thousand  revolutions  per  minute 
have  been  ,i,nven.  —  and  under  absurdly  unbalanced  loads  they  run  steadily 
find  with  les.s  e.xpenditure  of  power  than  the  older  forms  at  their  slower  speeds. 

Increased  speed  in  the  spindles,  however,  bront^ht  increased  breakage  in 
the  yarn,  and  although  stop  motion  devices  iiad  liccn  employed  for  several 
years,  yet  economy  demanded  ready  means  ol  piecing  broken  ends.  This 
has  been  provided  recently  by  UKMinting  the  stop  elam[)  upon  the  roving  rod 
well  up  near  the  iirst  pair  of  drawing  rolls,  so  that  on  jmlling  tlui  stop  wire 
into  place  the  roving  is  at  once  fed  between  the  drawing  rolls  and  issues  in 
front,  over  the  spindle,  to  be  easily  pieced  by  one  hand.     I'rior  to  this,  the 


I  111-;    MODKUN    MILK. 

ojierative  was  reciuired  to  reach  over  the  machine,  feed  the  roving  to  the  rolls 
with  one  hand,  hold  the  stop  wire  down  with  the  other,  and  the  broken  end 
of  yarn  in  his  teeth. 

Kxcessive  ballooning  was  also  incidental  to  the  use  of  high  speed  spindles, 
and,  while  inventive  skill  has  never  mastered  it,  yet  the  injurious  effects 
liave  been  obviated  by  an  ingenious  mounting  of  sejiarators,  one  between 
each  two  spindles. 

Aside  from  minor  details  jierfeeting  the  nieehanieal  (ionstruetion,  such  has 
been  the  evolution  of  the  modern  spinning  frame.  In  1S.*>(»,  it  re(pured  the 
constant  attention  of  one  spinner  to  oversee  twenty  slow-running  si)indlcs, 
whereas,  in  IS'.IC).  the  same  attendant  could,  with  less  effort,  "tend"  seventy- 
five  or  more  of  the  high  s])eed  type;  and  whereas,  in  ITitO,  when  the  fir^i 
American  cotton  mill  was  established  by  Samuel  Slater  in  Uliode  Island. 
there  were  only  seventy-five  spindles  on  cotton  iibre.  in  IS.'K),  the  number  1i;mI 
increased  to  l,'L'4(;,7();!."and  in  1S<H>.  to  1I,1.SS,1();;, 

I'lider   such    coniix'tition   no   womh'r   the    spinning-wheel  of   our  grainl 
mothers  has  followed  the  economic  law,  that  the  fittest  alone  survive,  ai"! 


THE   CENTURY'S    TEXTILE   PliOdRESS 


131 


has  been  leh^giitod  to  the  wood-pile  or  garret,  or,  bedeeked  with  ribbmis,  Hnds 
a  r('stiiig-[»hK'('  in  the  chimney-corner  as  a  (h'coratcd  cnriosity.  Its  niiglity 
rival  is  here.  Its  attcMulants  have  been  liberated  to  more  ennobling  iiursuits. 
The  homespnn  has  been  rei)laeed  by  beautii'ul  fabrics,  and  tlie  monster  spin- 
ning frames  of  to-day  jiour  forth  their  hourly  ])ro(lnct  in  miles  of  spun  libre, 
where  the  wheels  of  our  grandmothers  \ver(!  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  prodiu;t! 
a  very  small  fraction  of  the  amount.  To  apjueciate  the  wonderful  changi;. 
pause  beside  the  domestic  wheel  used  within  the  memory  of  the  living,  and 
compare  its  "whirr,"'  in  slowly  jiroducing  its  single  thread,  to  the  "bu/z"  of 
the  modern  spinning  frame  turning  out  its  product  from  a  thousaml  spindles. 
The  i)roductiou  of  yarn  recjuired  something  more   than   spinning.      The 


!;  i^m 


HAND   rOMH   OK   TIIK    EHillTKKNTn    CKNTIIRY. 


fibres  in  the  massed  cotton  or  wool,  as  delivered  to  the  manufacturer,  must 
be  opened,  untangled,  straightened  out.  and  laid  parallel  by  a  series  of  jire- 
paring'  machines  ])rior  to  being  spun,  among  whicli  the  carding  engine  ranks 
first.  Tn  the  incipient  form,  this  machine  (kites  as  far  back  as  the  midille  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when,  by  hand  manipulation,  two  cylinders  covered 
with  small  teeth  and  working  in  close  ])roximity  disinter,rated  the  fibrous 
iii;iss ;  but  the  fibres  were  much  broken  and  not  evenly  arranged.  'I'he 
;iildition  of  the  WM)rkers  and  stripjiers  around  a  rapidly  r(!volving  swift  gave 
increased  titility  to  the  machine,  and  IJramwell's  feetl,  in  1<S71,  so  regulated 
the  amount  of  fibre  led  ;it  intervals  that  the  resulting  lap  possessed  the 
disiicd  even  character.  'I'his  feed  weighs  the  til)re  as  it  is  fed.  sto])S  the 
lifting  apron  while  the  scale  pan  dum]is  its  load,  resets  the  scale  ]ian,  ;ind 
automatically  starts  the  lifting  apron  to  again  feed  the  scale.  —  a  cyi'le  of 
operations  indicating  a  near  ajiproach  to  human  intelligence. 


"iE'B 


:liiiii> 


l'<2 


rniUMP!'^  ASD    WOS'DEllS   OF   THE  XIX">  CENTURY 


« :  ri. 


One  iidditioiial  iiiat'liiiic  iit  li'iist.  the  coinl),  n'(nuri's  iioticf  hct'orc  ]»iissiii£T 
to  the  iill-iinixirtant  iiro^rcss  iiiii(h'  in  the  loom  structurt".  With  iidviuiciii'^ 
civilization  and  rt'tincmt'nt  canic  di'iiiands  for  ,siii)t'rior  t'ahrics.  which  could 
only  he  answcri'd  hv  a  supiily  oi'  iu'ttcr  lihrc.  Such  tihrc  could  only  he 
secured  f'l'iini  the  hale  hy  separating  the  long  from  the  shoit.  a  prohlem  well 
calculated  to  tax  the  in,t;enuity  of  an  eidit,ditened  age.  Atteinjits  had  been 
made  to  do  this  hy  hand  implements  not  unlike  the  cui'ry-comb  of  to-day. 
except  that  tlie  teeth  were  lout;-  and  taperini;.  This  renuiiued  the  only  means 
em])loyed  for  years,  while  other  textile  machinery  ])asse(l  through  its  phe- 
nomenal period  of  development.  At  last,  in  1S41.  it  occurred  to  Jleilmau. 
while  watching  a  hidy  condj  lier  hair,  that  a  machine  might  he  eoustructed  to 
comb  wool  by  drawing  a  bunch  of  fibres  over  pins.     He  constructed  a  device 


and  till 

Unt    SUS(| 

a  sheet 
had  to  bl 
to  feed  tl 
respondil 
the  mosti 
tiiries,  aJ 
hand  mal 


m 


NOIU.K   COMB   OK    1H90. 

on  this  princi]ile,  ami  in  a  developed  form  it  is  used  still  and  known  as  the 
lleilman  or  nip  comb. 

In  liSo,'!.  , lames  Noble  gave  to  the  world  the  circle  comb,  wherein  two  Hat 
circular  rings,  having  projecting  from  one  face  vertical  pins,  were  mounted, 
one  eccentrically  within  the  other,  and  revolved  in  the  sanu'  direction,  the 
object  being  to  dab  the  fibre  on  the  rings  where  they  met;  and  then  as  they 
revolved  and  separated  the  short  fibre  would  be  drawn  off  the  large  ring, 
leaving  the  long  fibre  free.l  from  the  short.  These  machines  were  success- 
ful, and  above  all  they  were  practical  —  the  operation  of  the  hand  coudu'r 
disai)peared  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  sudden  birth  aiul  ra]iid  development  id'  mechanically  ])erfect  means 
for  preparing  and  spinning  tibit's  were  due  largely  to  the  comjiarativtdy  sim- 
jde  movements  rc(juired  to  draw  and  twist  the  yarn,  but  in  the  loom  no  sue!' 
problem  was  i)resented.     Here  the  movements  were  complicated  and  varied. 


were  elothec 
ilid  not  emai 
Wright,  a  ck 
thes(^  looms 
trapped  in  t 
ihc  take-up 
decrease  of 
thick  places 
initial  step 
with  the  per 


THE  CENTURY'S   TEXTILE  PIWGIIESS 


13;J 


and  thf  aiiiilication  of  iiowcr  to  tho  inaniimlatioii  of  tlic  dflioato  threads  was 
iiiit  susceiitibli'  of  sudden  and  sneeessful  solution.  'I'lie  warps,  stretelied  in 
a  sheet  between  two  lieanis.  had  to  be  opened  to  Innii  thi'  shed,  the  shuttK; 
]iad  to  be  passed  therethroii,t;h,  tlie  weft  Iteaten  to  phiee.  and  means  proviiU'd 
to  feed  the  warp  and  to  take  up  of  the  fabric  an  amount  at  each  beat-up  ecn-- 
respondin<;'  to  the  size  of  the  weft.  These  were  tlu'  movements  necessary  iu 
the  most  simple  kind  of  weaving,',  and  though  fully  understood  for  many  een- 
turies,  as  evidenced  l)y  the  Indian  and  Kt,'yptian  looms,  aiul  as  embodied  iu 
hand  machines  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  not  till  17S7  that  they 


IM.AIX    I'OWIIK    l.OOM,     1M40. 

were  clothed  with  the  application  of  power.  Kven  then  the  first  embodiment 
did  not  emanate  from  the  hands  of  a  weaver  or  enijineer,  but  from  Dr.  ('art- 
wright,  a  elerjjyman  in  the  churoh  of  England.  It  was  not  surprising  that 
these  looms  failed  of  their  ex])ectations,  for  the  shuttle  would  freciuently  get 
trapped  in  the  shed,  the  driven  ])ower-lay  wcudd  break  out  the  Avarp  threads, 
the  take-np  and  let-off  motions  were  not  graduated  to  couipensate  for  the 
decrease  of  the  warp  and  increase  of  the  cloth  beams,  resulting  in  thin  and 
thick  places  in  the  cloth.  15ut  this  application  of  jiower  to  the  loom  was  the 
initial  step  in  the  industrial  su[)remacv  of  the  machine,  which  to-day  works 
with  the  perfect  cadence  of  an  automaton. 


;,*: 


'( 


I  ^': 


fa,;,'" ,,'. 


,v^5^'-:-. 


:»■         Jl 


f-'i  ;M=  .  ; 


■tMS 


!■ 


fi}||li::::: 


:  tV         ''I 


v.n 


TlilUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  Till-:  XIX'"  CENTUUY 


The  first yoiiis  of  the  present  rentury  were  of  (iiisiirpassetl  iictivitv  in  the 
inventive  field.  The  si)inners  were  ])uttinji;  fijrth  more  yarn  tliiin  tlie  liand- 
hioius  fiiiild  use.  It  remained  for  the  h)oni  to  keep  pace  with  tlie  times. 
.Miller,  in  iSltO.  Todd  and  llorroeks  in  ISO."!,  .lohnston  in  1S()7,  ("otton  in 
ISld,  Taylor  in  t.Sir>.  and  many  otliers,  eonoentrated  tlieir  efforts  to  develop 
the  ]ilain  power-loom;  hnt  the  second  deeade  of  the  present  century  saw  llie 
old  hand-loom  with  its  slow  and  enndirous  nntvenients  still  mistress  of  the 
art. 

'I'he  name  of  liichard  Koherts  stands  preemineid  at  this  period,  between 
iSL'd  and  ISLT).  as  i,nvin!.;  to  the  power-hiom  several  perfecting  touches  in  th(> 
means  for  Icttin;.,' off  the  warp  the  small  amount  necessary  at  each  ))ick,tln! 
means  for  takinj^-  up  the  finished  cloth,  the  means  for  slieddint;'  the  warp  for 
the  ])assage  of  the  shuttle,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  stop  motions  of  his 
])redecessors.  These  chanjj;es  gave  jiraetieal  life  to  the  maeliine,  and  over- 
threw the  barrier  that  obstructed  the  advance  of  the  textile  industry.  They 
were,  however,  only  a  few  of  the  improvenu'uts  adth'd  in  ]h  'ecting  the 
])ower-loom,  such  as  the  automatic  temple  to  hold  the  cloth  extended  and  pre- 
vent drawing  of  the  weft,  the  shuttle-guard  to  prevent  accidental  jumping 
of  the  shuttle  from  the  race,  the  ])erfect  weft-stop  to  bring  the  loom  to  a 
stand  on  breakage  or  failure  of  the  weft,  the  protector  mechanism  to  obviate 
a  '"smash"  when  the  shuttle  failed  to  box,  and  the  loose  rei'il,  all  of  winch 
stand  out  in  bold  relief  as  evich'iices  of  the  progressive  teiuh'ueies  of  Oie  age, 
and  cond)ined  in  about  the  year  iS.'tS,  more  than  a  ludf  century  after  ('art- 
wright's  tirst  conception  of  tins  idea,  to  e(mii>lete  the  ])ractical  ])ower-loom. 

The  loom  liad  not  reached  a  stage  of  nu'chanical  ])eriection  ;  nuich  yet 
remained  to  be  done,  but  the  plain  ]iower-looni  of  this  ]>eriod  was  both  a 
jtractical  and  financial  success.  .l>y  its  immediate  i)redecessor.  the  hand- 
loom,  a  good  weaver  and  assistant  could  woik  from  forty  to  fifty  ]iicks  per 
minute,  ami  weave  jilain  cloth.  ]>y  the  jiower-loom  of  1(S40,  one  weaver 
ccndd  "'tend"  two  looms  running  from  1(M>  to  iL't)  picks  per  niiniite  and  ]iro- 
dnce  the  same  cloth.  "Without  passing  through  the  various  steps  which  cnl- 
niinated  in  the  jiower-loom  for  plain  cloth,  now  in  use,  and  tracing  the  causes 
that  led  to  ]ierfection  of  details,  the  amazing  a<lvance  from  the  anciiuit  and 
ISth-eenturv  hand  loom  to  the  ])ower-looni  of  1S4()  and  that  of  to-day  may 
Avell  be  shown  by  comparing  the  machines  themselves. 

Such  was  the  simple  form  of  the  ]K)wei-loom.  One  half  of  the  warjis  were 
alternately  raised  and  lowered  for  the  shot  of  weft  :  but  as  a  woven 
fabric  is  one  in  which  the  warp  and  weft  aie  united  by  jiassing  them  over 
and  umler  each  other,  the  figure  or  jiattcrn  of  the  cloth  will  be  varit'd  as  the 
threads  are  crossed  in  different  combinations,  and  this  will  dep(>nd  on  the 
order  of  raising  and  lowering  the  waip  thi'eads.  and  the  nitroduetiou  of  differ- 
ent characters  and  colors  oi  weft.  'I'his  brings  up  for  review  the  most  impor- 
tant parts  of  the  loom  sti'iu'ture  —  the  shedding  mechanism  and  shuttle-box 
motions  —  through  whose  agencies  the  most  beautiful  aiul  complicated 
designs  are  jiroduccd. 

Shedding  nu'chanism  was  jiresent  of  course  in  all  looms,  but  in  the  power- 
looms  of  the  early  ]iart  of  this  century  it  was  confined  to  tai)pets  adjusted  on 
a  revolving  shaft,  and  the  iuind)er  of  heddles  was  limited  to  six  or  eight 
Fairly  good  twills  and  other  like  fabrics  could  be  pnjduced  within  the  limits 


-^^m— 


\\i;.\VIN<:.        TIIK   <>1.1>   WAV 


WbAVl.NO.       TIIK    NKW    WAY. 


■;■■  -m, 

13(> 


Tin UM nils  AM)    WOSDEllS    OF   THK   XIX'"   CESlUllY 


\m 


of  tho  few  licddlt's.  Imt,  witli  tlie  introdiK'tioii  of  tlif  •'ddhliit'."  (U'tliiit  part  of 
tilt'  lr)om  \vhi(di  riiiscs  and  lowers  tlm  liiinicss-fraiiu's,  a  new  era  in  fancy 
woaviujf  was  iiiaiij,nii'atocl.  I'y  this  iiij,'('iiioiis  dt'vicc  as  many  as  thirtv-six  oi' 
even  forty  licddlt's  could  be  used  and  raised  at  will  to  form  fij,Mn"s.  TJie  crea- 
tion of  the  (lol)l)ie  helonjjs  to  the  19th  century,  iind  it  is  found  in  i)ractical 
form  about  ISCt.'!  in  the  L'nited  States  iimler  the  name  of  the  Aiuerican  or 
Knowles  dobl»i<',     'I'lie  essentials  are  the  two  cylinder  j^ears  rev.)lvin<,'  cnn- 


LOOM  OF  IHOO. 

staiitly.  the  vibrating  <^ears,  carried  on  the  end  of  pivoted  arms  and  having 
teeth  on  .1  part  of  their  perii)liery,  the  harness  jacks  connected  to  the  heddlc 
frames,  and  the  links  joining  the  vibrating  gears  and  harness  jacks  in  such 
manner  that  ])art  revolution  of  the  former  causes  the  latter  to  move  the  con- 
nected heddle  frame,  and  consecpiently  the  war])  threads,  up  or  down.  A 
]tattern  chain  determines  what  vibrator  gears  shall  engage  the  cylinder  gears, 
and.  once  the  chain  is  fitted  to  the  design  to  be  woven,  nothing  remains  for 
the  loom  tender  but  to  oversee  the  operation  of  the  machine. 

Another  form    of  dobbie.  not  less  popidar   than  the    Knowles,  developed 
into  a  perfect  automatic  device  abont  fifty  years  ago  in  England.     Here  t^  o 


m 


THE  CEyrUllY'S    TEXTILE  ri:  Of; I! ESS 


VM 


roriiJi'ocatiii'j:  kiiivt's  iirc  ('iij,'ii^,'tMl,  uiuUm'  the  dirt'ctioii  dI  u  iiattnii  cliaiii.  liy 
(Hie  of  t\V(t  liddktMl  jacks  wdiiifctcd  to  tlu'  lianicss  levers,  ami  tlie  shed  is 
attain  I'onned  witlmut,  Imiiian  iiitei'vention.  Other  torms  ol'  (h)l)l>ie  stniefiires 
liave  been  exolved  (hii'ili.LC  the  hist  til'ty  years,  hut  these  two.  witli  some  inodi- 
tii-ations  aii<l  adilitioiis  of  (h'tails,  have  come  extensively  into  jiractieal  use, 
;ind  represent  the  zenith  of  develo|inient  at  the  jiresent  time.  I>y  their  aid 
Lireiit  variety  is  rendered  possilile  in  the  desijj:n  on  the  resultin,i,'  falirie.  The 
tiguved  tablecloths,  damasks,  twills,  satins,  bordered  and  eross-burdered  fab- 


.IA(  t^lAIU)   .MA<  niNK. 

rics,  are  now  possible  at  a  eost  of  a  thousandth  part  only  of  that  incurred 
when  produced  by  any  of  the  old  tyi)es  of  machines. 

The  subject  of  sheddiuj,',  i.  e.,  of  oi)enin,i;  the  \v  u,  m  threads  to  afford  a 
passage  for  the  shuttle,  is  so  inseparably  eonuecteu  uuh  the  name  of  Jac- 
qiuird,  that  attention  i.s  now  carried  to  that  wonderful  invention  evolved  in 
the  first  few  years  of  the  ])resent  century,  and  by  the  use  of  which  it  may 
truly  be  said  that  anything  can  be  woven  as  figure  in  a  fabric  that  can  be 
(Icsigaed  by  the  hand  of  m;in.  It  is  as  well  aihipted  for  the  finest  silks  as  for 
liciivy  carpets  and  figured  velvets,  and  by  an  operation  theoretically  so  sim- 
ple as  to  excite  wonder  that  it  remained  hidden  until  this  age.     .lacquard 


•J' 


m 


ni 


.I|!    r 


i;w 


■nur.Mriis  axd  wosdeus  or  tiik  x/x'"  <f:\T(iiy 


H> 


m 


was  a  native  nl    l''iaiiiT  and  cNliiliitrd   his  niai'liin*-  (■(ini|il('tt'  in  iSdl,  but   so 
liittcr  was  the  i>|i|i()sitinn  that   tin-  tii'st   iiiachiiit' was  dfstidvcd  and   liuiiicil. 

'tal   adi>|iii(in  in 
Iv  I. 


Its  merits  wcic  (dear,  lidwever.  and   n nstrnetion   and 


l"'rance  Innnwrd  sniin  alter.      It  h: 


IS  silici'  heeii  a|i|ilieil  iinl  (Hily  liir  slieihillii; 
lint  lur  every  iniiiMise  where  iiieeliaiiieal  (i|ieiati(ins  eoiiid  lie  edntrdlled  li\  ii 
jiatterii.  In  luiel,  this  inaidiine  sini|ily  controls  eaidi  war|>  thread  separatelv 
liy  a  cord  lia\  iiijL,' a  hook  attaidied.  These  iiooks  are  arran.Ljed  near  tiie  |ialli(d' 
a  ieci|irocatiiii,f  ^^ril'l'e  or  rraiii-'  carrying  cross  liars,  and  are  coiilndled.  as  to 
eii.i,'a,!;eiiieiit  with  the  liars,  hy  a  card  iieri'orated  according'  to  a  |(attern;  thus 
any  one  (U'  any  number  ot  threads  can  be  raised  at  will.  The  dolibie  controls 
jiarness  I'laines  eaidi  carrying'  a  lari^fe  number  of  waiji  threads;  the  .lac(|\iard 

■   the  latter 
.  of  thirty 


controls  every  thread  scparatidy.    The  j;reatly  increased  capa 
hine  is  apiiareiit.     Thus  a  l.">(i,»-h(i(ik  .lacqiiard  will  do  the 


ina< 


dobbii 


liftv' 


acks  eacli. 


The  hand-shuttle  box  meidianism  oi'  Kay's  time  has  devtdo|ied  into  the 
machine  operated  as  a-  sliding  or  revolving  shiittle-bo.v  contridled  by  pattern 
(htvices.  whiidi.  beingaddeil  to  a  ilobbio  or  .lacipiard  equipiied  loom  within  the 
last  twenty-live  years,  presents  tlie  highest  point  of  ]ierf('ctioii  attained  in 
the  textile  art.  Jn  smdi  looms  the  warp  threads,  arranged  in  any  colois, 
may  bo  raised  at  will  collectively  or  individually,  any  one  of  ten  oi'  twelve 
different  cidorcd  wtd'ts  may  be  introduced  as  desired,  and  combinations  niav 
thus  be  formed  to  produce  designs  of  the  most  cumplicated  nature. 

I'ile  fabrics,  cut.  uncut,  and  tufted,  rojirespiit  .a  tyjic  (piitc  distinct  from  those 
produced  on  the  ordinary  fancy  loom  just  described,  and,  in  the  form  of  vel- 
vets, imitation  animal  skins,  and  lirusstds  carpet,  were  almost  unknown  prior 


to  tl 


u»  invention  of  Samuel    Uigidow  of   noston,  in   l.S,">7.      l-'abrics  of  tl 

I 


lis 


I'His.  ami  on 


ehara<'ter,  if  made  at  all,  were  the  proibiets  of  tedious  hand  metl 
account  of  the  conseipient  high  price  wim'c  the  exidusive  jirojiei't'         the  very 

uis   and 
ii  or  warp 


wealthy.      Carpets  with    pile   surface   liad  been   made   by  th 


Turl 


Ks  ages  ag( 


I.  livtviiii'  pieces  of  woolen 


yarn  around  longitmu 


UKl  sue 


threads,  and   binding  the  whole  together  by  a  weft  at   interval 

tufts,  being  carefullv  sidected  as  to  color,  were  made  to  present  rich  design 

bu 


w. 


t.  like  all  other  hand-produced  fabrics,  these  were  the  property  of  the  fe 
'I'lie  pile  fabric  loom  of  Itigelow  opened  the  way  bir  an  advance  in  the  car- 
]iet  industry  wliiidi  continues  to  .he  present  time;  its  ultimate  etfeot  being 
to  place  carpets  within  the  reaidi  of  the  humble  cottager;  and  floors  whiidi 
were  strewn  with  brush,  t>v  at  best  conceahii  by  the  honu'-made  rag  carjiet, 
now  became  covered  by  a  soft  and  lieaiitifnlly  hgiired  fabric.  This  loom  was 
tical  maidiinc.  and  at  (ince  commended  itsidf  to  the  manufacturer.  It 
consisted  of  the  old  power-loom  jirovided  with  a  .lacipiaid.  alicady  well 
■itood.  to  wliiidi  was  added  an  attaidinieiit  to  introduce  wires  at   intervals 


a  prai 


nmler 
as  falsi 


weft. 


anil  iiini 


the  warp  around  them  by  the  usual  wid't  thread 


T 


wires  lieiiig  withdrawn  altera  few  shots  had  been  woven,  left  the  warp  loops 
standing,  and  these  loops  being  formed  nnder  the  dictates  of  the  .lac(piard, 
any  charaider  of  beautiful  design  could  be  ]iroduced.  \'(dvets.  brocades,  oven 
the  fine  imitation  of  sealskin,  are  the  simple  products  of  this  form  i 


powei- 


I' 

loom  when  the  ]iile  lofijis  are  cut.  (Ireater  (dieapness  in  weaving  cut  pile 
fabrics  has  been  secured  by  a  slight  moditication  in  the  I'dgelow  loom,  so  that 
two  fabrics  could  be  woven  at  one  time.     This  idea  was   introduced  about 


'////•;  <:i:\Tii{y's  riixrii.h:  rnoaiiKss 


IS.'tO,    iiImI     it     i'nlltrlii|ililt((l    \\ril\ill,LJ    tllf     I W  i  >    lillirics     lacf     tn    tui'i  .     kifpill^ 

tlii'iii  .si'|j;ir;ilc(l  liv  lilt'  iisuiil  pile  \\iir>  ol  UinrldW .  ;iml  ]ia>siii,i;  till'  |iili' 
I  lircads  tioiii  CMC  falnic  to  tin-  otlicr.  I'imih  ciilliiij;'  llic  twd  cldtliN  .iiiait 
iliniui^li  llu"  threads  iiiiitiiij;'  tlifin.  two  nit  jiilc  or  velvet  t'aliries  re^ull.ed. 
riiis  loom  rei|iiii'e(l  1  lie  service  ol'  two  sliuttle>  and  doidile  tin  imiidier  of 
\viir|i-lieaiiis,  liiit  it  worked  well,  mid  is  to-da\  lar,i,'ely  in  u,-,e  and  well  adapti-d 
lo  its  ]mr|iose. 

Tlie   deliiiuul  foi'  tutted    pile   I'ahries.  nieaiiin;^'  those   in  wliieli    the   [liii'    is 


SMITH    AM)   SKINM'.R    LOOM    KOll    MO(itKTTK    <  AltrKTS. 


Iiirnied  from  tufts  oryarns.  individually  tied  to  the  I'ouiidaliou  I'abrie,  and  of 
which  the  rich  Turkish  and  Persian  rut,'s  are  examples,  had  not  been  met  by 
the  ISii^elow  loom;  in  fact  it  was  only  about  forty  years  ai^o  that  the  mi'idian- 
ical  iiroductiou  of  su(di  fabrics  became  |)ossible.  Siuilli  and  Skinner  were?  tli« 
pioneers  to  enter  this  liidd,  and  the  lirst,  by  the  aid  of  machinery,  to  com- 
pete with  the  chea]i  hand-labor  of  the  orientals.  The  invention  (-L  a  maehinft 
that  will  select  any  desired  cohu'  from  a  larj^c  number  of  yarns,  carry  it 
lictween  the  warp-threads  at  the  exact  spot  necessary  to  form  the  tii^ure.  tie 
it  around  these  threads,  cut  it  oi'f  to  the  len.^th  necessary  to  form  an  even  and 

ice.    and  do   all   (jiiicklv, 


'-moo 


th    surface,    return    the    unused    ]iortion   to   pi; 


•curatelv,  and  with  little  cost,  is  an  achievement  that  mav  ri'ditlv  claim  the 


mm 


140 


TlilUMI'HS   AM)    WOXDKllS   OF   THE  X/X'"  rKXTURY 


¥^, 


iidiiiiratioii  of  tlic  iiidiistriul  world.  Vet,  tliis  is  wliiif  tlic  iiiachiiu'  iiiaufxn- 
niti'd  liy  Siiiitli  and  SUiiinrr  diu's  ti>-day.  Tlif  jiciicial  luovti^ucnts  and  coiu- 
lilicatcd  parts  (if  (lit'  powtT-ldtim  aii-  lU'csciit  as  for  ucaviii};' a  idaiii  tahric.  and 
nil  iifaius  or  lari^c  spodls  lanii'd  hv  a  (diaiii,  iiiidci' tlic  cdiitrol  of  ;i  iiattciii. 
aif  arraiit,'cd  the  tuft  yarns,  in  the  order  in  \vlii(di  tlicv  sliould  a|i|)t'ar  in  tlic 
tit,'iirc.  'l"liroiij;li  tlic  pattern  dcvi(!cs  the  iiropcr  spool  or  licani  is  lirou<;lit  into 
position  to  he  seized  hy  a  jiair  of  tiiitjcrs  which  rise,  take  the  spool  from  the 
chain,  lower  it  to  the  warp,  pass  the  ends  of  the  tuft  yarn  through  and  around 
the  pro])er  warp  tlircad,  hold  them  till  the  insertion  of  a  hiiuliny;  wtdt,  then, 
wiien  they  have  heeii  properly  cut  to  lcn,y:tli,  return  the  spool  into  its  ]ilace  in 
the  chain.  'I'liis  creation  of  mccliauical  t^enins  takes  rank  with  the  wonders 
of  the  spinniiis;'  mule  and.  like  that  maidiinc.  passes  tliroii,y;h  its  entire  opera- 
tion with  the  y/zvc/.s/f*//  ii/iiii  tiii/iiiiiiifiHi.  I>y  its  aid  close  imitations  id'  the 
oriental  hand-made  rii,y;s  are  [ilaccd  ludore  the  world  at  one  (piartcr  the  former 
price,  and,  as  a  result,  the  tine  iiKHpiette  and  axmiustcr  carpets  lend  their 
l)caiity  to  nearly  every  home  in  the  land. 

as   to  adapt    it    for  weaving 


The  credit  lor  improving;  the  |iower-looni  so 
fancy  cassi meres  and  siiitinins,  l)eloii,t,'s  to  William  ( 'lonipton,  a  native  of  I'lm;- 
hind,  who  came  to  theriiited  States  in  IS.'Ui,  and  slautly  thereafter,  in  the 
.Middlesex  .Mills  at  liowell,  .Mass.,  constructed  and  operated  the  lirst  fancy  cas- 
simcrc  power-loom,  not  only  in  this  country,  hut  in  the  worhh  I'rior  to  this 
the  harness  for  all  woolen  and  worsted  |iower-loonis  was  worked  hy  cams,  ami 


th. 


loth  was  woven   plain 


hilt   ('romiitoii's  loom  of   IS  10  started  a  ne 


w  era 


in  the  woolen  industry,  rendcrinj^  it  possihle  to  produce  any  fancy  weave  hy 
an  arraiii;-enieiit  of  pattern  (diaiii  and  larp'  nunihcr  of  liarncsses  in  connection 
with  the  (dianjjfc  shuttle-hoxes.  Improvements  followed,  hy  the  suhstitution 
(d'  the  reverse  shiittle-hox  motion  in  iS.'ii,  the  perfection  (d'  the  ij;eneral  loom 
structure  in  I S."»7.  tlie  addition  of  the  upri^dit  lever  harness  motion  in  ISIJI. 
and  the  centre-stop  in  1S7".>,  so  that  at  the  present  time  this  matdiine  i-~ 
ailapted  to  run  at  high  speeds  and  weave  at    moih'rate  cost   the  most  com 


•ited 


sue 


h 


diawl 


s,  checks,  siiitinus. 


juicatcd  dc'. ii^'iis  ni  woolen   and  wors 
and   all  forms  of  fancy  eassimercs. 

'riic  .u't'iieral  industrial  activity  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  textile  manu- 
facture hctwecn  the  years  \S:'u>  and  lSi>U.  liroiight,  torlh  many  forms  of 
looms  ()(  speidal  ada]>tation  to  meet  the  increasing  demands  of  society.  The 
narrow-ware  loom  ajipearcd  in  the  third  decade  (d'  this  century,  and  the 
a(hlition  of  the  dohhie.  or  dacqiiard.  later,  cipiipped  this  loom  for  the 
simul.aneous  production  of  several  rihhons,  i>v  narrow  fahrics,  side  hy  side, 
liaving  plain  or  tignred  (dVect.  The  lay  was  divided  intti  several  reed  spaces. 
and  a  (MU'responding  iiiimhcr  ol  shuttles,  operated  by  rack  and  iiinion,  carried 
the  wtdt-threads  through  the  adjai-ent  warp. 

.\hont  the  middle  id'  this  century,  and  until  the  aihiption  o\'  the  more  rich 
and  delicate  fahrii's.  liair-cloth  was  the  acce|itcd  covering  for  i'urniture,  and 
power-looms  lor  its  |>r<idnctioii  (pii(d<ly  answered  the  demand.  'I'liey  reached 
sindi  a  degree  of  perfection  and  etiiciency  in  this  country  that  almost  the  entire 
industry  was  centred  here.  This  fahric  was  made  from  the  hair  (d'  horses' 
tails  as  weft,  ami  a  strong  cotton  warp;  and  as  the  widt  could  not  he  w<  uml 
upon  hohhiiis.  as  usual,  each  separate  hair  was  inserted  hy  an  ingeniou- 
device  made  to  reciprocate  through  the  hlied,  and  .select  one  out  of  u  huiidlc 


nN 


V^..>V>tW 


THE   CESTUliY'S    TEXTILE  PliOURESS 


141 


of  hairs  CMit  to  tlic  same  Iciifjtli.  The  coiicfptioii  ot  ;i  jiowcr  device  (m|i;i1i1(' 
(if  tlic  (lelie;it,e  (iteration  necessary  to  weave  hair-<'l(itli.  eoiiM  never  liiive 
Itecn  realized  excepl  in  a  hi,L,dil\'  intelli<;ent  inanntacturiiig  cdniniunity  ;  l>\it 
in  1S70,  liiiude  Island  alone  produced  on  such  machines  over  (idd.OUO  yards, 
consuniini,'  tlic  -by  tlio  hair  of  ahont  eiylit  liundred  thousand  horse-tails. 

The  evolution  of  the  lappet  loom  started  hetween  iSKtand  lS,1(tin  iMii^land 
anddermany.  It  souL,dit  to  enhance  the  pleasinij  et't'ect  of  plain  faltrics.  l>y 
[)lacin<,'  an  cndcuidcred  or  raised  ti,y;nre  over  tlie  snrlace  diirinj^  the  wi-avin^ 


■M 


iU.  Ui, 


<IU(  II.AK    t.OOM. 


|iropess.  Near  the  lower  <'di,'e  of  ladies' skirts,  on  the  ends  (d'  neckties  ami 
like  arti(des,  an  endiroidercd  eit'cet  was  desiralile;  and  this  has  been  seciii'cd 
liy  the  lappet  attatdiment  ti>  the  present  poweidoom.  In  tins  a  needle  is 
Minnnted  in  appropriate  location,  i^sually  iiack  of  tiie  lay.  and  tiiroiiuli  an  eyti 
in  the  end  thereid'  the  lappet  tlircaii  is  led  from  a  siiitatiie  supply.  This 
needle  is  normally  eitiier  above  or  lie'.ow  the  warp.  When  a  spot  or  lij^^iire  is 
wanted,  it  is  caused  to  move  into  the  |ilane  (d'  tiie  op|iositc  warps  o I  tiie  shed, 
under  the  direction  of  suitable  controlliui,'  pattern  mechanisnis.  The  shuttle 
licini;  then  shot,  the  lappet  thread  appears  upon  llie  surface,  ami  it  may  lie 
made  to  thus  apjiear  as  often  as  desired;  its  position  beint,'  shifted  as  neces- 
sary under  the  Lruidauce  of  a  pattern-(diaiu  to  form,  in  embroidery  elfcct.  any 
'liaracter  of  small  desii'ii. 


'*! 


m 


142 


TRIUM/'JIS  .AXl)    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


Closely  allied  to  the  lappet  loom  in  tlu;  effect  produced  is  the  swivel-shuttle 
loom,  which  has  come  extensively  into  use  during  the  last  thirty  years  to  sup- 
ply demands  for  s|)otted  or  embroidered  figures.  The  loom  is  of  the  plain 
ty^)e,  having  snudl  swivel-shuttles  movalde  in  carrier  lilocks,  which  are  secnred 
to  the  sui)i)orting  bar  near  the  top  of  tlie  lay-reed,  in  convenient  location  tn 
permit  the  shuttles  to  be  de[)reHsed  into  the  shed.  Kach  swivel-shuttle  is 
provided  with  a  rack  engaging  a  snitabk;  operating  pinion  to  move  the  shut- 
tles sininltaneonsly  from  one  carrier  to  the  nc.\t.  Normally  these  shuttles 
are  held  above  the  warp  plane,  and  the  loom  in  this  condition  weaves  tabby 
or  twill.  At  the  desired  moment,  the  supporting-bar  is  lowered  by  a  cam  oi' 
.lac(piard  t(t  bring  the  shuttles  in  the  shed  ;  tint  shuttles  are  nuicd  from  one 
carrier  to  tiie  next  adjacent,  and  then  all  are  raised  to  their  normal  jxisition 
above  the  warj).  'I"he  gronnd  weft  is  laid  and  the  beat-up  takes  place.  I{e]ie- 
tition  develops  a  sjtot  or  tignre  at  intervals  across  tin'  entire  fabric,  ami  with 
the  n.se  of  different  colored  swivid-threads  the  greatest  diversity  of  end)roid- 
ered  effect  is  secured  over  the  entire  ground.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
spotted  silks  for  ladies'  dresses  and  fancy  scarfs,  never  before  oonteniplatei!. 
are  now  woven  on  this  loom  at  prices  that  art  y  moderate  for  such  a  class 
of  goods. 

A  ratlical  departure  from  the  jjaths  traveled  by  jirior  inventors  was  inau- 
gurated about  IS.V,),  in  adajjting  the  power-loom  for  weaving  tubular  fabrics, 
resulting  twenty  years  later  in  perfecting  a  machine  in  which  the  warp 
threads  were  arranged  in  eiicular  series  and  the  weft  laid  in  the  circular  shed 
by  a  continuously  moving  slndtle.  Kire-hose  and  like  tubular  cloths  resulted, 
b'apid  developnu'nt  continued  from  the  nuddle  of  the  present  century,  so  that 
nearly  every  conceivable  form  of  lo(mi,  from  the  light  running  plain  fabric 
and  gingham  looms  to  the  heavy  structures  for  weaving  canvas  and  wire 
cloth,  claimed  the  attention  of  the  inventor;  and  in  this  last  decade  of  the 
century  looms  are  constructed  to  weav(!  anything  that  can  be  woven.  Wire, 
slats,  cane,  straw,  and  glass,  as  well  as  tlie  liglit  fibres  of  cotton,  wool,  or 
silk,  are  now  easily  manijndated  on  the  power-loom  and  woven  into  cloths, 
mattings,  baskets,  cane-seats  for  furniture,  bottle-covers,  and  ever  so  many 
irregular  forms  that,  in  tlie  dormant  condition  of  this  industry  jn-ior  to  the 
nineteenth  century,  were  (piite  beyond  consideration  of  the  most  active 
enthusiast  of  the  art. 

Wonderful  as  these  achievements  have  been,  the  restless  and)ition  of 
inventive  geidus  remains  unsatisfied,  improvenu'iits  continue  —  especially 
ill  the  I'nited  States,  under  the  fostering  care  of  a  liberal  patent  system  — 
and  attempts  are  now  being  made,  and  with  success,  to  form  the  power-loom 
into  a  thonuighly  automatic  machine  incapable  of  ]iroducing  any  but  the  besi 
(piality  of  cloth.  I'jion  the  breakage  or  uodue  slackening  of  a  warp  thread. 
the  loom  would  continue  to  weave  and  produce  imiierfect  fabric  until  the  a1- 
tendant  b;"'  oieced  the  broken  end  oradjusteil  the  slack  thread.  Means  were 
devised  somc^  years  ago  to  remedy  this  defect,  but  with  only  partial  succcs> 
until  near  the  close  of  this  century,  breakage  or  failun-  more  often  occnrrtil 
in  the  weft,  however,  and  though  the  wefl  stop-motion  successfully  detected 
the  fault  and  stopped  the  hmm,  yet  much  valualde  time  was  lost,  and  constant 
attention  was  needed  to  su])ply  new  lilling.  Progressive  tendeiuues  of  tin 
closing  years  of  this  decade  have  sought  to  meet  this  dithculty.     As  a  rcsull. 


THE   CENTURY'S    TEXTILE  TltOfiJUCSS 


ii;{ 


ially 


t  ("111  — 

1'-1<MI111 

best 
lir(M(l. 
lu"  ;it- 

wcrc 

lll'l'l'S> 

I'urrril 
Icctcd 
listlilit 
]r  tlic 
Icsiill. 


means  are  now  provided  wlu'rehy,  on  fiiiliiic  or  hrcaktigo  of  the  wct't,  the 
loom  disehiir,<;es  its  iniiiert'ect  iilling  from  the  siiuttle,  supplies  itself  with  ;i 
new  weft  from  the  hopper,  plaees  it  in  the  shuttle,  and  continues  to  weave. 
Sueli  a  loom  provided  with  a  war[)  stoii-motimi  is  almost  incapalile  of  pro- 
dueing  imperfect  cloth,  and  so  long  as  the  warps  remain  intact  and  the 
hoi>per  is  kept  supi)lied  with  weit-ltol)l)ins,  it  will  continue  to  weave.  In 
fact,  in  many  mills  of  the  New  Kngland  States  these  looms  ar<!  now  left 
to  run  during  the  dinner  hour  without  an  attendant,  and  no  imperfect  cloth 
is  ])roduced. 

Such  machines  are  almost  indei)endent  of  human  attention,  yet  they  are  the 
evolution  of  the  old-time  hand  loom.  .Fust  one  hundred  years  ago  the  hand 
loom,  runuiiig  at  40  or  50  picks  U)  the  minute,  recpiired  the  watchful  (iare  of 


THK    KIUST   KNITTING    M.MIIINK.       LeE. 

an  exjjprt  weaver;  in  1840,  the  same  weaver  could  "tend"  from  two  to  four 
power-looms  running  100  tolL'O  picks;  to-day  he  oversees  from  10  to  10  looms 
innining  from  loO  to  L'OO  ])icks. 

The  homespun,  with  its  old  familiar  hntternut  dye,  has  disjipipeared.  The 
spinning-wheel  and  loom  no  longer  occupy  a  part  of  every  home.  In  their 
stead,  the  farmer,  as  he  looks  beyond  the  thriving  corntields,  beholds  tin^ 
ri'eking  chimneys  of  a.  thousand  mills  as  they  jjrociaim  the  majesty  of  the 
power  nuu'hines.  The  fabrics  produced  are  iM-autiful  and  varied  in  design, 
and  their  cost  so  low  as  to  excite  wonder  that  such  progress  could  have 
licen  the  result  of  one  hundred  years  of  industrial  activity. 

The  emancipation  of  kidtting,  as  a  domestic,  occupation,  dates  from  tin* 
romantic  expcM'iences  of  William  Lee,  a  subject  of  <j)ucen  I']Ii/abetli,  of  wiiom 
it  is  related  that  while  watching  the  deft  lingers  of  his  lady-love  guide  the 


i  U  <  ;i 


i:     H 


l\.- 


ill!* 


Cii 


■i  ii 


144 


TRIUMPHS  AND   WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX™  CENTURY 


I  t  ' '  ■II 


knitting  needle  from  loop  to  loop,  eonceived  the  idea  of  jiertbrniing  the  o])er- 
sition  by  nieehanical  means.  It  is  a  singular  coincidence  also  that  the  inven- 
tion of  this  the  first  machine  for  knitting  purposes,  like  that  of  the  power-loom 
for  weaving,  should  have  emanated  from  the  hands  of  a  student  and  clergy- 
man, unfamiliar  with  the  art. 

J^ee's  device  was  naturally  crude.  It  contained  only  twelve  needles,  ar- 
ranged in  a  row  with  about  seven  or  eight  to  the  inch,  but  it  successfully 
formed  a  knitted  web.  Further  progress  in  the  art  was  slow,  on  accrount  of 
the  strong  opjMjsition  to  all  machines  wliich  seemed  likely  to  deprive  the  hand 
artisan  of  <)ccu])ation.  The  (i>ueeu  refused  to  grant  a  ])atent  to  Lee  for  this 
reason,  and  knitting  remained  the  exclusive  prerogative  of  women  for  many 
years.  IJke  tlie  spinning-wheel,  however,  the  hand  knitting-needle  l)eheld  a 
rival,  which  in  the  diversity  of  hunum  wants  was  destined  to  create  one  of 
the  great  industrial  pursuits  of  the  age. 

Stockings,  like  all  other  garments,  were  first  made  by  sewing  together 
pieces  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  or  woolen  cloth,  resulting  in  a  poorly  fitting  arti- 
cle, prolific  of  uncomfortable  seams.  Knitting  the  entire  hose  in  a  single 
l)iece  by  hand  needles  overcame  these  defects  to  an  extent,  and  the  Lee  ma- 
chine opened  the  way  for  the  i)roduction  of  such  articles  on  a  scale  that  now 
furnishes  the  civilized  world. 

Lee's  machine  jiroduced  a  straight  web  which  re(piired  to  be  cut  and  sewn 
to  shai)e  ;  then  to  it  was  added  the  ribbing  device  and  the  narrowing  and 
widening  attachment,  to  shape  the  web  to  fit  the  body  without  cutting ;  but 
still  a  seam  existed  in  the  stocking  where  the  edges  united.  In  liSlK,  how- 
ever, ]\[.  I.  llrunel  Imilt  a  circular  machine  having  an  endless  row  of  needles, 
and  in  ISol,  Timothy  ]>ailey,  of  New  York,  apjdied  jtower  to  the  knitting 
frame;  the  result  being  that  at  this  time  a  tubular  seamless  fabric  could  be 
produced  on  a  power  machine. 

The  latch-needle,  which  has  given  to  the  knitting  machine  great  capacity 
and  diversity  of  product,  was  not  invented  until  about  1.S47,  by  Afr.  Aiken,  of 
Xew  Hampshire.  A  period  of  develojnm'nt  then  set  in  that  continues  to  the 
present  time.  The  needles  bj-  cam  mechanism  were  nmde  independently 
operative  in  a  circular  carrier ;  narrowing  and  widening  devices  to  produce 
pouches,  such  as  the  heels  and  toes  of  stockings,  were  added,  as  was  also  feeil- 
ing  nu'chanism  for  the  intr«)duction  of  different  colored  yarn,  or  a  reinforcing 
thread.  Such  machines,  of  LSdS  and  l<S7(t,  would  form  a  stocking  or  under- 
garment wtdl  fitted  to  the  form ;  but  they  re(piired  the  constant  attention  of 
a  skilled  knitter,  until  pattern  mechanism  was  introduced  to  control  the  time 
of  introduction  of  the  colored  or  additional  thread,  and  the  ])lace  fc>r  forma- 
tion of  the  narrowed  or  widened  web.  In  forming  the  heel  and  toe  j»ockets. 
a  part  of  the  needles  are  thrown  out  of  action,  and  the  movements  to  operate 
the  active  needh's  are  changed  from  round  and  round,  or  circular  work,  to 
reci])rocating.  At  each  reci])rocation  one  or  more  needles,  at  the  end  of  tin' 
series,  are  rendered  inactive,  until  one  half  the  re(piired  poc^ket  is  formed ; 
then  they  are  successively  ret\irned  to  action,  and  circular  knitting  resumed. 
Tt  may  be  also  an  adtlitional  thread  is  introduced  U>  reinforce  the  wearini; 
qualities  of  the  heel  and  toe,  or  a  differently  colored  yarn  may  be  thrown  in 
to  give  hgure,  but  all  such  movements  are  now  automatically  controlled  li\ 
a  pattern  mechanism.     The  ribbed  leg  portion  of  a  stocking  is  fornunl  eitlici 


THE   CEyrUJiY'S    TEXTILE   PROdRESS 


145 


in  tlie  .same  iniicliiiit'  that  fasliioiis  the  fnot  or  in  a  sejjai'ate  machine  to  which 
the  foot  is  translerred,  but  in  either  case  tlie  pattern  mechanism  a.u'ain  controls. 

Within  till'  last  twenty  years  this  art  has  been  so  j^reatiy  ini])rove(l,  es- 
]iecially  in  the  hosiery  line,  that  the  automatic  machine  ol  to-<lay  i)asses 
throui^h  the  entire  oiieration  of  knitting  the  arti- 
cle, finishing  it  off,  and  starting  afresh  without 
other  aid  than  a  supply  of  yarn.  Moreover,  the 
machine  now  to  be  considered  practical  must  lie 
so  constructed  that  it  will  continue  thus  to  oper- 
ate without  repairs  or  loss  of  tinu>  from  month  to 
month  ;  and  its  daily  out]»ut  will  average  more 
than  the  old  hanil  machines  could  accomplisii  in  a 
week.  \\\  hand  knitting  one  hundred  loops  couhl 
lie  formed  jier  niin\ite;  by  Lee's  maciiine  as  many 
as  fifteen  hundred  were  possible  in  the  same  time; 
lint  to-day.  tlie  automatic  machine  will  average 
lictween  ."idlMMX)  and  4n().(l(MI  loops,  and  at  the  same 
time  will  produce  a  finer  web,  shaped  to  fit  the 
Itiriu  of  the  wearer. 

Such  comjiarisous  reveal  the  vitally  important 
progress  made  in  the  knitting  industry,  through 
whi(di  most  of  our  underwear,  stockings,  scarfs, 
ncck-coniforts,  and   woolen    gloves    are    supplied. 

'file  labor  and  time  saving  devices  (h'vtdopcd  in  KxiTTtNo  in  tur  oi.n  w\v 
this  class  of  machines,  and  the  fact  that  unskilled 

workmen  may  -tend"  from  fifteen  to  twenty  of  them,  largely  accounts  for 
the  universal  adojition  of  warm  and  comfortable  wearing  apparel  by  all 
classes  of  society. 

The  niimiier  of  ])atents  granted  on  textile  machinery  during  tin'  nine- 
teenth  century  furnishes  an  index  to  the  jirogress  maile.  I'rior  to  1S0((, 
less  than  one  liundred  patents  were  granted  in  tlu'  United  States,  while 
since  that  time,  and  up  until  July,  isy").  about  1">.L'(»0  patents  were  issiu'd. 
covering  tangible  and  nniterial  improvements  over  the  old  structures.  The 
lieneficent  effects  of  these  inventions  are  attested  by  the  wonderful  and  con- 
tinuous reduction  in  cost  to  the  consumer  of  all  kinds  of  textile  fabrics. 
For  the  maiuifacturer,  these  have  made  possible  increased  i)ro(luction  in  a 
given  time  with  less  manual  labor.  When  it  is  remendiered  that  the  lalior 
cost  is  about  one  half  the  total  cost  of  prodm-tion  of  textile  fabrics,  it  will  be 
apparent  that  the  l)eneficial  effects  of  any  labor-saving  device  are  felt  as  well 
by  the  consunu'r  as  the  producer.  .' 

In  ISTO  the  nund)er  of  textile  establishments  in  tlie  United  States  was  ']0.'>."). 
giving  occupation  to  14<>.<S'.)7  enijiloyes.  and  eonsuming  annually  8iV,).4'_'(>..SL".) 
pounds  of  textile  fibres,  while  in  ISOO  the  number  of  establishments  had 
increased  to  4114.  employing  oll.SUT  hands,  and  consuming  the  enormous 
amount  of  l,r»7'_*.r)4iS.O.So  pimiids  of  fibres  ;  representing  progress  and  growth 
in  the  textile  arts  not  excelled  by  any  other  manufacturing  imlustry. 

Food  and  clothing  constitute   the   primary  wants   of  man.      The   former 
grew  ready  for  his  use  as  a  natural  |iroduct  of  the  soil.     The  latter  he  had 
to  produce  by  artificial  means  to  afford  that  protection  which  nature  failed  to 
10 


:l 


■•/3 


1 


146 


Tin UM PUS  AND    WONDEltS   OF  THE  XI X>"  CENTUUY 


]n*oviil('.  >«ext  to  agriculture,  tlieruibrc,  luiiii's  early  atttMition  was  dirfctod 
to  securing  a  covering  lor  the  body.  Looking  back  through  the  vista  of 
years  diniuied  by  the  mists  of  very  remoteness,  we  find  tiu^  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms  destined  to  contribute  to  his  needs,  'i'herc  were  the  blue  Hax- 
Helds  ;  cotton-bolls,  scattered  like  jiowih'red  snow  about  the  land,  co(iuetting 
in  wanton  abandon  with  winds  tempered  by  an  all-wise  Power  to  the  sheii- 
herd-watched  sheep;  goats  roaming  the  vale  of  Cashmere;  silkworms  ol 
Ceres,  and  the  grasses  of  spring,  overflowing  with  allurements  of  assistance 
for  his  adornment.  With  these  essentials  has  man  wrought;,  mighty  miracle. 
The  genius  of  Industrial  Art,  awakened  by  the  fascinating  intluence  of 
Nature,  invoked  the  God(U'Ss  of  Invention,  approaching  her  temple  iu)t  witli 


KMTTINC    IN     rilK    M'.W    WW. 


loud  acclaim,  as  marked  the  herculean  strides  in  other  arts  and  sciences, 
but  modestly,  tliongh  tenaciously  and  most  effectually.  For  not  more  is 
vvoman  emanci]);ited  by  the  .sewing  machine  than  both  sexes  by  the  doing 
away  of  the  spnming-wheel.  the  li(nisehold  knitter,  and  liaiul-worked  loom, 
Mot  more  do  electricity  and  steam  j)ower  facilitate  the  various  occui)ations 
of  man  than  do  the  many  textured  fabrics  add  to  his  needs. 

In  all  the  i)hases  of  social  life  is  this  in''ustry  manifest.  If  the  bampict 
hall  is  warmed  and  lighted  by  electricity,  so.  also,  is  it  adorned  with  ta]ies 
tries,  silken  and  artistic,  najiery  surpassingly  smooth,  and  laces  intri(Nitel_\ 
wrought. 

How  like  a  fairy  tale  reads  the  ev(dution  of  t(»xtile  progress  I  Concej' 
tions,  iidinite  in  range  and  variety,  alike  pleasing  to  the  eye  jind  gratifyiuL^ 
to  vanity,  have  been  sjnin,  woven,  knit,  and  (unbroidered,  until,  siaiuling  a^ 
we  do  at  the  dawn  of  another  century.  u])on  the  summit  of  unparallclc>i 
achievements,  we  ask,  "Can  the  mind  conceive,  the  heart  desire,  or  the  haml 
execute  more."  lioivr.   I'.   IIaixs. 


THE  CENTURY'S   RELIGIOUS  PROGRESS 


Jmoi't*  is 
|io  doin.u' 
1(1  loom, 

l)!llHlU('t 

111  tiqx's 
Iriciitcl} 

'ollCI']' 

Itit'.N  ill 
IliliK  :i> 
lallt^lc'i 

|i>  Iiuik! 

kINS. 


TiiK  ('lo.siiiij;  years  of  tlic  iiinetct'iitli  ficutury.  l)otli  in  Kiiroiit'  and  tlu!  United 
States,  art'  cliaractciizcd  liy  a  i-t'lij;ions  lil'c  as  itiicnoniciial  with  respect  to 
(l('velo])nient  and  intiuence  as  thost;  of  the  ei54;htei'iith  were  phenomenal  for 


letiiars^y  and  d«!cline. 


N 


ever, 


says  a  w 


riter  in  thi;  North  Uiitish  IJeview, 


■'has  a  century  risen  on  Kni;land  so  void  of  soul  and  faitii  as  that  wliich 
iipeiii'd  with  Anne  (  17<>L' ),  and  reached  its  misty  noon  beneatli  tlie  second 
'ieor}i;e  (  17.')L'-17(IO  ),  —  a  dtnvless  nigiit  succeeded  hy  a  sunh'ss  dawn.  The 
I'lU'itans  were  Iniried  and  the  Methodists  were  not  born.''  In  this  opinion, 
all  historians  and  essayists  concur. 

Anion.::;  thetdergy  were  many  whose  lives  wen;  of  the  noniinie  Sampson  or- 
der, (h'scrilted  in  Scott's  "(Juy  .Mannerin,!,'''  —  men  whose  lives  were  the  .scandal 
and  reproa(di  (d'  the  (diiindi ;  who  ojieiily  tauLjht  that  reason  is  tlie  all-siitlicieiit 
,'uide;  that  the  Scu'iptures  are  to  be  received  only  as  they  aj;rec  with  the 
ii.<,dit(d'  nature;  pleadiiiLj  f<u'  lilierty  while  running  into  the  wildest  licentious- 
ness.    .Montcs(piieu,  indeed,  did  not  hesitate  to  (diarge  Englishmen  generally 


■ith  being  (h'void  of  every  genuine  ndigitms  sentiment. 


If, 


ay; 


subject  of  ndigion  is  nieiitioiied  in  society,  it  excites  nothing  but  laughter. 
Not  more  than  four  or  five  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  regular 
attendants  at  (diurch.'' 

From  the  c(dleges  and  universities,  the  great  doctrines  of  tlu!  Iieformation 
were  wtdl-nigh  banished,  a  retined  system  of  ethics,  having  no  connection 
with  Christian  motives,  being  substituted  for  the  principles  of  a  divinely 
ifvealed   law. 

( )n  every  side  faith  seemed  to  be  dying  out ;  indeed,  would  have  died  out  but 
for  the  tremendous  reformation  in  life  and  morals  induced  by  the  self-denying 
and  heroic  labors  of  the  Wesleys  and  their  coadjutors,  to  whom,  more  than  to 
any  beside,  Kngland  owes  her  salvation  from  a  relapse  into  barbarism.  —  a 
service  whi(di  in  later  years  won  for  the  Wesleys  a  memorial  in  Westminster 
A  hi  lev. 


Mil   tile  Continent.   reli<j;ious    conditions  were  no  better.     In   I'rai 


KM' 


tl 


le 


masses  were  yet  rciding  amid  the  excesses  of  the  Itevolution.  N'oltaire  and 
lioiisseau  were  the  oijudes  and  prophets  of  their  times,  —  the  ])opular  idols 
iif  the  hour.  N'oltaire,  indeed,  openly  boasted  that  he  alone  would  laugh 
I'iiristiauity  out  cd'  the  I'ourt   of  ]iiiblic  ojiinion.  declaring  the  whole  system 


to  I 


le  outgrown  and  powerles 


<iermany.  yiven  over  to  theolotrical 


specula- 


tion, crushed  beneath  tlie  weight  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  torn  by  internal 
tlisseiisions,  gave  but  little  hope  that  upon  her  altars  the  dying  fire  of  the 
:4i('at  Iieformation  would  ever  again  tiame  forth  as  in  the  older  and  more 
heroic  days. 

In  the  I'nited  Sts'tes.  similar  conditions  prevailed,  especially  during  the  lust 
decade  <d'  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first  of  the  nineteenth.     Forms  (>i 


$!• 


148 


TlilUM/'HS   AM)    \\()\J)hHS    OF   TllH   MX'"   CliSTUUY 


iiili(l('lit\  tlif  iiidst  r;iiiir;il  ;inil  ri'voltiiii;-  |in'\  ailed  t  lirnii!,'li(iiit  Mn- hiiid,  Miiiiy 
(•!'  tlic  IcailiiiL,'  slalfsiiii'ii,  in  private  at-  least,  iliil  ii"l  sern|ile  to  emiless  llnni 
selves  atlieisls  or  ijeisls.  'rimmas  I'aiiie  was  tlie  |M(|iiilai' idol ;  liis  ".\L;e  nl 
lu'asiiii  "  aiiiiiisl  as  eiiiiiiiion  as  tlie  Itilile  itsell.  The  inaini'ily  (d  tlie  men 
lakiii.i;  |iarl  uitli  Idiii  in  the  Innndini;  oi'  tiie  i^dvernnienl.  uilii  imt  lew 
('xee|iti(ins.  iield  tlieido^^ieal  sentiments  aUin  to  Ids,  altlnMi,i,di  deelinin^^  ti> 
|>;irtiei|iatt'  in  Ids  violent  and  linital  assanlls  u|Min  the  Scriptures  ami  liie 
institutions  oi'  Christian  society. 

Speakin;4  (d'  the  earlier  days  oi'  the  century.  Chancel  lor  Kent,  in  one  of  his 
]ud>lishe(l  works,  declared  that    in  his  youn;4cr  days  the  nuMi  (d'  his  ;ici|uaiid- 


lUUMIXCIlAM    MKKTIN(;-norSI-,   (ANCIKNT). 


ance  in  ])ro{ossional  life  who  did  not  avow  iuHdtdity  were  ('om])aratively 
few.  lUsho))  Moailc.  of  Viririnia.  in  his  autol)io<iraphy.  states  that  '•  scarcely  a 
youMi?  man  of  culture  coulil  be  found  wlio  believed  in  Christianity." 

The  eollcijes  and  universities  were  so  tilled  with  youthful  skeptics  that  when. 
in  17Ur>.  Timothy  l)wi|.rht  assumed  the  presidency  of  Vale,  he  found  but  four 
or  live  willinsj;  to  admit  that  they  were  mend)ers  of  (duirelies.  So  far  did 
they  go  in  their  (U'votion  to  the  French  iiitidtdity  ])revalent  at  the  time,  that 
the  seniors  of  the  college  were  commonly  known  among  themselves  l)y  the 
names  of  Diderot.  D'Alembert,  Hobespierre.  liousseari.  Danton,  and  the  like 
Harvard.  ]*rinceton,  William  and  Mary,  the  University  of  Virginia.  —  all  \\\>- 
colleges  indeed, —  were  as  thoroughly  hotbeds  of  skepticism  as  nurseries  ol 
learning. 


ativcly 
M'ct'lv  11 


'////•;  <i:\Tt/itys  iij:i.njors  rtioajncss 


Hi) 


Thr  I 


ifriiiil.  Inn,  \\;is  (iiic  of    iiitcnu'citit'  stiilV  aiming;  tlif   Ittrlili-  clnirclifs 


I  lii'iusflvcs.    I  (ivisidiis  nil  (lortriiiiil  lines  wen-  iuccssaiit  ;  (lr|iiirtiir('.s  riniii  tlm 
iMitli  ;is  iiiiiiicrniis  iis   tlicv  were  disiistrdiis.     ( H'    tlir    iiiissiniiiiry  spirit    su 


lor 


inns!  V  t'liiiiiirti'ristir  III'  tlic  iiiiictft'iitl'  cent  iirv  tlit'if  w  ;is  not  even  ;itia< 


I'lt  III  IT'.I'I,  lint  ii  luissiiiiiiii'V 


sneietv  \v:is    111    existence   nil    eillier   side   (if   l! 


icea 
■11(11 


II.     'I'lie  same  \Mis  true  nl' Ii(is|iil;(ls,  asviiiiiis.  Ill'  every  Inriii  nl    niMranized 
t  lnr  tiie  leciaiiialinn  (if  liie  masses  or  the  ameliiiiat 


Kin  nl    linniaii  il 


111  r>iist(iii,  as  late  as  ISl  1.  men  nf  literary  nr  |Mililicai  (list iiid  inn,  eaj,'er  t( 
listen   to    the    marvelniis    revival    |ireacliiiij,'    nf   the    celeliiated    hr.  (iriHin 


itteiideil   his  services  siirre|it.itiniisly,  (ir  in  dis},'nise,  fearlnl    lest  k 


imwlei 


l-e  nf 


iilteiidance  npnii   relii;iniis  services  nf  such  viil^'.'ir  character  sliniild    detract. 
Irniii  the  (lij^nity  nf  their  sneial  staiidiii.i,'. 

If,  hnwever,  the  times  were  had,  the  niitlnnk  for  Christ iaiiity  dark,  IIk; 
perind,  nevertheless,  was  not  wlinlly  withniit  j,deams  of  li;,'|it.  The  spiritual 
leaven  imparte(l  l>y  Whitelield  in  his  mii,'lity  preachinj,'  tniirs,  l»y  Kdwards, 
Ihvi^'lit.  Asliiiry,  <!ritliii,  and  others  nf  eipially  liemic  stamp,  j,'radiially  l)e,i,'aii 
In  wnrk.  —  slowly  at  first,  hut  with  ever  accelerating,' movement, — until  at 
last  the  triumphant  siutcesses  of  the  present  century  liej^Mii  their  stal(dy 
uiar(di.  I>y  dcj^rees  a,  new  life  appeared  aiiionj,'  the  churches,  lieraldiii)^'  the 
(lawn  nf  il  new  and  lirij,ditfr  day.  Revivals  of  lidi^don.  many  nf  them  jiower- 
liil  and  swcepiiiLC,  liroko  nut  in  many  parts  nf  the  cniintry.  .Massachusetts, 
\'irj;iiiia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  the  Carnlinas,  (Jenrijia,  were  in  succession 
the  theatres  nf  lanvemeiits  which,  liefnre  they  had  spent  their  fnrce,  had 
('(iiiipletcdy  revnliitiniiized  the  eoiiditiniis  of  niifaith,  immoriility,  iiiid  spiritual 


ipatliy  so   lonj.;    prevuiliiij^. 


T\ 


lese   uulieava 


Il- 


ls of 


spiritual  power,  cnntinuiii 


iluriii!,'  tlu^  first  twenty-five  years  nf  the  century,  laid  lirnad  and  deep   the 
fniindatioiis  of  tlu^  iiii^dity  achievements  of  the  (diurcli  which  we  are  now  to 


(•(insider. 


II 


ow  extensive,  how  won 


derfi 


tl 


lave  ueeii  these  achievements  can 


perhaps    Itest  lie  uiiderstnnd    hy  ;i  consideration  of   the  clian^'ed  conditions 
marking'  the  close  of  the  century. 

in  the  first  place,  that  the  peojtle  of  the  United  States  are  a  relif,'i(ius  people 
iiiiiy  be  inferred  from  the  aniazinj,'  number  and  variety  of  rtdij^doiis  alioundini,' 
and  tloiirishinj,' within  our  borders.  It  maybe  douiiteil  that  in  any  ot  her 
Christian  cniiiitry  of  the  earth  tlnnc  can  be    found  so   many  varieties  of  ndi- 

jieculiarities    of 


L,'ion,  so  many  ( 


liund 


1    nrtrani/utions,  so  inaiiv  and  diverse 


doctrine,  pnlity,  and  usas^'e,  !is  here.  It  is  ii  land  nf  churches ;  cliurches  for 
whites,  churches  for  blacks;  (dinrches  lar<jje  and  churches  small;  chiir(dies 
(irthodo.K  and  (diurches  heterodn.x  ;  ehiirclies  Christian  and  ehnrcdies  ]»af,'aii ; 
clnirclies  (Catholic  and  chuindies  rrotestant;  (diurches  liberal  and  churches 
cdiiservative,  Calvinisti(^  and  Armenian,  rnitiirian  and  Trinitarian;  repre- 
senting nearly  every  ]ili;ise  of  ec(desiastical  and  thenlnjrjcjjd  tlinu<,dit.  As 
.\uiericaiis  have  distanced  the  world  in  the  extent  and  variety  nf  their 
material  inventions,  so  have  they  distanced  the  world  in  the  extent  and 
variety  of  their  theoloLjieal  and  ecclesiastieal  forms.  The  state  cannot  control 
the  (diurch.  and  the  clmridi  is  as  free  as  the  state.  .\s  a  man  may  freelv 
transfer  liis  citizenship  from  one  State  to  another,  to  each  in  turn,  so  may  he,  if 
he  shall  so  (h'sire,  jiass  from  one  eccdesiastieal  cnmniuninn  to  another,  until  he 
>hall  have  exhausted  tlie  list.  If,  perchance,  no  niie  nf  the  one  hundred  and 
lorty -three  distinct  denominations  enumerated  in  the  census  tables  shall  suit 


:! 


ill 


'    'I 
■  'til 


,\>» 


ifi. 


m 


ISO 


rnilMI'IIS  AM)    WOSDIlltS   nl'  Till-:   MX 'II  CENTUnY 


liiiii.  then*  inuaiu  iniiuiiK-iahlf  .si>|iiiratf,  iii(l<'|i*'ii(lciit coii^ic^Mtiniiis,  im  oim> 
of  which  lays  chiiin  to  (Irnoniiiiatiiuial  iiaiiic,  crt'cil,  or  coinitM't ion.  in  ^nnir 
one  of  whifii  he  yet  may  limi  an  I'ccli-siastical  lioiiic.  'I'hf  principlf  ot'divi- 
sion,  iiuloi'd,  h:is  hccn  (Mrricd  so  far  in  America  thai  it  would  lie  a  dillicult 
task  to  tind  the  rclit-ions  body  so  small  as,  in  the  jiidj^'ment  of  sonic.  In  lir 
incapable  of  further  division. 

It  is  to  be  obseivt'd,  Iiowovlt,  that  tho  differences  of  the  om-  hundred  ;ind 


CATIIKDUAI.   OK   ST.    .lOIlN    TIIK    OIVINK    (I'UOTKSTANT    i;riS( OPAI.)    IXDKH    I'llOCESS   OK 

KKK(  TION    IN    NKW    YoltK 


forty-three  denominations  into  which  our  relij,Moiis  jiojmlation  is  dividc<l  arc. 
in  many  instances,  so  slij,dit  that,  shoidd  consolidation  be  attempted,  the  inic 
liundred  and  forty -three  could  easily  be  rediiced  to  a  comparatively  small 
niunber.  and  tliis  with  but  litth^  chang*^  in  doctrine,  jiolity,  or  iisaf^e.  ( "oiiscl- 
idation  into  oriJtanic  union,  liowever,  is  hardly  likely  to  occur  in  tlie  near 
future,  even  were  such  consolidation  desirable.  In  the  first  ]»lace  such  n 
result  would  be  contrary  to  the  <,'enius  of  I'rotestantism.  based,  as  it  is.  on  tin 
absolute  right  of  ]irivate  judgment  with  resjiect  to  matters  of  faith  aiil 
morals,  and,  in  the  second  idace,  it  woidd  be  contrary  to  bunian  experien.T 
"IJeligious   controversies,"  as  Gladstone  says,  "do  not,  like  bodily  wound 


TlIK   II'ISTUIIYS   lillLIfJlOUS   flloaltESS 


I.-.  I 


lifiil  liy  tlic  j,'<'iiiiil  I'di'ccs  dl'  ii;it\in'.  11  tln-y  ilo  not  |>nMM'C(l  ti  ^lui^^icnc  and 
iiinrtitlriitioii,  at  Irast  tliry  tend  t(i  lianh-ii  iiiti>  fixed  t'at'tts,  tn  iiiciii-|Hi- 
ratr  tlii'iiistilvt's  into  laws,  cliariiftcr,  and  tiadition,  nay,  I'Vcn  into  lanj,nia!;(' ; 
so  tliat  at  last  t.liry  lakr  rank  anion^  til*'  data  and  |)i't'SM|i|iosit  ions  (d  coui- 
inon  lilt',  and  :ii'<'  llioii^dit  as  iiirxocalilr  as  llir  rocks  of  an  ii'ond)onnd  roast." 
In  ri'li^'ion,  when  nicn  scparatt'.  tlif  scvfrancfc  is  like  tlic  scvnancc  of  ll 
two  eurly  liitMids  id  whom  tlir  poet  speaks: 

"I'liry  |iillli'il,    iir'ci'   In   iiiiil    ii;iiiili, 
lint  iiciilii'i'  cvi'i'  IiiiiikI  tiiiniliri' 
'I'ci   ti'i'i'   till'   linlliiw  lii'ill'l  fl'iilil    iniillilii;. 


le 


r 


U'V  >liHiil  a 


liiol',  till'  M'ai''<  I'l'iiiiiiiiiii^, 


f.iki'  I'litTs  wliirh  liiivi'  lii'i'ii  I'i'iit  ii^iiiiiji'r, 
A  ilii'iirv  M'a  now  mlU  lii'twci'ii." 

If.  Iiowevei'.  (lie  diveisit ies  aii'  ^'feat  — increasini^r  nitlier  than  diminishing 
—  the  ••unity  ol'  the  spirit  in  the  honds  of  peaite  "  witli  r»'sp('ct  to  all  essen- 
tials of  iloctriiie  is  as  remarkable  as  the 


diversitv  in  the  out waril  lorm. 


N 


ever, 


indee(l.  siiiee  the  dawn  of  Christianity, 
were  the  memliers  of  the  diversiiieil  liod- 


it'S  of  the  I'eiier 


d    eh 


iircli  o 


I    Ciiri^l^  in 


such  thoroii>;h  aeeord.  in  siieh  eioseiiess 
of  attaehnn'iit.  with  siieh  L^enerous  re- 
(!oj,niitioii  (d'  all  that  is  '^ood   in  eacli   of 


th 


le   several    oodles,   as    now. 


i'lveii   the 
lioman    Catiiolie  Ciiurcii.    inloieranl    in 


ill 


ands  wh' 


lis  sw 


ay   is   praetieaily 


uiiilispu 
least,    has    nw 


ted.    in    the    I'liited    Stat 


hr 


oailer    toleration   ol 


es.    at 

>,dlt     somethili'..;      ol       the 
rroti'slaiils.    Liiv- 


\rilKU   DAMIKN,    MIS^IONAUY   TO 
HAWAIIAN    I.KrKli    COI.OW. 


iiii^  to  its  niillioiis  id'  eommiinieants  a 
better  and  truer  i^dspid  tiiaii  in  those 
countries  where  it  does  not  come  into 
contiict  with  I'rotestantism.  while  free- 
ly cooperating,'  with  other  ehnrehes  in 
various  woi'ks  of  philanthropy  ami  re- 
form. 

In  the  next  i»laoe.  that  we  are  a  relii^ions.  a  Christian  people  may  be  arsc'ied 
from  the  steady  ami  enormous  increase  diiriie^  the  cent iiry  of  the  material 
and  spiritual  forc<'s  of  the  t'hnr(di  (d'  Christ,  an  increase  pheiionienal  even 
amid  the  wonders  of  a  idieiiouienal  century.  Whether  we  look  at  the 
increase  of  edifices  or  the  multiiilioatioii  of  coiiimunicants.  the  results  in 
either  case  are  siitlicieiit   for  botli  coii<,'ratulatioii  and  ania/emeii 


t.     W.'iv  it 


lossible  to  obtain  from  the  ear 


rlier  n 


■cords  exact  statistics  of  the  actual  nuiii 


her  of  edifices  and  oommunicants  existin>,'  at  the  openinj,'  of  the  century, 
conii)arison  would  be  com]iaratively  easy.  Such,  however,  is  not  the  ca-<e.  the 
records  having  been  imperfectly  kept  and  indifferently  preserved.  'I'he  cen- 
sus of  1S<.K»,  indeed,  was  the  first  to  furnish  exhaustive  and  really  reliable 
results. 

Takiue:  that  census  as  a  basis,  and  adding  to  its  figures  those  to  be  olitaiiicd 


• 


(lit 


!  'I'  ^ 


i 


4 


It 


:f 


.iyi 


M  I 


Ili{  t 


I 


flii 


i  ' 

1 

1! 

m 

ft 

1 

mi 

P 

.pinii: ' 

!'|p':Ni  '1: 


'■M'Li.M 


mii 


TincMi'iis  .i.\7>  woshiais  of  the  \i.\iii  <i:\Tii;y 


trnm    till'  vrar 


I  II  M  IK  S      II 


f  t 


11'   VliriiillS     linill 


cs  u|i  til  ami  iiii'lmliiii,'  IS'.II,  tli 
ii'li'^iiius  >trrii!4tli  III  ilir  I'liitiMi  Stiiti's  may  In-  siiiiiiiiaii/i'il  as  Inlluws 
(  liuiclii's,    iSiMSS;     rcli'Miiiis    nriMiii/aUiiiis,    l."iS,»'i",»."i ;     (ii'ilaiiu'd    iiiiiiistcr.* 


1  I  l,SL 


lUt'lllllClS 


ir    riiliiiimiliiMllts.  I."i.L'l".'.l|S  ;   valllf    nf   I'llll'n-ll    liinpcitN  , 


8<17n.(i(iu.(»0(»;  scatiii;^  caiiarity  <.t  cliinvln's.  !;!.(»( Hi.odu.  wliilc  in  tlif  L'.'l.ooo 
plact's  wlifi'c  or,i;aMi/atiiiii,s  wliicli  hwm  iii>  fililiics  Imlil  tlicir  scrvici's. 
arroiiiiiiiHlatidiis  ('(nilil  lie  tnniid  lor  L'.L'.'tH.(MM)  tiidri'.  In  llir  nia jmit y  of  tlir 
rriitrstant  I'liurclii's,  at  li'ast  t wn  snvifi's  aH'    li 


nn   earn  Saliiiall 


in  th 


( 'atlmlir,  six  nr  st'Vi'n 


(irantiiii^f  tlicsc  |ii'i'niisrs,  it  is  Imt   rcasunalilf   tn  say  tliat   if,  nn  any  t,'iv 


I'M 


ilav,  the  riit  111' 


|Mi|inlatiiin  nl'  tin'  rnuntry  slitmlil  ilvsiii'  to  alti'iiil  at  Irast  imi' 
irli'^iiiiis  si'r\  ici'.  arrimnnnilatiuns  nmlil  I'railily  lir  I'onml  lor  tin'  nitiri'  inini- 
lirr. — aiM|ili'   |iriM)t'  tliat    tin'    spiiitiial    intrirsts  nl'   tin-  iiiilliDiis   air   Ity  ni> 


lllrans  lli';^li'ctril  si 


lar 


as  |iri\ili' 
ill] 


'I's  (if  wnrsliii)  ari'  rniiri'iiii'd 


It,  IS  a  slinw- 


ini;' all  till'  ninri'  ii'inarkahli' wlirn  \vi' I'liiisiiliT  tliat  all  tins  vast  ])i(ivisiun  is 
tiirnislii'il  III!  till'  liasis  nt' vuliiiitary  i>rtrrin;,'s,  the  stati'  I'lUit rilmtiiii,'  imt  a 
ilitllar  fill'  ri'li^^idiis  |nir|iiisi's.  It  is  pnilialtli'  tliat  in  tlii'si'  cliiin'lii's  ami 
I'llitiics.  on  Saliliatlis  ami  on  wi'i'kilays.  not  Ii'ss  than  l."»,(«Mi.(Mi(i  siTvircs  arr 
lii'lil  I'acli  yi'ar.  to  say  iiotliiiiLj  of  srssions  of  Sunilay-scliools.  iiH'i'tint,'s  of 
YoniiLf  i'i'oiili''s  Assoi'iations.  anil  ^'atlu'iiiiLCs  of  kinilri'il  rhanirtrr.  In  tlii'iii, 
too,  not  Irss  than  ti'ii  millions  of  st'inions  and  addri'sscs  on  ii'ligions  tlirinrs 
ai'i'  annnally  drlivri'i'd. 

Till'  niimhrr  of  ('Ui'ollcd  romuuiniraiits,  im'  lui'nilirrs,  Iiowi'Vit,  by  no  nii'ans 
expresses  the  real  strt'nj,'th  of  tlie  religions  life  of  the  nation.  To  }j;et  at  that, 
wv  ninst  multiply  each  i'roti'stant  I'onimunii'aiit  by  the  l'.."»  adherents  allowed 
in  all  statistical  ealcnlatioiis.  I'roccediiij,'  on  this  basis,  omittiiiif  for  the  time 
all  Catholies,  .lews,  Theosophists.  members  of  Societies  for  Kthieal  (Culture, 
Spiritualists.  Latter-Day  Saints,  and  kindred  bodies,  and  mnltiplying  tlie 
l.l.L'l »(»,(»( HI  Protestant  members  by  L'..".,  we  have  over  ."il M K »( M K 10  as  the  total 
Protestant  population  of  the  country.  Addiiij,'  to  these  ,">(».( HlO.dOO  the  Cath- 
olic population,  estimated  by  ("atliolic  authorities  as  beiiii,'  t.")  per  cent.  laru;er 
than  the  number  of  Catholic  cinumiinicants.  we  have  AT.lMiL'.ddO  as  the  total 
Christian  population,  leaviiiix  only  about  7,(MI(»,(HMI  who  are  neither  coni- 
numicaiits  nor  adherents.  Of  the  7,(K (0.0(10  opposed,  for  various  reasons,  to 
the  churches,  eomiiaratively  few  are  to  be  reckoned  as  either  infidels  or 
atheists;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  true  that  of  the  r)7.000,0(»0  reckoned 
as  either  communicants  or  adherents,  millions  are  (,'hristians  only  in  name, 
eii her  never  attendin,!,'  tlie  services  of  the  churches,  or  at  the  best  only  at 
rare  intervals,  (i ratify ini,'  as  is  this  s^deiidid  exhibit  of  rclitiioiis  devotion  on 
the  part  of  the  American  iieojde.  the  fact  that  there  are  millions  in  imr  land 
whose  alle,ij;iance  to  ( 'hristiau  doctrine  is  but  nominal,  with  millions  more  upoi 
M'hose  lives  relii^ion  exercises  no  appreciable  intlueiici'  whatever,  is  a  siitlicieiif 
proof  of  the  enormous  task  yet  confrontin<,' the  churches  of  C    i   i.  are 

to  stand  before  the  nations  as  the  ,i,'reat  distinctive  (Jhr- -^tiai  i.;i^ion  o!  ihc 
world.    The  stupendous  ;^rain.  however,  in   ninety-fo''  ,ii   over  14.>^"''.'!,- 

07(>  in  Protestant  churches  alone  is  a  record  of  religii  .;ress  uni)ara       cd 

in  the  history  of  the  world. 

.Vdvancin;^  to  the  i|Ui'stion  of  distribution  of  the  reli-i'  is  f  rces  ennuuM-- 
ated,  we  find  that  while  these  forci's  are  distributed  tliroughunL  every  State 


m 


.'  .1 

i 

1 

'  '^'^'11 

1 

'ill 

';     ^,^'1| 

'      'll 

'      '  R  f 

tnliMM' .' 

1 

ill 

ill 

nH 

i 

1 

AI'  HI  ^f. 


!'-*' 


*l 


m 


i^'itS 


M 


m 


II  > 


«l    r 


nil 


I!;,  I 

I. Ill 
V 

ciilll 

IS.:  I 


////■;  r/;.Y 77 •/,' )-\  in-.i.iaiors  /•/. 


ix.UKSS 


l.-..t 


Hill  iiihltT  dill'  iiiiiiilri'il  mill  lull 


\  -I  illri'  i|i'|liilllili;it  iiPlllli    liillm-s.  tlli'V  illT.  lirvr 


lli'lrss.   Ili;issi'i|     l;|l;^rlv   \\\    ;(    ii'U   i  lilji  Ull  ill.ll  ii 


>l;ilrs.      < 'i>lll|irlrMt    iiilliiniillrs  r.s|||ii;itr  I  li;it    I  lif    Ii 


•niii|iris('  IuIIn  <1(»  |ht  I'liii.  (iT  \\\ 


"lis    ;ilii|     ill     ;i     rnllllHIIIllivi'ly   IrW 
\  !•     JlU'^rsI     ilrlinlllllial  inllS 


l;ir'4r>l.   ".■■»   |MT  ri'Ill.      Willi     itsjutI     Iu    rnllllllllliliMliI -,.   t  1|.>  (    j! 

liisl.  Willi  7..'>l<>.n(i(i;  th,.   Mctli.Hii^i    ( 


"■illllli'     llllllliii'l'     III'    rn||iliilllllr;illl  >  :     llii'     li'll 

II'   <  ',lt  ill  ijli'   y  'llllli'll     is 

ill    liiiilii'>)  > ml. 'A  It  Ii  .">.  lo.'i.urc  ;   ijic 


* 


I         I  .1: 


i:i^ 


\     \. 


I  :ii 


YUfNIi    MI;N  S    I  IIIJI- I  I  \N    A^^iii  I  \  I  liiN    111   ll.lilSi..     I'llll.  Vlil.l.l'IIIA. 


Uiilit  ist  thin!,  willi  .'1. 71' 


Ihi'    I'li'O.vt 


iTKiii    Imii 


l.iitli 
Wil 


'Hill  liitli.  u it ii  i.L'.';.';.(i; 


III.  Willi   l.l'TS. 


till 


I  il  Ii  ri's|ii'r|.  In  |iii|iiil,ii  inii.  iitKi m i ii'.';  I  hi'  <  ';i I  In i| ii 
wlilrll   li!.;lirt'S  ilirlllilr  rlilMiiMl   lllii|i'|-  li'li  \i':ir^  m|    :i  ji'  —  ;il 


iil;iliiiii   ill   7..".|(t.U(Mt 


nl  ;iiiilni^  In   I  In 


'■"iiiimiiiii'jiiit:  strni'^rili  ,,r   I  hr  Imir  ni  Iht   l.nijir^    nn'iil  min'il   Ihr  '_'..'.  iiillii'ivnl;- 
.illnwi'il   Inr  I'lii-h  nun  III  II  HUM  III.  wr  h.i\  r  llir  riillnwiir4  :    Ml 'I  In  II 1 1^1  |Mi|iiil:ii  mil 

is.'.tis. ICC:  I'.iii.iisi.  iL'.'.t'.Mi.sd.-,;  i'i,si,\t..|i,iii.  ."...".•_'.•.. JUL';    i.iiiiiiiiii.   i.;;:.s. 


Wii 


tnt;il    i'rnti'stUlll    |in|illl;il  mil.  .".(1.(1(111. (MM)  ;    Catlinli,. 
I     ri'S|iri|     III  \  ;(|l|i'  n|     iliiili 


•  jd.dOd. 


h    |irn|ii'il  \  .   I  hi'   Mi'lliMih-,!- 


;iri'    lii^t   «  ill 


ill?!* 
'1' 


ii. 


li'l 


1 1'! 


'I! 


*'«! 


m 


M< 


M 


'  I, 


^1$ 


t\ 


i.-.i       Tiar.Mi'iis  A\i>  \\(>\in:h's  or  riii-:  v/a"'  cEsmtY 

.1i>  1. ".'_*.(  HM».(M  to  ;  llir  »  ill  In. lies  scrdnd.  .'<  I  |S.(l(MI,(HMt  ;  I  lie  I'lvslis  Icrilllis  t  liir,|, 
Willi  S'.».'..0(H».(ltl(l;  111. •  I'll. lM>ii|.;ill;ms  Idlirl  li.  \\  ll  li  !ifiS'J,S;;;..(MMI  ;  llic  l;ii|.lisl,s 
lillli.  Willi  ."«iSl.',;;'.l(i.(»00.  Til.'  I..|;il  Milni-  111  .•liiir.li  |.n.|(frl  V.  rnUi.mii;^  nil 
(li'iiKiiiiiiiil  I..IIS.  i.M. Ill's  I  hi'  fill. I'lii.. IIS  Sinn  i.j    ■S<.7<I.IMK).IMI0. 

T.i  liirlluT  |i:irln'iil;iri/.i'  \\  illi    icsiici'i    in  ilir   Icssit  Ljiuiips  iiitn  wliicli   lln- 
M'liLritMis  JonTs  ;iri'  iliviilnl  is   iiii|.i.ssil>|('  willmi    llir  limits  iillnwctl  I'nr  tin- 
(•lKi|ili'r.     'I"i>  .li.  ll  vM.iili!  ri'ipiii'i'  a  vuliniir  iiisli';iii  «.!    ;i  rliiijilrr.     Tin'   Inllt.u 
iiij;  siiimiiiHN .  Iiowrvrr.  uiav  sullici'  In  slmw  Ilic  'j,a\\\  uI    a  ci'iiIihn  mI    rrlit;iniis 
.'lloil  :    - 


\.ar. 


ISdii 

IS.ill 

is:ii 

I  SSI  I 
IS!  II I 
I  SHI 


Miiii^li'i 


.«.•.! 


K.tiiMt 


I  III;:!..!/.'.-         I  '<>l..l.llllll<  t^.l" 


lloll.. 


;.ii:iii 


l:i.o 


..     MrllllM 


:!«il.s;'.' 
:t..v,Mt.iisM 


;ii.  lis  r..ri;:i.:ttMt 

itii.s;ii         •i;.ii<)ii         iii.utM.iin:i 


!»s.is:i 
1 1  I.S',';i 


".1.1  ;j 
■.s.(i!»:i 


i:t.H-.>;i,:iiN 
I. •.,•-' I ;.  IMS 


Wlii'M  iMic  rt'iiii'iiilii'is  lliat  (iMf  liiiiiili'ci!  vcars  a;4i>   il  was  a   rniiiiiinn   Imasl 
>r   iiiliili'ls    llial    ••  ( 'lirisi  iaiiilN    wmilil    in. I    siir\ivi'     I 


wi.    ''I'lirral  ii.iis    Ml    I  III 


i'«'iiiiir\ , 


I  III' al.i'S  c  ('\liii)ii  slinws  a  irii''iiiiis 


|irnj.;ri'ss  iiiiri|iiai«'il   in  I  li 


Imv  dl    lIu'  l\iii'_;iliiiii  lit  (Jdil  in  aii\  laml  or  aii\  a;,;.'. 

rmiiiii'4  In  lilt'  lii'lii  ol    iiiissiniiaiv  I'l'lnil.  \M'    liiiil    llial    llif   sjiira.!   nl    111'' 
( 'liiisi  iaii  r('lii:inii  li\   inissiniiar\  rl'lnrls.  particiilarlv  iliiriiiL;  llic  last  niir    iiiin 
ilri'il  \i'ar^.  inriiis  iini'  nt'   tin-  l.riLjIiii'sl  cliaiilt'is  in  tin'  I'ci'nnls  «.!'   Iiiiinaii  |iiii 
i^^ii'ss.    \\  iihiii  ihis  |M'rini|.  llir  lriiiiii|ilis  nf   ilic  lirst  tiiirr  cfiiliirii's  liavi-  Ihth 
lar  iiinii'  iliaii  ri'|.i'ali'il. 

I"nlln\\  iii'4  llicsi' rai  i\  \  ici  nrics  nl  I  lu' ( 'lii'isi  iaii  tail  ll  caiiH' nil.  as  all  kimu. 
a'^i's  nt  (larlviii'ss,  (IrcaiN  I'riiliiiii's.  (lurini;  llir  imchicss  nl'  wiiidi  Ihr  i.nwcr 
nt'  lln' I'linrcli  t^radiiallv  w  ancil.  ami.  w  illi  rrspn't  In  |.iirt'l\  sjiiritiial  arti\  ili.'s. 


sci'iiii'il  In  ilii'  aw 


i\ .      Till'  \nici'  nt  I'slinrtal  inn 


In  lie  lii'anl.     <  'Ill'isI  i 


sniii^was  IiusIu'iI.  i'lvi'ii  |iia\»'r  clnscd  its  sii|.|.licaliii,i4' lips,  ami  llir  cliiiiili, 
n\('i  ia.lrii  with  ('nn'ii|itinn.  w  i.rliliini'ss.  ami  linmaii  amiiilinii.  passnl  int..  lii. 
lliicU  (iarUiii'ss  nl  tiic  Inii^  aii.l  liisasi  rniis  I'l'lipsi'  (>t  llir  Miilillc  Ai^rs.  I'.iil 
aiiiiil    till'  w  iili's|.ri'ail   ilarkiirss  i'iivrlt.|iiiig  lln'  wi.rlil.  I'vrii  llir  a;4rs  knnwii  as 

HIS  nf  lii;lit.     .Vmuiii,'  tlir  Sara 


tin 


!>a 


Well'    111. 


I   willinill   ll 


n-ir  uira 


1  III  llii'  lamls  nl    iIk'  Orii'iit.  alwaxs  wnc  In  lir  tniiml   jirroii'  iiirii  an 


i-i'ii^  am 

w  niin'ii  Iniiim^-  ccasi'li's. 
ll 


Iv  tnr  till'  rnlivclsinli  nl  Ileal  llt'll  lial  inns  tn  tll»'(  'lirisi 
ii'i  nil.  siil.si'inu'iil  In  llic  lliiitt'i'iitli  criitiu  V.  ami  rs|.i'riallv  iliii'iiiir  tin' 
ci'iitui  it's  iiiiiiu'iliati'lv  tnllnw  iiii^  tlir  ilisi'nvrry  nl'  llir  New  Wmlil.  llir  ili'sin 
tnr  the  ( 'Inistiaiii/iiiL;  nl  llicwnild  tlaiiii'd  iiiln  an  all-alismliiiiL,'  passimi.  'I'Ih 
licmcmlniis  l.ilinrs  nf  \a\irr.  nl  I.nvnla.  ami  llirir  fnllnwi'is.  ill  cMTN  i|iiarli- 
nt  llir  L,'lnl.c.  have  Inn  i;  l.i't'ii  I  ln'  w  nmliT  and  admiral  inn  nf  llir  wmld.  ( 'lircKi' 
in  l'.urni><'  l>\  till'  list'  nl  till'  LM'iat  rrnii'staiil  IJi'tniiiialinii.  llir  ('allml: 
(linrcli  tiinii'd  its  I'lici'^ii's  In  llir  an|iiisil  lull  u\  spiritual  |.nwrr  in  nlli' 
lands,  and  with   rnonimns    sm'rrs.s.     Alniii;   tlir   hanks  nf    t.lir  Sf.  liawrrin  ' 


riih:  iiisranv's  iiij.iunn  s  rnnuin.ss 


i.v, 


iiliiiil  III)-  \vil(l.<  III  ( ';iii:iillilti  liiirsis,  l.ir  iiuiiv  nil  I  lie  sliiil'i's  iil  I  lie  (  iI'imI. 
I,;ikrs.  Ilirliri'  sniil  liw  ;iri|  t'  tin'  <>lllii,  ;iliin'4  lllf  M  l.->.siss|  |i|ii,  I'Vi'li  111  tlif 
( iiiir ;   in  Inr  <  iilliiiN ,  in  <  'i'\  Inn,  in  •l:i|i;iii,  in  ( 'liiii;i,  in    A  Iium,  —  I'vn  \  u  In'ir 

its     lllissiiilllllirs    ciilllil    lie    ioilllil,   I iIIi'^n    nl     lllllli^iT.    iil    rnjil,  III     |irlll,    lii'k- 

li'SS  even  dl'  llii\  ll  liy  illlV  lliriins.  W  lli-l  lirl'  ItV  llli'  III'  l>_V  iIimI  li.  llii'N  nil;;lil 
"s|irinkl<'  iiiiinv  niiiiniis  "  iiml  c^liilili.^ii  I  lir  imlv  •'nililnii  nl  tlir  (  In  i.sl  i;in 
hiilli. 

Alisinlicil    in    tin' >lni;^',i^lc.>  ^nint,' nn    in  tlirir  own  liinii.^.  I'mtt'stiinls  ni:Mlf 
lint    littlr   t'lliirt    liir    tlir  ^'^t^n^>llln   ol    llir   i;ii.s|irl    III    Imi'i^Mi    lit•ll|.■^.   .^iivi-    the 

lew    lillt    Ml .s.silll    ;iltr||i|it,-.   Illlliji'    liv    tlir    M  i  MM  SMIl.-.  nl    <  ■••llllll  11  \  ,  ;i  I  U  ;i  \  ..   till' 

IllnsI    /t'llliills  III    nil    I'rnti'.sllint    linillt'.^    Ill    lllK'.^nl    liil.c.lnli;i  l'\    .^iTVlrr.        \\  ll.lt., 


11''!. 


iii 


ll.M'l  I--!     Mlv'-liiN    M  llniii,.    .l\r\N. 


Imwi'vcr.  was  lai-kiii},'  in  tlir  wavnl  iiii>>iiinarv  <'Hni  I  in  tlir  .-I'viniiiiitli  ami 
cii^iili'i'iil  ll  ci'iitiirirs  lias  licrii  nmii'  tliaii  iiiadf  u'nnil  in  I  hr  <^'iniinn.s  iiini'- 
li'iiitii,  till' ilistiiirti\t'  niissiiiiiary  ci'iitniv  nj'  tlic  (,'lll■i.■^t  ;an  i-ia.  In  tin-  mnni 
nl  seven  siK'ii't  it's  niL;aiii/i'il  Inr  w  mlil  w  nlr  ;^'ns|ii'|  ('Nan '.'I'll/a  I  inn  at  t  Im'  riiil  nl 
tilt'  last  I'i'iitiifv.  tlii'ii'  all'  iinu  ill  |'!ni'ii|ii' ami  AiiH'iira  lutwfi'ii  si-vent  \  ami 
eiijlit  y  tiri;ani/at  inns.  eiii|iln\  iii;4  a  Inree  nl'  iieaih  tlifi'i'  t  linii-,,iiii|  Aim-iiean 
ami  l'airii|iean  iiiissinnaiies,  ami  |ii'rlia|i^  tniii-  liine^  lli.il  nninliir  nl  iiati\'i> 
assistants.      l''nll  .Sl<>,0()(l.(l(l(»aii'  aiiiinalh   raiseil  aiiinii','  the  l'rnie.-,tant  Imilies 


me  111!'  iiiissiniiary  service,  while   the    ;;i'i'at   li'mnan  < 'at  Imlie  ( 'Inii-eli    | 


|iln>i'- 


I'lites  its  wnik  witli  a  /.eal  ei|iially  niilIa.L,".;in','.  A  liiiel' Mirvey  nl  the  |iin'_'iess 
n|  a  Imiiilfeil  yeai's  nl'  inissinnaiv  elTi^it  will  make  it  elear  tn  all  niimU  that 
the  ilay  is  iinl,  larilistant  when  the  ijeelarat  inn  nf  the  |irn|ilii't.  '•  The  earth 
shall  lie  lilli'd  with  the  klinwleil','!'  Ill  the  ^'Inry  III  the  I, nil  I.  even  as  the  waters 
en\  I'r  the  sea."*   shall  have  alnimlaiit  ami  iiiau'iiitieenl   leali/at  inn. 

At    the    Iiee;iiiniie4:    'it    this    eeiitniy.  evi'iy  i>laml    nt    the  va>t    I'aeitie  u a^ 
eluseil  at,'aiii.st,  tlic  i,'iis|iel.     'I'n-ilay,  nearl.y  every  niie  is  umler  the  intineiiee. 


m 


%\ 


H\h 


15(J 


TlUiMHia  AXD    noMJLliS   Ol-    THE   XIX'"  CLXTLHY 


''h 


i 


t    !:,Jl.. 


mon"  or  less  fxtfiuleil,  of  Christian  civiliziitiuii.  India,  Irtmi  ('apt'  Coiuorin 
to  tliu  I'linjauli.  troui  tlii'  I'linjaul)  to  tlie  Himalayas,  from  tlic  Himalayas  to 
Thilit't.  —  at  wliiisi'   i^atrs  tiii'  ^iis|n'l   is   now  kuockiiij,'.  —  has    hrcn  covered 


with  a  Metwoik  of  mission  statinus.  soliools.  eoUei 


and  ehurehes,  elosi-r  hv 


far  in  its   interhicin^s  than  that  which  at  the  close  of   the  liiird  century  had 
spread  itself  over  the  vast  emiiire  of  theCa'sars.    Of   the  Indian  Archipelaxn, 


Sumatra,  .lava,   IJorneo.  the  Celc 


New(ininea,  not   to   mention    smaller 
are  feelin.nthe  new  life  evei'  imparted  iiy  the  advent  of  the 
Cross,     .lapaii,  too,  hnn>,'ry  for    retorm.  and   full  of   the   stir   of    the  ai,'e,  iiy 


rroups  11 


f  ishm 


ijrantin''  entrance 


to  tl 


le  j,'(»sp 


'1.  1 


las  withm  its   borders  a 


head 


V  a  numerous 


Christian  population  with  scores  of  evan.uelical  conLcre!j;ations.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  hermit  nation.  Corea.  in  the  hauls  of  Islam,  from  liaijdail  f() 
the  Ilalkaiis.  from  Ktjypt  to  Persia,  and  tiiroui;hout  all  Turkey,  are  to  bi; 
found  centres  of  missionary  enterprise,  the  vast  influence  of  which  is  now 
lieiuL,'  sensilily  fidt  in  the  chani,nu,if  life  id'  those  remarkalile  peo[)les.  In  l>ur- 
mah.  and  recently  in  Siam.  alter  years  (d"  jjatient  and  appareidly  hopeless 
service,  tields  are  everywhere  ••  white  unto  the  harvest."  China,  most  popu- 
lous (d   all   heathen  lands,  is  open  to  missionary  effort  from  Canton  to  I'ekiny, 


from  ShauLrhai  to  Ilon-Cli 


ow. 


.Vf 


ru'a  also,  once,  m   its   northern  section.s  at 


least,  the  home  (d'  the  learuiu'''.  the  art.  the  science,  the  reliLrion  of  the  wor 


rid. 


awakeiuiii,'  from  the  sleep  of  lou;,'  and  dreary  centuries  umh-r  the  iiiHueuce 
of  Ciiristian  civilization,  a},'ain  demands  the  attention  ni  the  ^reat  nations  of 
the  world.  Everywhere,  east.  west,  north,  south,  it  is  heing  invaded  all 
alou},'  the  line  (d'  Cecil  IJhodes' ;^'reat  railway,  stretchinj^  northward  from  Cape 
Town  for  three  thousand  miles,  to  meet  the  twenty-six  hundred  pushinj,' down 
from  the  north,  —  from  Senej,'al  to  tiahoon  and  froiiH  Jahoon  to  t he  Con},'o ; 
on  the  shores  d'  TaiiLjanyika  ami  along  the  hanks  of  the  Zaml>esi  shiuo  the 
lii^hts  of  the  <,'osp(d.  which,  wherever  it  has  j,'one,  has  been  the  harhiiij^t'r  of  a 
new  and  l)ri,i,diterday.  Within  the  mi,i,ditv  (hmiains  of  our  own  continent,  upon 
the  immense  plains  reachiiii;  from  Labrailor  to  the  l'a<'ilic.  upon  the  sterile 
coasts  of  Alaska,  in  the  land  of  the  Montezumas.  in  Central  America,  in 
South  America,  from  I'anaiu 
been  the  steady  j^a ins  resultinj^  from  a  Christianity  the  forces  (d'  which,  like 
tiie  waters  that  enrich  the  conlineiit,  penetrate  all  the  bays  and  estuaries  of 
human  society  and  iiiHueiice  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men.  Lookini;  uiion 
the  transformations  tdfected  by  the  labors  (d'  a  siiii^le  eentury  of  Christian 
effort,  one  may  surely  say,  "The  peoples  that  walked  in  darkness  have  seen 
a  jjreat  liLcht;  they  that  dwell  in  the  laud  of   the  shadow  of  death,  upon  them 


I  to  Terra-del- Fue<^'o.   eipially  marvelous   havi 


ath  ti 


le  Injlit  sinned 


Kcpially  wonderful  have  been  the  vast  contributions  of  the  elmreli  in  .Xiuer- 
ica  to  tile  great  causes  of  education,  philanthropy,  and  reform,  jiarticularly  in 


the  line  of  educational  work 


Th 


■;ervice  of  the  church  in  the  great  can? 


(d'  education  has  never  yet  been  fully  recognized.  Men  forget.  whi'U  char- 
ging the  church  with  hostility  to  human  progress,  to  freeddiii  of  thought  and 
ai'tion,  that  until  within  a  period  <d'  seventy  years  nearly  everything  ai'com- 
plisheil  for  popular  education  was  carried  (Uit  under  the  auspices  of  the 
churches  rather  than  under  the  direction  of  the  state.  I'ntil  iSL'o,  the  state 
had  done  next  to  nothing  even  in  the  develo]iment  id'  its  common  schools, 
In  the  great  State  of  renn.sylvania,  the  system  had  no  exi.stenee  until  the 


Till-:  (•/■:\Tiiiy's  itiCLnnois  ritit(ini:ss 


\: 


vfiir  liS,'!."),  I'^vt'ii  l()-(liiy.  iiiiioiii;  tlic  loiir  liiunlnMl  iiml  liltv  iiistitutions  of 
liinluT  t'lliiciitidii  ill  llu-  various  States,  lu-ariv  all  tiwc  their  toiiiKlatiuii  to  tiie 
eiier.!,'y  and  saeiiliec  of  Christian  men  and  woineii.  'I'iie  total  ^;itts  oj  the 
ciinri'lies  to  tiie  cause  of  ediieatioii.  still  existent  in  plant,  in  gntiinds  and 
liuildin,i,'s.  or  in  the  lorni  of  endowment  funds,  reach  the  enormous  a:^,i;re'4ate 
of  nearly  .s.'!."»<».(t(l(i.(Mi(».  wiiile  the  total  of  -ifts  to  institutions  of  leiirniiii,s 
lar;;t'ly  from  Christian  source.-..  a;j;i,'re;;ate  nearly  Sl(».()(Mi.(Ml(»  per  year. 


MKrUoniST    KI'lSlorAL    llOSl'lTAl.,    rilll,.\I>Kl,l'HlA. 

Tilt'  rclii^ions  activity  of  the  century  is  further  manifested  in  the  oiior- 
iiious  .sums  raised  and  expended  fiU'  purposes  of  charity,  reform,  and  general 
philantliroiiy.  It  would  re(piire  an  octavo  volume  of  four  liundred  ]iagos  to 
catalogue  the  various  lieiievoleut  and  charitable  organi/.ations  in  the  city  of 
New  York  aliuie.  Add  to  that  volume  the  luimlrcds  more  vhicji  woiihl  lie 
rcc|uired  to  eiiumciate  the  additional  thousands  to  he  found  in  I'hiladelphia, 
<'hieagi>.  Itostoii,  —  in  iact  in  tn-ery  city,  town,  and  hamlet  from  the  Atlantio 
to  the  I'acitic.  nine  tenths  of  which  are  distinctively  Christian.  —  and  yoii 
iiiive  a  iaint  idea,  at  least,  of  the  vastiu'ss  of  the  s[iiritual  forces  at  work  in 


m 


■li 


w 

i«'; 


I 


V-i, 

\ 


Mi 


A 


^■.■•h 


ir,H 


TlllUMPHS  ASl>    WONDEliS   OF  THE  A7A'"  CENTURY' 


I 


tlu'si'  closiiij^  yojirs  of  tlu>  cfiituiy  for  the  iiiPflionition  of  liunuui  ill.  the  dis- 
jK'Hing  of  moral  anil  si)iritiial  (larkii»;.ss.  and  tlu'  nslnM-inj,'  in  of  the  era  of 
pcat'n  and  ^'ood  will,  for  the  coniiny:  of  which  the  church  has  so  ceaselessly 
j)rayed.  What  these  philanthropies  are  we  cannot  in  (h'tail  enumerate,  ('las- 
sitied.  they  are  for  the  poor,  for  the  lahorini,'  classes,  for  the  sick,  for  fallen 
wonu'n,  for  free  schools,  for  the  aj^ed,  for  the  blintl,  the  deaf,  the  insane,  tlie 
impotent,  the  (h'},'raded.  the  outcast,  fo)  sailors,  for  the  j)roteetion  of  animals, 
for  city  evanj,'eli/.ation,  for  home  missions,  for  foreij;n  missions,  for  rcli^'ious 
j»ul)lications,  for  the  piddishinjj;  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  for  jicacc,  for  Young 
Men's  Associations,  Vouu};  Women's  As.sociations.  for  j'very  cause  that  appeals 
to  the  sentiment  of  brotherhood  so  characteristic  of  the  age.  in  numlier 
they  are  legion.  In  origin,  three  fourths  are  the  outgrowth  of  that  spirit  of 
("iiristiun  love  without  which  th.ey  could  not  have  been  originated,  and  by 
whitdi  they  are  maintained  and  perpetuated.  Those  who  assert  that  within 
this  century  Christianity  has  (I  )ne  more  for  humanity  than  in  all  the  »,'cntu- 
ries  prei'cding  arc  doubtless  correct.  It  has  made  men  kind,  made  them 
hinuanc.  it  has  penetrated  prisons,  and  with  beiicticcnt  change.  It  has 
lifted  the  prisoner  from  damp  and  dreary  dungeons  into  commodious  struc- 
tures, the  pride  of  city  ai'd  State.  So  far.  indeed,  have  the  reforms  inspired 
by  tlie  gosp(  1  been  carrji-d,  that  nu-n  are  beginning  to  impure  whether  the 
limit  has  not  been  rcacued  beyond  which  it  may  be  (hmgeroiis  to  go. 

Such  are  the  gcncnd  facts  of   the  religious  jtiogrcss  of  a  century  in  the 


r 


lilted    States. 


icvicwim:   them,  we  can  easilv  discern  the  vast  and  c< 


)m- 


maiidiiig  influence  oi   religion  —  tlu' Christian  religion  —  upon  the  character 
and  fiMtuiics  of  ouv  people.      Among  the  forces  working  for  the  upbuilding 


.f    th 


bli 


f  Kepultlic.  religion  stands  preeminent,  the  most  p(twerful.  the  most 
pervasivi'.  the  most  irresistibh;  of  them  all.  A  free  ehurcdi  in  a  free  state, 
all  its  edifices  have  been  liuilt  by  private  contribution,  all  its  magniticent 
i)eii(dactions  sustained  by  v»duntary  olferings.  induced  in  every  instance  by 
the  principle  of  Christian  love.  A  corporation,  it  holds  its  vast  |)roperties 
for  the  common  good  of  all.  A  relief  society,  the  scope  of  its  sympathies 
is  as  wide  as  the  wants  of  man.  .\  nniversity,  it  does  more  for  the  educa- 
tion of  tlie  masses  than  the  public  school  system  itself.  An  employer  of 
labor,  it  utilizes  the  brains  and  energies  of  the  most  highly  educated  body 
of  men  to  be  found  in  the  K'epnblic's  broad  domain.  An  organized  benefi- 
cener,  it  outwatches  Argus  with  his  hundred  eyes,  outworks  IJriareus  with 
his  hundred  arms.  .Vn  asylum,  it  gathers  within  its  protecting  arms  the 
li;.lt,  the  maimed,  the  woumh'd  of  lif«'*s  great  battle,  comforting  them  in 
trouble,  sustaining  them  in  adversity,  while  ceaselessly  pointing  them  to 
Him  "who  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world."  "  Kvery  corner-stone  it 
lays."  as  one  has  said,  "it  lays  for  humanity;  every  tem]>le  it  opens,  it  opens 
for  the  world;  every  altar  it  est;iblishes.  it  establishes  for  the  salvation  of 
men.  Its  spires  are  lingers  pointing  he;iven\vard ;  its  ministers  are  messen- 
gers of  good  tidings;  its  ambassadors,  ambassadors  (d'  ho]>e ;  its  angels 
;tngels  <d'  mercy."  Cmh'r  all  our  institutions  rest  the  ilible  an<l  the  sehool- 
liouse,  —  Christianity  ;ind  Kducation.  Without  them,  the  l{p]tul)lic  is  impos- 
sible; with  them,  we  have  Kepiddican  America  for  a  thousand  years. 

(.Jkokok  Ki>w.\ki>  Kkkk. 


m  m 


GREAT    GKOWTH    OF    LIBRAUIES 

I.iisiiAKiKs  art'  as  old  as  civili/.atioii.  Notliiii},'  marks  civili/cd  jinij^'n'ss 
iiiorc  (lisiiiii'tly  tliiin  the  I'dllfctioiis  of  \vritiii;;s.  wlit'tlicr  on  day.  stone, 
wood,  iiapynis,  or  iian-liimMil.  wliicli  went  to  maki'  U|i  tlic  lihrarit's  of  aii- 
cii'iit  |u'o|il('s.  Siicli  \\ritiiij;s  j,'<'iit'rally  rt'lalrd  t(»  n'li,t,'ioii,  laws,  and  I'oii- 
ipirsts,  and  foniid  their  aliode.  in  the  form  of  archives,  in  capitals  and 
temples,  iiccent  explorations  in  Mesopotamia  reveal  collections,  or  lihraries, 
of  hooks  inscribed  on  i-lay  tablets,  many  id'  wliose  dates  are  heyoiid  (•.")((  it.  r. 
These  libraries  seem  to  have  found  a  home  for  the  mo-t  part  in  royal  palaces, 
and  to  have  coidained  works  alionndin.y;  in  instruction  for  the  kinds'  sid>jects. 
As  unearthed  and  their  contents  deciphered,  tliey  tiiiow  nnudi  valuable  li;.,dit 
upon  the  remote  hist<U'y.  as  well  as  the  arts,  si-iciiees,  and  literatures  (d'  ISaby- 
loida  and  Assyria. 

In  ancient  K^'ypt  collections  td'  hiero<,dy|ihic  writin},'s  were  made  in  teiujiles 
ami  in  the  tondis  of  kin^s  from  the  earliest  known  chites.  Some  hiero.nlyphics 
still  extant  bear  date  prior  to  L'OdO  is.  c, and  one  papyrus  manuscrii»l  has  been 
discovered  whose  sujiposed  date  is  KiOO  n.  r.  What  were  kiu)wn  us  the  sacred 
Hooks  of  Thoth  —  forty-two  in  nnndx-r — constituted  the  K;,'yptian  em-ycdo- 
pa'dia  of  relij;ioii  and  science,  and  became  such  a  fruitful  source  of  commen- 
tary ami  exposition,  that  liy  the  time  of  the  (irecian  com|uest  they  had  j,Mdwn 
in  nundiei'  of  volumes  to  .■>)'>..'>L'.">. 

Of  the  libraries  of  the  (irecks  we  have  little  positive  knowledu;e.  thouj,'h  it 
is  al)undantly  assi-rted  by  late  compilers  that.  lar,m'  collections  cd'  Itooks  (writ- 
ing's) once  existed  in  tlie  various  (irecian  cities.  I'isistratns  is  said  to  have 
founded  a  library  at  .Vthens  as  early  as  ."i,*!"  n.  •'.  Stralio  says  that  Aristotle 
collected  the  first  known  library  in  (Ireece,  which  he  iMMpieatlicd  to  'I'lieo- 
phrastus  ( n.  c.  .'>L'L'),  an<l  which,  liy  the  vicissitude  of  war.  finally  found  its 
way  to  Konie.  .\t  ("nidus  there  is  said  to  have  existed  a  special  collection  of 
works  upon  medicine,  .\enophon  speaks  (d'  the  library  of  Kuthydcmus. 
I''-U(did  ami  IMato  are  mentioned  as  book  collectors.  I'lUt  by  far  the  most  re- 
uowikmI  book  (M)llectors  ^>{  the  (ireeks  were  the  I'tolemies  (d'  10f,'ypt.  who 
leathered  from  llelleiuc.  Hebrew. and  K.Ljyiitian  sources  that  wonderful  collec- 
tion of  volumes,  or  ridls,  which  became  famous  as  the  .Mcxandrine  Ijbrary. 
'I'his  was  comiiosed  of  two  libraries,  one  estinuited  at  H'.MHI  volumes,  or  rolls, 
connected  with  the  .\ca(h'my.  the  other  estimated  at  I'.MMMMt  volumes,  or  rolls, 
licposited  in  the  Serapcnm.  It  is  saiil  that  these  immense  collections  were 
rei;ularly  catalo|;iied  and  kept  under  the  supervision  nf  competent  librarians, 
till  consumed  by  the  Saracens  at  the  time  of  their  couipn-st  of  Ki,'yiit,  A.  i>. 
Clio. 

The  Konians  at  first  paid  little  attention  to  literature.  It  is  not  uidil  the 
last  centtiry  of  the  rc|inlilic  that  we  hear  of  a  library  at  Kome.  and  then  it  was 
not  a  native  collection  but  a  spoil  id'  war.      It  was  captured  from    I'erseus  of 


;ll 

I 


.  ■  !■' 


m 


-if 


III 

ti;  ii 


Hi 


KiO 


TJiif'M/'ns  .i\/>  ]\oM)/:iis  OF  'nil-:  xix'"  cestlhy 


u 


!>if 


I 


r«';;ii. 


I'I'li 


m 


I-'. 


U- 


¥m 


\'-\ 


.  ■ :: 


.Miict'ildiiia  Jiiid  hroii'^ht  tn  Kiniic  in  it.  i  .  KIT.  Sn  S\illa  ciiiitiiiTil  tlu;  lilirary 
of  Api'llicdii.  at  .\llitMi>,  ill  II.  f,  S(l.  and  iiroii.Ltlil  it  to  iJunif.  l.iiciiUiis  ln'on^^lil 
t(t  KiPiin'  a  ricli  store  nt'  litnatiirc  rnnn  liis  castfrn  coiKini'.st.s  (it.  r.  (i7). 
Wcaltliy  iiii'ii  and  scliolars  now  iiri,Mii  tn  inrin  iiln'arif.s  at  Unnic.  .sonic  nl 
wlnrli  IpriMinr  very  lari.;!' and  valualilc  It  i.s  iicic  we  lir.si  hear  id' tlic  ilrdica- 
t  ion  (d'  libra  lies  lo  tiic  pnliiic  —  a  s\f\t  wliirii  ni  a  dr  iJonic  I'or  a  tinii'  t  lio  ri'Mirt 
(d'  sidiolars  Iroin  (itiii'r  nalion.s,  cspcciallv  (Ircfcc.  'I'lii'  nio.st  I'ainons  o|  ilic 
many  inijicrial  liiirarics  ol'  lloiiif  was  that  ionndcd  liy  l' l|iins 'I'la janiis.  It 
was  caili'd  tin'  ripiaii  Idinary.  and  was  at  tirst  ioundcd  in  tin'  loiuni  oi  'I'rajan. 
lint  allci  w  ai<is  rcinnvcd  to  tlic  liatlis  ol  Dioidftiaii.  In  llio  I'oiirtli  ('cnlury 
tlii'ic  art' said  to  iiavc  iict'ii  as  many  as  twenty -rij^iit  jiulplic  iilnaries  in  Itome. 
(Jn-at.  indeed,  mnst  liave  iieeii  tlieir  destrnclioii  under  \arioiis  vicissitudes, 
lor  wiien  tiie  l'jii|ieidr  ( 'onstantine  moved  the  Itoiuan  eapital  ti>  Constantino- 
|ple.  and  i'ounded  ins  im|ieria]  iilnary  tiiere.  it  iiumhered  lint  a  lew  thousand 
liooks.  It  was.  litiwever.  i^reatiy  eidarj^ed  alter  Ids  death  —  some  say  tn 
lOO.IKK)  volumes.  It  was  destroyed  in  a.  n.  -I7f>.  with  the  (dose  o|'  the  Western 
Km|iij'e. 

With  the  spread  oj' Christianity  theie  arose  a  new  ineeiiiive  to  write  ainl 
eolleet  hooks.  'I'he  ehiiridi  re(|nired  iioth  a  literature  and  liiuaries  as  jpiit 
id'  its  or,i;ani/ation.  ramphilus  is  said  to  jiave  collected  a  liluary  (d'  .■lii.nun 
volumes,  (diicHy  religious,  at  Ca'sarea  ( A,  i>.  .'KUd.  his  oiiject  Itcinj,'  to  leinl  tiieiii 
out  to  readers.  I'.ut  as  hook-makiii.t;-  and  colle<'tiii;,r  hecanu'  narrowed  to  thr 
eluindi.  jfcneral  literature  was  proscriliecj  and  lil)raries  ceased  to  Hoiirish.  e\- 
ct'[it  as  encouraged  liy  tin  monastic  ordi'rs.  Such  liliraries  were  necessarily 
small  and  ol' a  private  (diaracter.  Their  hooks  were  manuscripts  written  or 
copied   liy   the  priests,   up  to  the    dale  ol'   the   invention   ol'  printiiit,'.     'I'he 


ss  anil 


libraries  of  this  (dass  wh 

Irish  monasteries,  not  oiuittiii;,'  those  in  l''.n,i,dand.  as  at  ('anterbiirv  and  \'ork 


i(di  ;-;rew  in  iiiiiiortaiiee  were  those  ol'  the  Swi 


Til 


e  invasion  o 


I'  the  N 


orseincii, 


in  th 


le  ninth  and  tenth  centiirii 


was  "-en   r- 


ally  fatal  to  the  monastic  liliraries  on  both  sides  of  the  Kniilish  (diaiintd. 

In  J''i'aiiee,  the  library  at  l*"ulda  seemed  to  retain  its  books  and  respect.  It 
Avas  ,y;reatly  enlarged  by  ( 'harli'ma,y;iie.  who  also  founded  a  more  osteiital 
<ii:e  at  Tours.  AN'ith  the  revival  of  learniiit,'.  and  with  the  hope  of  oiieiiin,^  a 
wider  fitdd  to  secular  literature.  Charles  \'l..<d'  !'" ranee,  founded  a  royal  librarx 
whiidi  numbered  ll(t(»  volumes  by  a.  d.  1411.  A  similar  library  in  Kic^land. 
that  of  the  l>ritish  crown,  numbered  ."tL",*  volumes  at  the  time  of  Henry  \'lll. 
In  contrast  with  these  eai'ly  royal  id'forts  stood  that  of  Corviiius.  kini,'  <if  Ilun- 
'fiiwy.  whose  library  iiumliered  aO.tMMt  volumes,  mostly  manuscripts,  in  1  I'.Hi, 
This  imperial  cidlectioii  was  burned  by  the  Turks  in  IT^K*.  About  this  time 
the  nmdeus  of  tlu>  modern  Laurentiaii  Library  (d'  Florence  was  formeil. 

In  1."»().  the   l>il)liotlu'(iue  N'ationale.  or  royal  library  of  France,  at  I'aris, 
was  endowed  by  the  kiiiLC  with  power  to  demand  a  copy  of  every  book  ])rinted 


ill  France 


This 


tow 


er  became  the  basis  of  the  copyright  tax.  now   uiiivt 


sally  levied  by  (dvilized  nations,  and  whiidi  has  been  the  means  of  greatly  en 
richiiig  all  government  liliraries.  In  ir»."t('»  the  royal  library  of  France  couh 
boast  of  but  L'Odd  vcdiimes.  In  17S<>  it  contained  L'tUMXH)  vcduines.  the  largc>' 
number  of  any  library  then  existing.  At  the  end  of  the  niiu'teenth  cciitiii) 
it  still  retains  the  distinction  of  lieing  the  most  extensive  library  in  the  world 
ooiitaining  apjtroximately  .■>.(KM»,(MK>  volumes. 


1.'    Hi   -  <i 


I-I^l 


I  i  1. 


I    I 


1 

t:|||iB 

Hi 

.  ^w 

TK 

} 

'tffl 

i 

1 

ijijHjjm 

H 

■5 

■I'll 

i 

'  ^i  1  '  i  iJiMs 

SR' 

'■'rnKk  UBi^i 

: 

:       ^flfi^E 

ill 

;i  Mi^ 


m 

ill 

]WU 

11" 

I 

li 

•  1. 

1 

Mm 

III 

1 ;    '    • 

.   M  ■'  » 


*i 


niu        n:u  \iriis    \m>  wtwnims  or  riir:   v/\"'  r/.;.v/r/.'»- 

III  1  l.llv  I  lie  llliiiinc  •.  I  lli>i|';|i  \  I  ■111 'III  I  ill'  ;niil  \  I'l  \  I  nil  111  1 .11  <■  ri  ilii'i'l  M  HI  .  n| 
111,11111  <rl  I  |il  s,  ;|  1 1'  lint  linli'il  liM  I  III'  I  III  III  I  ir  I  1 1|  I  ii  >i  iL  .  W  ll  Ir  1 1  li'|iH'srlll  liinilrill 
Illi'l.llUlr.        Till'    lllii'l     linlril     lllil;irv     |.    llli'    Hi  1 1|  n  i|  I'i'.i    \  .il  ir.lIM,  iH     llli|;il\    •>! 


till'    \  .III 


Il    I 


tail's    ,1    \.l';l|i'    ll|.|ii|\     Imi'K    In   till'    lillli   ii'lllHIX,    lull    ll  .    Ii'.ll 


liilllnhll  lull    \V.I.     Ill     I  |.'>.°>.         riir     IIUIIllii'l     III      VnlllllH".     .Illil     lli;i  II II  -r|  l|  il  S    nil     II 


slli'l  \  (",    I  .   ,1 


|i|i|ii\llllillrl\     .IIMl.tlltO. 


Ill  S|i.illi  .iliij  riirlll;,;,il  ;iri'  li.itlnlKli  lllir:irir.  Ill  llirir  H';.|irrl  l\  r  i';i  |  Ml  .i  I  .. 
M.nlllil  .Mill  l.l-.linll.  Till'  liiil  |i>li.ll  llli|;ir\  ill  .'^|i;mi  rmilllilis  .snliif  ■"ilill.MIIM 
\  nl  II  nil's     I  nil     ni;nillsi  I  till  ■.,    W  lillr   I  li;il    nl     I  ,lslni||  ('iilil;illis    iivi'l'  'JIHI.IMIO.        I'll  I 


:;inni    .mil   lli 

I. mis  ii\ri    liKi. (1(1(1  Mijiiin 


illlil    ;ilr   llrll   III    lllir:il'li' 


r 


ii  I 


ir   rii\;il    lilir;ii'\   ill    [.riisscis  I'lm 


I  i; 


ill  i.s;;i»  ii 


Wiis  iiiaili'  .1  |iail  111  llii'  slali'  anlini' 

lllil   llllnWII  ii|irll    III  llli'   |illlilir.       Till'    liallnlial     lllillIlN    nl     llnllailil    was    I'slali 

i  slid  I  ill  I  T'.i.s  li\  II  ml  111;;  I  lie  liliraiN  dl  I  III'  iiriiii'i's  uT  (  haiiL;i'  «  illi  I  In  •  small 


I'l 


lllirailrs  nl    I  III 


'Inili'l     slali'S.        Il    I  lllls  lirraiin'   I  III'   lllil.IlN   nl    I  lir  ."^l  airs  (  iili 


era!,  lull  iii  l.sl.'i  il   was  cniiM'rli'd  intn  I  lie  inrsi'iil   iialmiial  lilnaiN.      Il  liasa 
\('r\    \aliiali|r    rnllcrl  inn    nt'    Imnks,   lllllllliriillL;   n\rr    jIHI.IMMI,       (  Mir  1 1|    t  lii'  licsl 


l''.iiiii|M'   is    I  he    li'ii\  al    laliiary  al    ( 


n  111 '11 


aiiaii;4ril  ainl  iiiaiia.ni'il  iiliiiiin's  in 
lia;;rn.  It  wa.s  lluowii  (i|i('ii  to  llir  imlilic  in  I7'.l.">,  and  has  sinrr  Ihth  cnn 
ihii'lt'ii  miilrr  tiatiiinal  aiisiiiccs.  'I'wn  cniiics  nl  cvriN  ImnU  |iiililisii('il  in  lln 
kiiii^ilniii  iiinst  lie  (|i'|iiisil('il  in  lliis  iilnarv.  lis  volniiirs  have  incrrased  m  r\ 
ra|iiilly  diiriiii;  llic  iiinclrciilli  ci'iilnrv .  and  imw  iimiilM'r  iivcr  rM(t,(Mt(>.  'lln 
IJny.'il  i.ilir.nv  ot  Swi'di'ii  is  Incalfd  at  Sliicklinlni.  It cniilaiiis  nvrc  .'!.M».(l(i(> 
valiialiic  vnlnnii's,  and  is  adniiiaMy  ari'aii,L;i-d  and  cniidiirlrd.  'I'lic  I'immt 
sit\  l,il>iar\  at  l'|isala  is  also  a  \rr\  \alii;ilili'  mii'.  cnidaiiiiiii,'  ,'!(•(». (MHl  vnl 
HUM'S.  Tlicii'  is  alsn  an  cxri'llriit  lilnary  nl'  nvcr  10(»,(MM(  vnliiincs  rnnnri'liil 
with  llic  university  at,  l.iiiid.  i'lic  lilnaiirs  nt  Nncway.  tlliiii.uli  imt  sn  lai';r 
as  tlinsi'  nl  Swi'di'ii,  aii'  iiiiiinMniis.  valiiaMr.  and  wrll  iiianaw-d.    'I'lic  I'iumt 


sit\    l.iliiaiv  al  ( 'liristiaua    I'nnt.iins   over  .'>.'!n.(MlO   vnlniiit's 


In  li 


iissia,  laiui 


nid  valnal'lt'  lilnarics  arc  iint   ninin'iniis  niitsidr  nl'  I  lir  citii's  nl'  St.  I't'liTslin 


nsrnw  .  aili 


M 

rii'lii'st    in  !• 


It 


I  Warsaw.      Tlic  lin|n'rial  l-ihrary  ,it  St.  rctri'sliiii'L;  ranks    as  Ih 
urn|ii'.  cxri'lit  iiit;-  tlic   lilirarii's  ol'  I'aris  and  tlic  l'>ritisli  Mnsniii 


IS  njirll 


Id  till'  |inlilii'.  and  I'ontaiiis  a|i|irn\iiiiati'!v   I. '_'(»(»,(•(•(»  vnlnni 


(icrnianx.  with  Iwr  iinilli|ilii'ily  nl'  niinnr  capitals.  Imt  Iunc  nl'  Imnks  ainl 
l>iink-inakiii;4'.  her  iiiiiiu'rniis  imi\  c  is  it  irs.  excels  cv  cry  ni  licr  l'',iirii|icaii  cuniil  r\ 
ill  the  iniinhcr.  extent,  and  vahie  nl'  her  liliraries.  The  larncsl,  is  tin'  l!n\al 
l,ilii:ii\   at    llcrliii,  with    a|i|iriixiiiiatcly    l.lMHi.iKMt    vnlimies.      It    was  rniniileil 


li\   the  ••  ( Ileal  i-'.li'ctnr"  I'"i 


l('i(i|.       riie  Knval   l.ilnarv  at   Mmiieli  Ime^-  rated   as   tl 


cdci'ick  \\  iiliani.  and  (i|iciied  as  a  |inMic  lilnary  in 

ai-'jcsi    ill   ( il  rniaiiv 


with  its   I. •_'(!(  1.0(1(1  vnlui 


lies,  lllcllisne  nt   ji 


iiii{>ldcls.  the  latter  nuiidiciin 


LT  smiii 


,'i(  1(1,0(1(1.      i'.i:!   it   uasllinii^ht  In  he   unlair  In  class  sn  inaiu   small  and  ini'mi 


■ii'i|ueiit  ial  wniks  a." 


Iienks.  St)  that  t  he  lilirar\  at    r>erliii 


was  liiveii  iircceilein 


«lill  ihc  Munich  lilnary  is  part  icu la rly  rich  in  iiiciinaliiila  and  nther  t  reasiii 


dciixt'il    Itniii   the    miiliasleries.  whieh   were    clnsed    ill    !.'*<0.'I.      The  l'lii\ 


crsiP 


liltrarx    at    Mniiicli    is   alsn   \er\   rich    ii 


iie.4li  .'>00.0(»0  \ Illumes.     The  nil 


1   siiiiilar  I  reasiire.s.      it 
HI 


cniitains  wc 


ler  lai'i-e  lilirarics  nl'  (icrmaiu   an 


the  I 


unci 


Ml\   lilnary  at  l.cijisic.  w  ith  o\  (>r  .'lOO.OOO  \n|iimcs  ;  the  IJnyal  and  City  iilirai; 
at    .\u<:sliuri:.  with    IL.',"..(I00 ;    the    l,'ii\al.  at    I'.amlierL;-.  with    .'lOtt.oOO  vnliiiiic- 


the  riiiveisilv  at    I'.iiiiii.  with   L'L'O.OOO   vnlii 


mes 


the    tiiaiid    hiieal  at-    IViiii 


stailt,   with    10(1.000    vnliimes;    the    IJoval    I'lihlic,  al  Dresden,  witli    Ho.dd 


"T 

1 

i 

•Tl^ 

< 


Ml 


Ml 


♦i^fl 


♦  '■•I 


^{h 


I 


s 


i^ii 


161  TIUL  MI'IIS   .\M>    \Vo.\l>i:i;s   or    IIIE   A7.\"'  CICSTLnY 


vnlmac^:  ilif  liiivrisiiv  at  l'',rl.iii,i,'i'ii,  with  lS">.n(Mi  \  iiliuin's ;  tin'  ('il\.  iit 
J*'nilllxlnrt.  Willi  I'.HI.dlMI  \nlimii'.>;  tilt-  riliVfl'MtS  ;il  I'irlllliri;.  Wit  ll  •_'.".(  >.(  K  III 
Viilmms;  tlic  riiivcr-it\  ;it  (Jir>M'ii.  with  Idli.tHid  vnlmin'.s;  llic  hiinil  I'lilili.'. 
ill    <  iiitlia,  w  itii    L'lt'.ntid  \  (i|miii>  ;    tin'    llnval    t   iii\i'r>itv   at    ( iiiltiiiLji'n.  w  it  li 

•I'.MMMMI  \  1)1  II •,  ;  till'  (It  \   at    Ilaiiil>iiii4.  wilii  .".  I  (»,<»()(  I  vnliiiiio  ;  tiir  liii\.'i>ii\ 

at  Ilcidrliici-.  Willi  llii.iMHi  Miliiiiifs  :  ilir  liiivi'i-Miv  at  .Ima.  witli  L'dii.dnu 
vnliiiiii's:  tlic  r  iii\i'i>it  V  at  Kii'l.  willi  l.'L'.">.(  M  M  i  vnliiini'>  :  tlic  l'iiivci>il\  n 
liostncis,  with  ."IKiJiiin  \iihiiii('>.  tlic  T  iii\  ri.sitN  at  Sli;i^>.liii|-;,'.  witli  nvrc 
7ti(>.(MMi  vnlmiio;  tin-  t '  iii\  t'lMi  v  at  'riiliin:^!'!!.  with  .'iL'i '.iMi(»  vnimiirs:  thr 
(Iraiiil  iMicai  at  \\  ciiiiai.  wit  h  L'.' !(>.(»<  Ml  \  uliiiiu's  ;  the  Hi  niswirU  hucal.  at 
WoU'i'liliulti'l.  with  ii\  IT  .'Kill. (1(1(1  viijimii's.  Ilt'siili's  tln'sr  tln'ic  aif  llllllll•l■clu^ 
(illii'is   attai'licil    tn    \ariii\is    imi\cr>itii'>   or    iHilplirlv    iir,L;aiii/i'(|    wliich    havr 

I(t(».(l(l(t  VnlllliK",  carh. 

Ill    Aa.-t  iia-lliiii.i,^!!^ .  till--   larL;rst    liinaiv   i>  that  n|  the  liii|ii'i'ia!  I'liiilic.  at 
\'ii'iiii;i.      it    was    rniiinli'il   in    |||(i   iiv  l'aii|MTnr  i''rcilrricU  111.,  and    has  ever 


siiii'i'  Im'i'Ii   iiiuiiilici'iitU 


itiil  Itv  the  Aiistiian  iniiicrs.      [''cw  lihiaiics  in 


l'aini|i('  i-iiiitaiii  iii'>rr  iiii|Mii'taiit  I'liih-i'tioiis  ur  an'  hcttiT  iu'L^aiii/iMl  ami  In  m -oil 
lt>  siihiiiii's  iiuiiiiM'i'  .'ilo.ooo.      Ailiiiis^.icpii  tn  its  ii'ailiii'j:  rnmn  is  Ircr.  Imt  thi 


111  Mil 


ks  arr    hiaiird   mit    iiiidcr   rii^id   rrst  l•ll'tinll^ 


The  I'liivcrsitN    l,ilprar\    dl 


X'iciiiia  was  tuiindrd  hy  Maria  'I'lirri'sa.  and  has  ■^inwii  vi-ry  ra|iidly.  iniiiilu'i- 
iiii,'  iii'arly  ."»(l(».(MMl  Ndliiiiirs.  In  N'ii'iina  alniir  the  niinilicr  nl  iiinaiii's  rxcml 
dill'  hiiiidri'ii.  iiiaii,\  id'  tliciii  <d  I'niisidt'rahic  t'Sti'iit.  Tin'  \ariiiiis  iiiiivt'i-it  \ 
lihrarit's  t  liinin^lidiit  Aiistria-1  l.niiijary  arc  rich  in  vniiiiiics.  |iarticiilarly  tlmi 
at  Craciiw.  with  nvcr .■!()().(•(•(•  vnl nines,  and  at  liiiishrnek.  with  1 7 "•.(•(»(»  vidiiiics. 
The  Natimial  laliiarv  at  r.iida|iest.  IlniiLrary.  and  also  tlie  rniveisity  at  the 
same  |ilaec.  ha\c  ricii  culleet  imis.  iiiinilieiiiiL;  |(i."i.(i(Mi  and  L'l'J.(l(M»  \iiluiiic- 
l'es|iectively. 

Ill  Swit/erlaiid  liiiraries  arc  very  iiiimennis  and  well  cundnctcd.  The 
laiLicst  istlntt  at  liasei.  It  is  called  the  I'lildii'  I '  niversity  lalirary.  and  niiiii 
liers  1S7. (>(•(>  xidnines.  The  next  lari^est  is  1  he  City  I,il>rary.  at  Znrii'h.  wiiii 
l.'!."i.(Ml(l  \iilninc>.  The  smaller  lilnaries  nf  Switzerland  exceed  l\\f»  ihcnisand 
in  nnnilicr.  and  are.  as  a  rule,  rich  in  literary  treasures  descended  fnuii  the 
ancient  imimisteries. 

Tlinii;;li  liy  im  means  as  ancient  as  sdiiie  ut hers,  the  leadiiiL;'  lihrary  oD  ire;it 
iiritain.  and  the  secmid  in  extent  and  im|i(irtance  in  the  wdihl.  —  the  Natiniinl. 
at  I'aris.  1'' ranee.  Iieiii!,' tirst.  —  has  had  a  I'liemnneiial  j,M'"\\'tli.  ll  is  hieatcd  A 
Lniidnii.  ami  is  kiinwii  as  the  Uritish  .Miiseiiiii.  ll  dales  trum  17.V!.  when  l';iiii;i- 
meiil  imrchased.  Inr  VL'I ».(»(»( I,  the  Sir  Hans  Shiaiie  cdllectinn.  ai;d  allerwaiiU 
cdiisdlidaled   therewith    nianv  other   valnahh'   cdllcclions.      it   was   Ljiven   tin 

ivatc 


lirivile;,M'  dl' cdpyright.  liy  wliieh  means,  and  iiy  lie(|neiil  and  I'orlnnatc  \w 
liei|iiests  dl' liddks.  it  i,'rew  apace  and   hecanie  a    natidiial   rcjidsitdry.  iidt 


nlil\ 


d'  I 


dl   li<iliie-w 


ritleii  works,  hut  of  the  literature  ami  rarities  id'  all   iiatidiis. 


Tl, 


iininlier  III' its  Milnines  at  present  exceeds  l.(i."»( >.(»(»( i,     Ldndonilocs  nut  eoiil 
maiiv  iHililic    lilnaries.  Imt    there  are  iiiimeroii 


l!ll 


s    rollcctloiis  (ll    sclent  lllc    ;ili 


special  works  ol'  .y:reat  value  to  those  iinrsninu  certain  lines  ol'  kiiowledL;r 
The  second  lari^est  and  most  iinportant  cdllection  in  I'aiii^lanil  is  that  of  \\f 
r>oillcian  liil)i'ary  oliKiord.  with  some  .'i-'it ».( M  M »  volnmes  :  I'ollowed  hy  tl;;ii  '•'. 
the  I'liiversitvol' ( 'ainlnid'^'e.w  itii  some  ."»|(t.(MMt  volumes.     Next  in  extent  an  i 


imno 


rtaiice  inOreat  I'.ritaiii  is  the  lilirarv  ol    tlie   l-'.icnlt v  id'  .Vdvocatt 


Hit 


limn 
,  with 

llllMlllll 


11, 


liniKil. 

Itt'il  :>t 

;llli;i- 

\  ;ii'il- 

lii   th<' 

|ii  Villi' 

mih 

Tli.' 

Iiutain 

iiti.l 


nil 


It 


w 


I 


I  m 


'•,  °m' 

m 

.  "'j'iK 

1^ 

p-4 

1 

11 


i 


m 


1' 


'fit' 


IK 

SI 

I'l 

CV 

si: 
ill 


H 


i 


lii 

\. 

Iiii 
r:ii 
(111 

nil! 

wli 

!it< 


(ini:.{T  anowru  or  i.ir,i:.\i;ii:s 


l'Minliui'i,'li,  Scotland.  It  dates  fnna  ICtM'.  and  cuiitaiiis  at  jiri'soiit  aluMit 
|(t(»,(»»t  viiliimt's.  'I'lic  lilirary  of  'I'rinity  ('oUclcc.  l)uliliii.  was  toiimlfd  foiiti'iii- 
|ioraiif(nisly  witli  tlu'  Hodlciaii.  ami  easily  ranks  as  the  lar.i,'est  and  most  ini- 
)iortant  in  Ireland,  with  its  L'*M),(i(l(l  volnnies.  to  whieli  ahont  :i(NM)  are  adih'd 
annnally.  W'iiat  lias  heen  said  of  tlie  (h-artli  of  |inl)lie  liliraries  in  liondon  is 
in  |iart  tine  ol  all  (Ireat  Uritain.  There  are  not  a  score  of  liliraries  in  all  her 
Kurojiean  domain  that  nnndier  over  IdO.otlo  vohimes,  mid  it  is  only  within 
the  nineteenth  century  that  the  pidilic  or  liee   lihrary  system  he^^an  t 


o  irrnw 


in   favor.      Indeed,  smh  uroutli  niav  he  said  to  date  from  as  hit 


e  a  iierioci  as 


isrttt.  when  the  .Mamdie^ter  l'"ree  iteiereiice  l.iliraiN 


^tal.li^hed.      It  ha.- 


.>hown  in  lilly  \eais  a  most    marvelous  growth.  ,\\u\  contains  at  |ire>ent  some 
L',V..O(M»  volumes. 

(ireat  liritaiii   has  not  nenh'cted   to  eiieoiirane  the  use  of   liiuarie^  amo 


ii'i- 


tier  coio 


iii.^ts.      At    (Mtawa.   Canada,    is   the   lilir.irv   of    I'arli.iiiieiii.      It 


iomideil  in   I.Sl.'i,  und  .i,'rew  slowly  till  I.Sll.  when  the  two  liliraries  of  I'liper 


nd  Lower  ( 'aiiai 


,eie  coi.-uljdated.     It  w  as  siilisrc|iieiit  ly  (IcnI  royed  iiy  tire, 
Since  then    it   has  1,'rowii  rapidly,  and  at  prisent 


cm 


1  in  iS.Vi  reestahlislc'd 

itaiiis  over  irid.lMMl  volumes.     The  I.iival  I'liiversilv  liluarv.  at  (•iiel 


iCI".     IS 


the    U( 


\l    most   eslensive   in  ( 'anada.  contaiiiiii''  over   |tii».fMio  volumes.     Tli 


South  African  I'ulilic  I.ilirary  was   founded  at   <'aiieTown    in    IMS,  and   has 


;ro 


wn  to  contain  soiue  .'(O.OdO  \iilumi>.  maii\  of  them  of  ;4reat  imiiorlance 


as 


1  ica rill, li' oil  the  laiii;uaues  and  ciistnius  of  African  |ieo|iles.  in  .\ustralia  are 
many  liluaries  of  cousideralile  extent,  w  Iium-  \oluiiies  are.  as  a  rule,  free  tn  all 
reMders.  'I'he  liirijest  of  these  is  at  .Mellioume.  and  is  called  the  rulili<' 
I.ihrary  ol  N'icioria.  It  is  a  collci-tiiiu  of  coiisideralily  over  l.'iO.doO  Imnks 
and   pam|ihlets.  Ill, my  o|  which    relate  to  .\iistrala>iaii   themes.      The  Siilney 

e  in  im|Mii  lance.      It  i>  >ai 


h'ree  I'ulilic  Lilirarv  is  nest    to  that   at    Mellinurn 


I 


!o  ct. lit;. ill  the  lai"est   collection  of  Works  SI 


•iai  to  Ausi 


ralia  in  t  he  wnil 


The  hook  collections  of  China,  and   indeed  throughout  the  nrient.  are  hy 
no   means   iiiconsideralile,   and   the   I'aMuite   works    relate  to   idiLiinn,    |iliilci- 


ipliy.   iioetry.  history,  a 


nd   ll 


le    .sclelll 


Tl 


ie\    are   •^cneial 


1\   lai''!'  and  of 


iicyclo|ia'dic  s  yle  and   |iro|iortions.      Thus    a    Chinevi.    JONtory  of  national 


even 


ts   iroin   the  third  I'cntuiw 


1  .   t'l    till'    sevelltecntll    \.    H.    occUOlcsMNtV 


si 


\  volumes,  as  liouiid  in  l'airo|iean  >l\le  for  the  r>riti>h  Mu-eiim       l.ilua 


rie 


in  .lap;'!!   ire   more    nuincroiis,   convenient,   and  esten^i\  e  ilian   iii  China  and 
clse'v':.  ll     in   the  (tricnt.     The  I '  ui\ei>it\   liluary  at   Tokio.  ,la|Mii.  cniitaius 

well   Ill«4h   'JOU.IHHI   vnllimes. 

<>■'  South  .\mericaii  liliraries  the  laruest  is  the  Naiiniial.  at  l>ici  .lani'iro, 
L.a.ii.  with  some  L'lti.tKMi  vdluiiies.  The  other  repulilics  nf  South  America 
w  hicii  passeil  throii'^h    their  wars   for  independeiire  and   their   lnniialivc   pe- 


riods. Hot   to  sa\'  the,;   internal  jealousies  a 


ml  strif 


es.  liliriiej;  the  nineteenth 


century,  have  had  Inn  little  "pport unit \  or  imdi nation  to  collect  lari;e  liliraries, 
\  I'l  the  spirit  of  education  is  hv  iin  iii.  aiis  di'iniant.  and  the  niielci  of  many 
liliraries  liave  lieen  formed,  in  which  iiiiich  pride  is  |;d\en.  and  which  hid 
fair  to  t;i'ow  ^rcal  in  iinportaiii'e  as  schnhirship  exp.imls  and  other  iosteriiii^ 


Cdlldltlolis  ciillie   to   prevail    lllnre  i;e1iera 


11\.      I'-Mii   ill   tl 


le  small  and  I  umultii- 


oiis  rejinlilics  of  ( 'eiit  lal  America  t  here  are  some  \alnalilt lleet  ions  ol  hooks 

whiidi.  in  the  course  of  time,  w  ill  he  ^icatlx  au'^mcuti'd  and  prove  a  source  of 
literary  and  national   pr'  !e.      Notwithstanding;  all  the  ups  and  downs  ol    the 


I! 


.It 


Kit;       Tinu.Mi'Hs  AM)  U(K\iu:iis  of  riu-  \l\"'  cicxTiiiy 

Mi'\ic;m  iv|.iililic  iliuiii;^  iIh'  (•ciiliirv.  slic  lias,  siiii-c  llit-  sciiiiralimi  ol  rliunli 
iiMil  slair  in  IN''7.  cviilvt'il  a  .Trililalplc  ciliicaliuiiiil  syslcin.  ami  Imilt  up  many 
.•Sfrllnii  lihrarirs.  fspfcially  in  llir  cai.iial.  .Mf\i.-<..  Tlic  lar-csl  nf  iIi.'m-  i> 
till-  Naliiiiiiil,  wliicli  (•(.iilaiiis  uv.t  |(m».(MI(i  vulum.'-,. 


'riif  "rnwlli  ul'  liliiaiirs  in  tin-  I  iiii''il 


>l;ili'>  liiii'iiiv'  tlif  uim'tci'iit  li  ffiilmv 


lia>  lii'cii  iiliciiDmciii 
til.' 


11  II 


•s  liMiliii'4  liliiaru'.-'  r.a 


\f  lint   \  ct  malclit' 


<l  t 


l|    1  IllISC   VI 


wnrlil    III    I 


\lciil.  llii'.v  arc.  lie 
In'sh 


ntiu'li'ss.  uiiic|ur  III  llicir  trt'sliiics>.  fX- 
(■i'|ili(iii;il  ill  liii'ir  iiiiiiiiHT.  iiriv'iiial  in 
1  heir  s\  >ti'iiis.  ami  uu<>\  I'ilVci  i\«'  in  1  licir 
iis.'s.  Ami  what  is  In-ri'  -aid  <'l  tin' 
Icailin'''  liliiarifs  is  still  nmrr  trin'  nf  ilic 


Miiain 


'1'.  i'lir  in  no  ciiiini  r\   lia>  1  In'  liinai'V 


svsti'in    sii 


rannlirii    ;i- 


Slatcs.  ami  cinnr  nn 
toncli  wit  li  I  In"  I'l'iijilc' 
tiiwiis.  ami  t'vi'ii   V  ilia 


in   lln'    Unitcil 

w  n    to    --ucii    I'iosi' 

Nnt,  iini\   cil  ii's. 

^   liavt'  llifir   li- 


lirari''s.  lint  Stato.  >rii.pi)l>.  :iml  iii\  iiaiis 
of  siH'cial  ni''j;ani/ati(ins.  :ill  n\  wiiirii  arr 
cfiit  ri's  n|  cnltnii'  :,,iil  --I'liico  of  liimarv 
iniili'. 

'I'lnMililot  lilnarv  in  the  I'nitt'd  Slates 
is  that  111  llarvanl  < 'nllc^'t'.  It  was 
fdiimh'il   in   Ifl.'IS.  ami  was  (Icstrnx  cd  liy 

lire  in    ITCd.      It   was  si dily  n'->l(ii('d. 

and  Itt'canic  the  rfciiiicnt   nl    many  pri-     kim  i.iiiiaiian  of  N.'»  l.ii.niry  of  (?(.!:,'iv^. 
vate  donatinns.  which  imt  only  ;,'rt'ally 

incroascd  tin'  iiiimhi'r  of  its  volnincs.  Imt    plai'i-d   it  in  iiosscssion  (d'  a  hand- 

'('  its  removal  to  (lore  Hall,  in   ISIO.  it  has  lieen 


.lOllN    IJl^^l.M.    YOfNO 


some  em 


lowmeiil  Innd 


Mm 


o|ieii  to  till'  |inl)lii'  hir  readini,'  within  its  walls,  hut  only  the  slmlents  (d'  the 
univeisils  and  other  |ii'ivili",fed  jiersons  may  Ikhtow  iiooks.  Its  |ii'esenl  col- 
lection nnmlicrs  over  halt'  a  inillioii  oi  voliinies  of  hooks  and  |iani|)lilets.  In 
the  \  ear  1700.  two  other  iiliraries  wcie  loumled.  —  that  oi'  \'ale  ( 'olle^c.  and 
that  which  atti'i'wards  lieeMiiii'  known  as  the  New  ^'ork  Society  lalnary.  'I'lic 
tiist  ol  these  iiiew  verv  slowh   nnt  ii  the  lic'^inniiitj:  of  t  he  ninelcenth  eenlmv , 


w  lii'ii  It  took  on  new 


Hie.  and  at  the  end  ol  tin'  ceiitni'V  contains  some  LTiO.OOu 


\<iliimcs. 


'I'lic   latter  iilso    'lew 


\fi 


V  slowlv.  and  in  ITol  liecame  a  snliserii 


tiou  liliiary.  It  is  |iecnliarly  the  lilirary  ol'  the  old  Knickerlioeker  families 
and  then  descendants,  and  the  nnnilier  ol  its  volnnies  ,y;ravitates  aronml 
1 00.000. 

In  17.">l.  I'.enjamin  I'rankliii  iirojected  what  he  called  a  ••  siil>st'ri|ition 
lilirary"  at  riiil;idel]ihia.  It  was  incorporated  as  the  i.ilirary  ( 'onipany  ol 
IMiiladelphia.  and  -rcw  rapidly  thronu'li  lieipiests  ol'  hooks  and  money.  In 
17'.r_'  it  alisorlied  the  very  valiialile  I,o'4:anian  I.ihraiw.  and  in  iSCi'.l  |>r.  I>eii|a 
mill  Kiisli  left  a  lM'(|nest  of  over  S|.(iOO.O(Ml  to  found  its  |{i(h.;eway  jiranch 
Tilt'  l)\iildiii;^r  erected  lor  this  purpose  is.  with  the  except  ion  of  the  new  Liliraiv 
of  Coiiijri'ss  sinieturc  at  Wasliim^ton.  the  handsomest,  most  commodious,  aii'l 
lii'sf  arran!:,'ed  for  lihrary  purposes  of  any  in  the  rnited  States.  The  colli'. 
tioii  of  the  Mlirary  Coiiipany  of  riiilailelphia.  coinmonly  callctl  the  I'liiladel 


!f  ^i-\ 


(iltEAT  (iUUWTIl    or  l.lllltMUHS  IHT 

|iliiii  l-il)r;irv,  now  iiiiinlifrs  well  iiiu'li  'Jnn.uoo  vdlimn'^.  ( »t'  the  sixty-tum- 
lil)r;iri('s  in  lln'  I  iiilcil  Sintrs  rc|i(ii'tc(l  In  li;i\c  Imth  lomnli'il  liclorc  llic  ywv 
ISdO,  thirty  \Vfr»"  cstalilislu'tl  ln'twrcn  I77.">:inil  Isnn.  'I'lic  hkhc  ini|i<ii't;iiil  nl 
llicsr  —  tliiil  IS,  tliosr  wliicli  lank  as  L'O.iMMi-viiliinic  liliiarifs  ami  n\cr  aii- 
tilt'  Massafliiisi'tts  Histuiical  SoimcIn  Liliraiy.  at  liiistnn.  lonniicil  in  I7".U; 
tlic  ( iciir^i'tiiw  M  I  .i!lc;4f  Lilnary.  at  <  icdii^rtow  n.  !>.<'..  Iniimlrd  in  IT'.M  ;  I  In- 
I  )ai'l  iiioiitli  (  iillt'^t'  IJiirary.  at  llaniiM'i.  N.  II..  Iniiniliil  in  ITH'.I ;  tlir  ( 'nlnniliia 
('(i||i"^c  I,ii)ra!'V.  N<'W  ^'(l|■U  ('ily.  rnnmli'il  in  I7."i|  ;  ilir  liiirary  nt'  llic  ('(illi"^<' 
III'  riiysiriaiis.  at    riiilaiirl|iliia.  Inuinli'il   in    I7MI:    iIm'  ( 'nllc-i- nl   Nrw  .Ici-cy 


I. 


ii>rai\ . 


at    I'riiici'inii    I  nivfi^il  \ .  riiiinil<i|    in    17  h>;   liif    liiuwn    (   ni\i'i>it\ 


Liiirary.   al     I'mvidcin'c.    it.  I.,    rniiniji'il    in    l7<i.S:    llif    1  >c|>ai  t  iiifiit     ni    Siati 
Liliraiy  ainl    linii^i'    nl    IJi'iirrscntal  i\  r^  l,ilirai\,  W  .i->liiiiL;liin.  !>.('..  rniMiiln 


II   I7S'.»;    the  W'illialiis   (  nil. ••.;(•   I.iliia r\  .  al    Wllilalilsl 


n\\  n.  Ma 


Mu 


InlllKhil      III 


III 


'■(>.  aiii 


I'lllUI  \ . 

liscri|i- 
liiiilii-- 
■iruiniil 


ril>tinii 
inv  <il 


jii'iiia 


Slirii) 
Is.  ail' 


I'"  mil  I  I  li  is  si  and  I  mil  it  u  c  '^rl  a  lair  \  ii'W  n|  I  lie  I  ri'iiiiiii'nnN  >t  iidi'>  nl  lilir,ir\ 
;iii\\tli  in  till-  I'liiii'd  Stales  ilniiii-  t  111'  niiirtriiii  h  ri'iii  iir\ .  Tlir  >i\t\ -Iniir 
ilirarii's  nt'  |S(((l  lia\  ('  '4IIIU  II  tu  w  r|l  iii'.^li  Imir  t  Imiisaiid.  imt  rniini  iii\'  I  lin>i'  nf 


than   Hl(M»  vnliiinrs  ;  and  lln'  li'ss  tliaii  .*i(Ml.(i((U  \nliinic>  nl    Isnti  ha 


\i'    iii- 


■icasi'd    In    well    ni'jh   .'><MMI(i.(I(IU,  nmiil  iii'r  ilmsr   III    liliiarics  i 


.r 


than 


liniisand    vnliinii's.      (  >vit   >i\    hiiiidird    liliiarics   in    the    I'nitcd   .Slali'.-,   laUc 

aiik  as '_'(I.<mmi-\ci|miiic  lihrarirs   ami  (i\it.  al   ll lid  ni'  t  iir  cciil  my  ;  and    in 

111'  six  stati>li('al  \rars  lirlwi'rn  ISSS  ainl  IS'.l.'l.  whicli  niaiU  tlu'  '^iiMlr^i   laim 


incrcasi'  in  vnlniin's.  Ilicir  was  a   •jinwlh  ('(iiial  tn  (Kl 


'III  iiM'i'  all  I  hat 


hail  lircci'ilril 


Niir  has  tin'  crntiiry  licm  nmri'  t  i'iiini|ihaiit  and  wnmh-ri'iil  in  Ihr  ai'iiiniiila- 
I II  III  (if  VI  ll  nines  and  Ihr  iiiiiiiIh'I'  id'  hunk  iciMoitniics  than  in  the  variety  id  sy>- 
leiiis  and  iiinlli|ilieity  ul' aL^riieies  hy  nn'aiis  id'  whiidi  liiirary  iiiinriiiatinii   is 

arranged  and  disseiiiiiiated.    ( '(His|iieni)i!s  aiiinii;^  these  has  i n  the  inaii'^iira- 

linii  ami  i;ni\vlli  nl  the  t  lee  liiirary  system,  hy  means  nl  whiidi  |  ml  die  tnmls  al■e 
|l|•llvided  tor  the  sn|i|Hirt  nf  lilnaiies  wlmse  use  is  I'jee  In  all.  Hardly  less  I 'nil - 
s|iiciiniis.  and  |ierha|is  even  nmi'i  I'ar  reaehinn.  has  heeii  the  adii|itinn  hy  niaiiy 
Slates  III'  till'  sehnnl  district  lihrary  sysleni,  whieli  draws  >i|iiiii  a  eertaiii  |irn- 
{inl'linn  III  the  sehnnl  i'nnd  Inr  the  eiilleetiiin  and  niaillteiiaine  III'  the  distriet 
liliiary.  .\L;ain,  innsi  nj'  the  Slates  lia\e  eslahli^hed  liliraries  nl  their  nwn  Inr 
|iiihlie  use.  and  as  cent  res  in  whieh  may  he  i,Mtheiei|  and  wheiiee  nia\  he  dis- 
M'lilinited  the  knnwledije  that  aii|ierlaillS  tn  the  re>|ieelive  Stale  inealilies. 
special  lihrary  sy  stems  hasc  e;row  n  intn  t^i'i'iit  laMir.  cnveriiii,'  and  eneniiraniny; 
11  ll  lections  of  historic  works,  id'  scien  title  literature.  n|  iiirnrnialinii  lelaliiiLr  'o 
law.  mediciiii'.  tlit'oloij;y,  etc.  In  lad.  there  is  hardly  a  line  nl  iii\esti'.,'al  inn 
and  mental  activity  that  has  iml  cniiic  In  he  re|iiesented  in  its  lihrary  cnl- 
lections. 

.\t  the  head  oi'  all  the  eeiitnry's  liiirary  lriiiiii|ihs  in  the  I'niteil  States 
stands  the  Lihrary  id  ( 'nii;.^ress.  !t  is  the  nati'iiial  re|iiisitnry.  and  is  In  th.' 
iniinlrv  \\'hal  the  Itrilish  Mnseiini  is  |n(ircit  liiitain  and  the  l'dlilinth<'i|iie 
Nationale  is  to  i''raiice.  It  was  ronndcd  in  Isim.  when  the  seat  nf  •^nvernnieiit 
was  mnved  to  Washiii'^lnn.  in  ISl  I  it  was  inirned  hy  the  |lriti>li  snldiers.  its 
lidiiie  !u'in,L;  then  in  the  ('a|iitol,  wliicli  was  also  destrnyeil.  The  t,foveriiinent 
|iiifchas('(l  Tlioinas  .leiferson's  collection  ol  7<tnt'  vo!nme>  as  the  nneleiis  ol' a 
new  lihraiv.     This   irrcw  to  contain   oo.OUti  vnliinies    li\    IS.M.  when   all   lint 


■■'ii 


m 


ii;  I 


i!t: 


.-taii 


PI 


m  i 


a  HEAT  anoWTIl   OF  LIllliAlilES 


\m 


liO.iMIO  volunu's  wi'ic  jij,'iiin  dt'stroyrtl  l»y  an  iicciilcntjil  firo.  Iti  l(Sr»L'  it  was 
it'tittfd,  I  lit-  ^fovcrniiu'iit  ii|)]>r(iiiriatiiij{  Jr*  ".">.(  KM)  tor  tlu^  iiiii|t(ist'.  On  tin; 
rrstoniliou  (if  its  lialls  in  the  Capittil,  in  lirt'-jiroot  I'nrin,  it  iit-jfan  tu  ;4io\v 
ra|ii(lly  in  voImiucs.  In  lS(Ui.  if  rcccivi'd  tiic  |U.O(K>  volumes  wliidi  I'onsti- 
tutcil  the  lihrarv  ol'  tin-  Sniitiisonian  Institiilc.  In  INTO,  tlir  iiri\  ili'i,^'  of 
i'o|iyii,i;lil  was  t fans!',  rrnl  to  it  Ironi  tiic  i'att'iit  OHicc.  'I'liis.  toLirtlicr  with 
tin'  annual  apiiroiiriation  niatlc  l)v  ( 'onj.';ii'ss.  scrvi-il  to  ;j;ivf  it  a  uion-  rapid 
j,'rowlli  tlian  cvt'i-.and  to  natioiiali/.c  its  iniportaiuT.  It  sjiffdily  ^L,n('W  ridi  in 
colli'ctioiis  (d  liistoiy.  sficncr.  law,  and  rvrry  iivandi  ol'  literature  a]i|ieitain- 
iii'^-  to  this  and  other  countries.  I'nder  its  itrivilej;!'  id  eoipyii.uhl.  two 
eo|iies  of  every  volume  desiring'  smdi  proteetion  are  reiniired  to  he  deposited 
within  it.  It  nnist.  therid'ore.  ere  lon.u;  lieeiune  ipiite  fully  representative  of 
the  literary  productions  of  the  country,  in  ISSI.'.  it  was  aut^meuted  iiy  the 
presentation  (d  the  private  c(dlectioii  of  the  late  |)r.  .loseph  M.  'I'oiier.  of 
\Vashiiij;ton,  coiitaiiMn,LC  L'T.tKKI  vtdnmes  and  nearly  as  many  pamphlets.  I5y 
lS'.M>it  had  onti,M'owii  its  ahility  to  acciunmodatc  its  ccdlections.  and  ( 'oii,!.;iess 
made  a  very  liheral  appropriation  for  the  en-cfion  id'  a  new  and  separate 
liWrary  liuihliic-r.  whiidi  was  completed  and  occupied  liy  I.S1»T-^>S,  flic  !ate 
Hon.  .lohn  liu»ell  ^'ouIl!4  liein;^-  its  first  lihrarian.  It  is  the  lar,y;e>t.  most 
clcLrant.  and  \)v>\  lilted  repository  id' hooks  in  the  world,  heini;  capalile  of  ac- 
roinmoilal  iuLC  over  L'.tHKt.tHlO  Milumes.  The  jiuhlic  are  pii\  ilei;ed  to  use  its 
liooks  within  the  Imildin;^'.  hut  only  mendiers  of  ('oie^-ress  and  certain  desi^'- 
nated  officials  of  the  l)e|)artments  n.ay  take  them  away.  It  is  open  from  '.( 
\.  M.  to  I  V.  >i..  except  ujion  Sundays  and  other  lethal  holidays.  Its  location 
is  on  ('apitid  liill,  (juite  eonti,Ljuous  to  the  Capitol  itself. 

.\  pioneer  id'  the  system  (d'  free  lihraries.  and  the  one  w  liicli  enmes  next  to 
the  l.ilirary  id'  CoiiLiress  in  the  numhcr  of  its  volumes,  is  the  I'ulilic  I.iluarv 
of  I'lnston.  fouiiilcd  ill  is  IS,  It  has  had  a  phenomenal  ^^lowth.  ami  is  tlie 
centre  of  a  wide  rani^e  of  literary  inlluence.  Its  numerous  hranclies  extend 
throu'^liout  the  city  and  surroundin;^;  towns.  liriiii,dn,LC  tree  re;idiiiLi  toe\ery 
localitv.  The  numlier  (d'  its  volumes  exceeds  7(H».(MI0.  The  free  lihraiv 
>\stini  stands  sponsor  for  a  host  of  liiu'aries  throuj^hout  the  lari^i  r  cities. 
The  I'uiilic  I.ihrary  id  ( 'incinnat  i  was  founded  upon  this  l)a>is  in  ISCT.  It  at 
oiice  attained  !.;reat  ]iopularity  and  speedily  j^rew  till,  hy  the  end  id'th"  cen- 
tury, its  volumes  nnmliered  a|'proximat(dy  L'L't ».( X It ».  Tiie  same  jiopularity  and 
rile  n|'i,'rowt!i  charaeteri/ed  tli«-  I'nhlie  I.ihrary  of  ( 'hica,L,'o  and  that  id  I'hila- 
dclphia.  The  former  was  lonnded  in  1  S7'J.  and  now  cuntaiiis  over  L'L'(t.(Mi(» 
\oiumes.     The   latter  was  not   founded    until  ISUI.  lint  in  inne  vears"  time   it 


■,'rew   to  contain  approximatdv  I'oo.diHi  volumes,  wi 


th  t\\  cut  \  dour  separate 


Handles  throu<i-liout  t  he  cit\ .  and  an  annual  ■    nulatinn  of  I.S(M».()(l(l  \nlunies. 


I  Mher  liliraii 
itl 


if   the  I'niti'd  Slates   |i«unded  oi'  rehaliilitated   d 

lih 


unu'4  tlu' 
iiiiiileenth  century,  and  which  ere  its  (dose  liave  taken  rank  as  lihraries  con- 
taining' over  ItMl.tHMI  volumes,  arc  the  New  ^'ork  Stale  Liiirary.  at  .Mhany, 
'\iili  approximately  I'.tn.tMM' :  the  State  i.ihrary  at  .\nnapolis.  Md..  with 
|iM».(MMi  volumes;  the  I'jiodi  I'ratt  Kre.'  l.dirary.  at  Ualtimore.  with  It;.'..tMii» 
volumes  :  the  I'ealiody  Institute  Lihrarx.at  lialtiniore.  with  lL'.">.(MMI  volumes  ; 
till'  AthenuMiiii  I.ihrary.  at  iJoslon.  with  IS."».(i(l(»  volumes;  the  City  Lihrary. 
ii  Brooklyn.  N.\'..  with  ll'O.(Hil)  volumes;  the  Iniversity  Lihraiy.  at  Cliicaiio. 
with  iifiirlv  UMl.OlHl  volumes;  the  .Newherrv  Lihrarv.;it  Chieav,M),  with  I I'.'t.t »t K > 


illi 


^^ 


^! 


lit* 


ill 


■|i«ii 


170 


TlilLMl'US   AS  It    \\U.\l)i:iiS   or   THE   MX  I II  (  ESTrUY 


vctlmucs;  tlif  l'iil)li('  Lilnury  al  l)i'tr(iit.  witli  1.*!.">.(mmi  vnliiiucs  ;  tlic  ('oriicU 
riiivcr.sity  Library,  at  Itliarii.  N.  V..  witli  ITw.olKt  vdlmiics  ;  tlic  lil)rary  ol'  tin- 
State  Ilistoriral  Sncit-ty.  at  .Madisdii.  \\i>..  witli  I  Id.OdO  vulmiit's ;  tlic  .Mn-- 
raiitili'  Library,  at  I'liiladflpliia.  witli  l7.">.<MMt  vdiuiiii's  ;  tlir  lilirary  of  tin; 
Lliiivcrsity  of  rciiiisylvaiiia.  witli  lL'(i.(Mi(i  voliiiiifs ;  tin-  Astor  I^iliiaiy.  Ni-w 
\'oi-k  City,  with  1.'(m.(MM»  voliiiiir^ :  tlic  .Mncaiililc  l,iliiafy.  New  \'oi'k('ity. 
with   L'."i(i.(MH»   voliuiies;  the    i'lililit-    Liliiaiv   at  St.  i^iiiiis.  Mo.,  with    l(»ri.(Mio 


\(i|Ullies 


the  Siitio  iaiiiarv,  at  Saii  l''raiicisco.  with  'Jl<l. <'(»(»  volmm 


( ti     those    iihraries    Imi 


iiuh'il    ihiiiii'4    tile    (•(  Mtiiix    ill    the   riiiteil   Stati 


ami   wliK 


h   ]i 


ive  seciireil   a  rail! 


ivi'i-  I'd.OtKl-voliiuie   lil)iarie>.  there  aie 


very  many  that  aiiinnaeli   the 


1 1 M ).( M  M I 


iiiaiK.  and  t lieir  avera''e  c;    volnnii's 


would  I'ravitate  aidiiiid  ."iO.lMMl.      it 


i>   I) 


y  no  means  tine  that  the  iiii|iofiaiii 


and  usefulness  of  a  lilnary  must  lie  lueaMiied  liy  its  iinmhei'  of  volumes. 
\'erv  many  of  the  hest  iiiana,L,'ed.  seivieeahle.  and  |)0]iulai-  liliiaries  contain 
even  less  than  L'O.tMMl  volumes. 

'I"he  s|iiiit.  of  knowli'dj;-!'  which  has  created  in  the  riiited  States  such  a 
demand  lor  liliraiics  has  heen  lia|i|>ily  sii|(|ilemeiited  iiy  a  s]iirit.  of  lilterality. 
Nowhere  ill  thewiiiid  have  t here  risen  so  many  and  such  muiiiticcnt  doiicii>  of 
iiieans  to  found  and  sii|)|iort  Iihraries.  Without  appeariiiv;'  invidious,  men  t  ion 
mav  well  he  made  df  some  of  tliese  mniiiliccnt  i;ivcrs  and  founders.     ('oii,>|ii. 


ciious  aiiioii''  tlicm  is  .1  III  in  .lacoli  .\st 


or.  to 


under  of  the  .\s|iir  i,ilirar\   in  New 


York  ('it v,  with  it- 


plcndid  eiidownieiit  iund  of  .'Sl.lOU.tKlO;  .lames  l,eno\, 


who  founded  the  Lenox  Lilnary  of  New  \ork  City,  and  invested  in  liuildin;,'.s 
and  endowment  -SI. -17. ••(»(» ;  (icori^c  I'ealioily.  who  foiindetl,  in  IS.')?,  at  JSalti- 
more.  the  TealxMly  institute  and  Lilnary.  with  an  cnilowmeiit  of  .SL' "•'*•"""; 
Walter  L.  Ncwherry.  of  Chicai-o.  who.  in  INS'.t.  left  .Sl'.otKMKiO  to  found  a  free 
]iul»li(!  lihrarv  in  the  iiorthern  part  of  the  city  ;  .lohii  Crerar,  of  Chicaj,'o,  who 
left  an  immense  estatiHo  found  and  endow  the  Crerar  Lilirary;  Kiioeli  I'ratl.of 
Italtimore.  who  ;.rave  ."jiiLl.'id.ddu  to  found  the  Knoch  I'ratt  Free  Lilirary  ;  Dr. 
.lames  Kiish.  id'  I'hiladciphia.  who  left,  in  INCK,  a  heiiuest  of  over  ."ir! K< >( »(M>I »< » 
to  form  the  l!id,i,'way  Itrandi  of  the  riiiladelphia  liihrary  ;  .Viidrew  Cariienie, 
who  founded  the  l'iltsliuri;h  i''ree  Lilirary  and  several  others  in  different 
places. 

The  century's  jiroijrress  in  lihrary  iiiana!j;emeiit  has  kept  pai'c  witli  the 
j,'rowtli  of  voliinies.  (Jatalo.i,'iiii:j,' and  arraiit^iii;,'  of  books  have  been  rcdiicced 
to  a  science,  'rraiiiini;'  of  librarians  and  <d'  students  in  tlio  use  of  books  has 
become  an  educational  course  in  many  hiuilier  institutions  of  learniiii,'.  iiibrary 
airhitci'tiirc  and  the  numerous  appliances  for  distributing  books  or  rendcriui; 
them  accessible  on  the  shelves,  have  all  been  iiiipnived.  so  that  the  library  of 
the  end  of  the  century  is  as  much  a  seductive  retreat  as  a  world  of  know- 
ledge. 

.IaMKS    1'.     I'lOVI). 


!}'* 


PROGRESS   OF   THE   CENTrilV    IN    AR('IHTE(rrURE 


'rt>\VAi;iis  tliccliisc  ol  tlio  lii>t  <'ciitiir\    tlinc  jiiosc   in  I'lnniainl  a 


(llM'llll'l 


lasliidii   lor  (inck  ('(ilimiiis  ami  iit'iliiiiriits.  wliicli  was 
I'll 


lnnip^lit  altniit   liy  tin- 
blicaliiiii   ill   17(lL'  ol  tlic  tlis(Mi\crics  l)V  Stuart  ainl  lli-vrtt  at   .\tlicii>.  and 


was  still  riiiliiir  stiimilalcd  liv  tin-  Iniii.Lriui,' to  Kii|j:laii(l  i>t  tin-  Kb^iu  iiiaililfs 
ill  1S(»|.  so  liiat  every  Itiiililiii!^-  i>[  aiiv  i!ii|i(irlaiiee.  wiietlier  elimcli  nr 
x'Ikiii]  or  i-niinti\  lesiileiiee.  Iiail  its  portieo  witli  Dorii'.  leuie.  or  ( 'mini  liiaii 
I'olllllllis.  I'll  MS  liej;ail  t  lie  (  ileek  Ifxival  :  lileli  I'ol  lowed  t  lie  mole  slender  eol- 
minis,  with  aiehes  and  vaults,  ol'  the  li'oman  ;  and  to  tluse  weie  veiy  shortly 
aildi'd  the  eujiola  or  the  dome  and  the  iialiistiade  ol'  the  Iteiiaissanee. 

In  London,  the  r>aid<  ol  l''.nL,daiid  liy  Sir'lohn  Soane.  the  llritish  Museum 
iiy  IJolieit  Smirke  (a  |iii]iil  ol  Soaiie'si.  the  rniversity  hy  W  ilkiiis,  weii' 
all  ituilt  early  in  this  eentiiiy.  as  were  the  l'"it/william  .Mii>.euiii,  t'amhridLie, 
and  the  IIi<;'li  Sehool  at  I'Miiihoro.  ma'^nilicent  eoloiinade.s  adoiniii^^  the  liont 
(d'eaeh.  St.  rani-ias  ('hui'ch.  in  London,  has  a  s|iire  i>\'  su|iei'ini|ii)sed  eojiies 
of  tiie 'I'emiile  ol'  the  Winds  at  Athens — each  smaller  than  the  one  hfiieath 
It, — and  tiiere  are  side  porehes  whieli  re]ir(idiieo  the  earyatid  portico  (d'  the 
I'androseiim.      lint  the  most    snccessliil  liuildiiii;  in    Kiii^land   wlii(di  was  de- 


wliieli  has  a  ei 


iitial 


sij^ned  upon  (iieek  lines  is  St.  (ieorj^e's    Mall,  i.ivcrpoi. 

Iiall  lit  I'loni  aliov  ;  at  cither  end  is  a  court-room,  and  lieyond.  at  one  end.  is 

an  <  Mcoii.  or  Music  Mali. 

The  taste  lor  idassii-al  design  K'"i'J"i'H,v  dcidiiicd  in  ICuLjland.  ami  a  new 
cult  was  assiduously  propai^ated  throiiij'h  the  writings  (d'  I'lc^in.  Miandoii. 
Hickman,  ami  I'arkcr.  whose  text  was  that  classicism  represented  pai^'anisin, 
and  this.  toi,'etlier  with  the  renioilelini;  ol  Windsor  Castle,  in  ISL'Ci.  hy  Sir 
del'trcy  Wyatville.  caused  a  .v'eneral  interest  in  the  revival  of  ( lotliic  andii- 
tecturc;  for  some  time,  however,  niuidi  illiterate  work  was  done  in  tiie  adjiist- 
iiient  (d Old  forms  to  new  ciuiditions. 

'rhrou<,'liout  the  last  half  of  this  century,  the  hattle  of  the  styles  has  heen 
maintained  liy  the  adherents  of  the  dilfeiim^-  schools  with  Naiyin;^  sui'cess, 
and,  althoiiuh  there  may  he  notalile  examples  to  the  eoiiiiaiy.  it  has  virtually 
it'sulted  in  the  adoption  of  ( iotliic  de^i■,'lls  for  eccloiastieal  Imildinirs.  condi- 
tions hcin:4'  much  the  same  as  foiiiieily  for  these  structures;  whereas,  for 
secular  liuihliii'^s.  with  ever-tdiaii!,dn|4  reipiii'cmeiits,  the  classic  or  the  l{enais- 
saiii-e.  which  lias  shown  even  <;realer  pliahility,  has  heen  considered  mcue 
appropriate. 

Aiiiony;  those  whose  success  has  heen  L;reatc>t  in  (iotliic  work  may  Ix;  men- 
tioned Sir  Charles  IJarry.  who  was  kni'j:lited  lor  desij^Miiic..;  the  rarliameiif 
i>uildin;.j:s.  Itcj.;!!!!  in  IS-JO  and  foiupletcd  twenty  years  later:  ( ;eori;e  ( iilhert 
Scott,  who  did  the  Assize  Courts,  in  .Maiichester.  and  New  Mii>eiiiii.  <»xford: 
(ieiuix*'  I'Mmund  Street,  whose  Law  Courts  in  liondon  are  so  lull  ol  deleels 
Ml   plan  yet   so  excellent    in   details;    Allied   Wiiterluuise.   whose   inter.-.tiii'..; 


i  'I 


)•; 


172         TlilUMI'IIS   AM)    \VV\DJ:iiS   OF   Till-:   \I\"'   rKXTriti' 

(Nnriiiiiii)  Miisciiiii  of  Niitiinil  History  iriivc  siilistaiitiiil  riicdiira^'ciiiciit  to 
tlif  use  of  tt-rra  cotta;  T.  (i.  .lackMHi.  tin'  atitlidr  ol  iiiurli  nillcj^iali'  aiclii- 
tfi'tiirc  at  (Ktnnl  anil  clx'wlirri' ;  .1.  I,.  I'icrsnn.  tin  (lf>ii;iiiT  ipI'  ciulit- 
('liiui'lics  ill  l.iiiiildii ;  William  l!iiri,'('ss.  Sir  Ailliiir  lUnnitield.  ami  .laims 
UiiMiks.  all  wciy  Uiidw  II  till'  I  lie  liii;li  cliaraftiT  ol  tlirir  wmU.  as  is  also  .).  |). 
Si'ijiliii'^',  wlidsc  liniad  s\  m|iatlii('s  ami  rclim'd  sjiirit  ranked  liim  as  (uit'  ul 
till'  must  talriiti'd  mrii  III   liis  day. 

'I'lir  lii'Nt  inti'i'iiat  iniial  rN|iiisiti(iii  was  lit'ld  in  l.niiduii  in  iS.ll.aml  the 
siiii^ii'  liuildin.L;  in  wliirli  it  was  ronlaiiit'd  was  |ii'i'lia|is  tlir  iimsl  marvi'lniis 
j'xiiiliit.  it  was  ilrsiL;iiril  liy  Sir  .losi'pli  I'axtnn.  and  was  tlir  tiist  r\ani|ilr  nl 
till'  list'  III'  iron  ami  ;4;lass  on  a  srali'  of  siirli  v,'i,i;aiitii'  iiroportioiis. 

'I'lic  so-i-alli'd  "N'irtorian  (iolliir"'  was  iisnl  to  a  !j:ii'at  I'Xtriit  lor  si'i-iilar 
work  as  lati-  as  lS7n.  and  as  it  was  mnrli  ^limiilati'd  'iv  tin'  wriliiij^s  of  Slrrci 
U|poii  Spain  and  Noitlirni  Italy  and  liy  Itiiskin's  "Stoiu's  ot  N'i'iiicc."  tlii'if 
wi'ir  ln'i|iii'nt  attcmiits  at  iiolyi'liiomy.  slmwii  in  tin-  iisr  of  diffiTriit  colorrd 
stom'.  lirirk.  and  tcira  rotta.  and,  in  tlu'  Allirit  Mcmoiial,  liy  nirans  oi 
niosaii'. 

Ik.  W.  i'jlis  and  !•',.  W.  (iodwiii  wrrc  amoii'^'  tlir   foii'inost    |ira<'titioiii'rs  of 


d  1 


till'  timr.  lint  in  spitr  of  tlir  cli'Vi'ini's,-;  ami  li  ililni'ss  ot  ili'sit;ii  sliowii  in  soim 
ol  their  city  and  Miiiuflian  liiiildiiii,'s.  neitliei'  tliey  nor  otlioi's  eoiild  |ii'ol(pm; 
tlie  life  of  the  fashion,  and  it  |pii'si'iitly  yielded  to  the  revival  ol  a  |ire\  ioiis 
oil'.',  and  the  IJeiiaissanee  forms  id'  the  time  of  (,>m  en  Anne  lieeame  the  vo^iie, 
t's|ieeially  ioreonntry  houses.  —  nowhere  more  homelike  than  in  I'ai.nland. 

In  the  snliiiili  of  r.edford  I'ark.  in  I-owther  Lodi,M'.  as  in  his  desi;j;iis  for  the 
.Mlianee  Assiiraiiee  ('oiii|iany  and  the  new  Scotland  \'aid,  Norman  Shaw 
showed  the  facility  of  his  clever  ]ieiicil.  and  P'riiest   (leori^e  I'eto  <j;avi'  many 


evKliiices  o 


t    his  skill  am 


1  taste;  t! 


leir  work,  however,  often   lia\  ii 


\'j:  a  lla\oi' 


of  the  I'lemish. 

The  liiiildiie^  of  tlio  Tliaiiies  Kiiiliankment,  the  ojieniiiv;  of  'i"'^^'  streets. — 
such  as  llolhoi'ii  \'iadnct  and  .ShaftcNltiiry  Avenue.  —  with  the  widening' and 
strai'^htenins^  of  others,  have  done  much  for  the  im]ifovemeiit  uf  niodein 
London. 

In  l''rancr.  there  were  very  many  iiii|portant  imlilic  liuildiii,i,'s  lii';^iin  in  the 
first  ten  years  id'  this  century,  —  diiriii;.^-  the  i'eij,'ii  of  Napoleon  I..  —  althoie^li 
some  of  them  were  not  completely  linished  until  the  tiiiio  of  ^'apoleon  ill. 
( iSIS-lST'ii.  Amoiiij:  tlio>e  in  I'aris  were  the  Ari'de  rKtoile  liy  ("lial,i;riii.  the 
larp'st  t  riiimplial  arch  ever  Iniilt.  Iieim;'  similar  in  height  and  width  to  the  iroiit 
of  Notre  l>ame  Cathedral,  oiiiittiii!^  the  upper  portion  of  the  towers;  .\rc  du 
("aioussel  liy  Tercier  \'  l''oiitaiiie  —  liotli  these  arches  coiiiiiieinoratin.i;'  the 
\ictories  of  Na|iolei)u:  the  clmri'hes  ot  the  Madeleine  l>y  N'i'^mni.  and  of  Ste, 
(iciievii've,  in  honor  cd'  the  i,'r.'at  men  of  !•" ranee ;  ami  the  winy  connect iiiu' 
the  palaces  of  the  'riiilcries  with  the  Louvre,  ]iarallel  to  (but  furthest  from) 
the  river. 

The  Corjis  I^i-yislat if.  wliicli  was  formerly  the  J'alais  I'.onrlion.  was  rciiiod- 
oled  in  \X07  liy  I'oyet.  and  li;is  lor  its  river  front  a  portico  with  iiediiiieiit 
sustained  liy  twelve  columns,  a  greater  numlier  than  any  other  existing  lniild- 
iiii,'  can  show. 

If  there  he  one  style  more  than  ;iny  other  which  needs  sunshine  and  a  clear 
atmosphere  to  show  it  to  advantage,  it  is  the  classics;  and  ;i  iJreek  or  Itoman 


HI 


rnuhiii:ss  or  rmc  cicxTniy  /.v  mkiii riicrrni: 


I7:i 


t(>III|il<>  ill  tllf  lit  llluSpllfl'tMit'  lii^,  I'll  ill.  illlll  slliiw,  nt    Kdililinrii.  I.iiliilnli.  Mlillirli. 

ni'cvcii  I'liris,  (lot's  imt  produce  at  all  tlu'saiin'  iiii|irrssiiiii  as  if  it  were  umliT 
I  !m'  liliic  skies  of  Italy.  .">iciiy.  or  ( irceci' ;  hnwrvcr.  tlir  tr('i|iii'iit  <'iii|iln\  ini'iit 
I  classical  iiiiifl/'s  siiirc  i  lie  lici^iiiiiiii;^  n|  tin- cciitiiiy  has  cuiitriliiilcii.  tn  a 
(Ic,i,'r('c  iiiiprcccdciitcii  ill  inodcni  tiiiir>.  towards  ipjaciic^  I'aiis  in  I  lie  very 
foremost  rank  aiiioiii,'  the  capitals  (d'  the  world  in  tlie  di;^iiity  and  inipressive- 
iicss  ol  its  |iiil)lie  l»iiildiii;,'s. 

The  eiieoiiia;^'enient,  ;^iveii  to  architecture  in  l''iaiiee  l>y  Napoleon  I.  was 
revived  by  Najioleoii  III.  The  leiiiod 'liic,' of  the  streets.  a\eniies.  and  lioiile- 
vards  ot  Paris,  under  the  direction  (d  liaroii  llausiiiann.  while  it  swept  away 


MM     l)l',    I,  KTOII.r..    I'AIll 


many  laiidiiiarks  of  niedia-val   Paris,  coiitrilmted   wonderfiillv  to  its  stately 
ele'j;aiice  as  w<dl  as  to  its  ii\  ij^ieiie  :  the  work  lie;,'uii  upon  the  Louvre  was  coi 


11- 


Icted    from  desi','ns   liv   Visconti  \-    Lefiiel,  and    much  eiitirelv   lie 


w    Woll 


elected.      Tliei 


e  was 


,i,'roup  (d'  men.  some  of  whom  liroiiLjht  ahout  the   Nt 


(Irce  movement,  whose  woik   was   especially  interest iiiLr.  and  altlioii.nh   ut)t 
ti'iisivtdy  copiotl.  yet  exerted  a  marked  intiueiice  fttr  many  years  aftcrwanls. 


c\ 

Tl 


lese  men  wen 


Lai 


iduste.  who  tlesi<^Mied  the  Lihiarv  t>f  Ste.  (ieiievit-ve.  aliout 


l,s;!(i 


•uc.  who  remotleled  the  Palais  de  .Instice:  Diihan.  who  huilt  the 
liliiary  for  the  SclitMtl  of  l-'ine  Arts,  about  IS  |."i ;  N'iidlet  le  J.Mic,  who  restored 
theCliateau  tie  Pierrefoiids.  aiitl  wrote  treatises  and  ilictionaries  upon  andii- 
icctiire,  furniture,  etc.,  and  was  instrumental  in  the  tu'irani/atiou  of  the  Society 
for  the  J'reservatioii  id'  Historical  Monuments. 


I'(i 


HI 


P 


Illil, 

'1  ( 

«}!  i 

■  i  • 

hi 


174       riuuMi'iis  AM)  \\'o\hi:iis  or  rin-:  .v/.v"  cK.srruY 

Still  later  iliaii  tlior  works  hit  Naiidiciiu'i's  Nru-(iicr  Clmrcli  nl  St.  I'ifi'i'f 
<lr  .Moiit  niiiL;v.  Iiiiill  in  lS(>n,  ainl  Altadif's  Uv /.aiiliiii' ( 'liiiirli  m|  tlic  Saricil 
llrarl.  ^lill  uiiliiii>lii'(l :  liaUaril'^  < 'liini-li  <>t  St,  .\iii;ustiii,  ot  luick  ami  cast- 
ifiiii.  ami  ('I'litial  Mariirt.  n|'  cast-inin  ami  i,'lass  ;  (iarnici's  ()|ifra  House. 
I  lituilfs  N.nt  liei  II  I  Jail  way  Stat  imi  :  tlie  'rineailein.  Itiiill  jnr  t  lie  K\|Hi>itiiiii  nf 
IN7S:  tlie  Marhiiieiv  Hall  and  I'iiitel  I'nwer.  tor  that  nl  IS.S'.t;  td-etlier  with  a 
liust  III   iitlii'i'  |iul)lic  iMiililiiiL;s.  nni    milv   in    I'aris.  hut    in  iither   |iiirti<ins  dl 


Kiaiiee.   many  nl   which   have 
tiiie  ill  uther  lamls. 


a>  examples  to  the  stmlelit  ot   aichitee- 


In  this  ediiiieetiiiii  we  si  ion  11  imt  lnr'^et  the  del>l  we  dwe  to  the  l''reii('h  natidii. 
IhiriiiiL,' tilt' rei;,Mi  dj'  Ldiiis  \1\'.  theSehddl  (d  Fine  Arts  was  Idiimled  in  I'aris, 
whefe  free  instruelidn   in   iiaintin^.  seiiliitme.  and  arehiteetme  is  still  ^iven 


to  all  will 


I  iiass  satislai'tdi'ilv  the  eiitranee  examinat  idiis  :  and  in   thissehdid 


many  id' diir  Mieeesslnl  aiehiteets  have   n ived  ,ij;r;itiiitiuis  instinetidii    Irnm 

yimie  id'  till'  llistinl;ni^llell  men  alidve  iiientidiied.  In  the  !)e|iartnieiit  id'  Aiidii- 
teetnie  the  eliiet  ehaiaeteii>t its  ai'e  the  ihdniiinh  and  systematic  study  id'  the 
pliiii,  and  tile  ad  iptatidn  id'  hiiildiiiK  materials  tn  the  cdiiditinns  id'  tlie  desii:;'ii. 

( HhtT  Kiird](ean  cities  liesides  I'aris  have  |irdliled  liy  the  Lieiieral  |iriis|ieiily 
(d  the  century.  St.  I'etershiir;,'  imidiices  the  eil'ect  id'  a  city  id'  |ialaces,  the 
many  rt'sidences  id'  j^'iand  dukes  and  nnhles,  the  iiiiiiil>er  id  |iulilic  institutioiis. 
the  ridiiiii  schndls.  —  much  used  mi  accDunt  id'  the  severity  of  the  climate, — 
and  even  the  liarracks,  in  s)>ite  cd'  the  free  use  id'  stuccn,  i-ach  cdiitrihiitinj,'  to 
a  certain  impressidn  id'  stateliness  ;  the  palaceof  the  .\rchduke  .Micha»d,  hiiilt 
liy  ail  Italian.  INissi,  in  1SL'(».  is  iierhaps  the  most  retiiu'd  and  di!,'iiitieil.  .Mus- 
covite architecture  is  must  cons|iiciious  in  the  elaborate  ami  hiilhoiis  tlomes. 
curious  nut  only  in  furm.  imt  in  cuhir.  of  the  chiindies  of  St.  retersburj;.  of 
Moscow  and  Warsaw. 

Kini;  l-oiiis  of  Itavaria.  haviiij'  lived  in  Home  wlien  Crown  Prince,  culti- 
vated so  j,M'eat  a  foiidnos  for  the  aichitectiire  of  (ireece  and  Italy,  that  when 
he  came  tutlie  tiirone  he  commissioned  his  architects  to  desii,'n  for  his  cajjital 
t'ity  of  Nrunich  the  Walhalla,  Kulinieshalle.  (Jly|itotliek.  and  I'inakotliek,  after 
classical  niddels. 

In  Dresden,  the  most  interesting  bnihlint,'s  desij,Mied  upon  (ireek  t)r  Italian 
traditions  are  the  thcitre  and  the  picture  j;allery,  by  Semper,  who  will  lorn; 
lie  ranked  as  tlie  fiu'cmost  (ieniian  aridiitect  of  Ids  day. 

In  lierlin  there  is  a  theatre.  —  unii|ue  id'  its  kind,  with  stai,'e  in  tlie  centre, 
and  an  auditdiiuni  fur  winter  um'  at  une  end  and  one  \uy  sumnier  at  the 
other. — designed  by  Tit/. ;  at  ( 'arlsruhe.  St utti,'art.  and  Strasbui;,,'  there  aie 
tlieatri's  and  xdiools  in  the  same  style.  The  lU'cseiit  I'^mpeior  has  added  man\ 
scdiools  thi'ou;..chout  the  empire,  but  they  are  of  late  (iernian  IJeiiaissaiice. 

The  ]iublic  buildings  of  ( ieriiiany  and  ItelLjiniii  show  few  designs  of  interes' 
in  recent  years  :  the  rarlianieiit  llnuse  at  JSerlin.  by  W'allot.  and  tlie  I'alais  dr 
ilustice  at  llrussels.  by  I'ldaeit.  beiii!,'  ciddssal  in  mass  and  clumsy  in  detail 
Many  of  the  private  houses  desii,nied  in  the  Italian  Ilenaissance  were  vei\ 
elegant  and  attractive,  but  within  the  past  decade  there  has  been  a  woeful 
deterioration  in  the  character  id  both  suriace  and  line — the  grotesipii 
replaeiii.t,'  the  ujraceful. 

The  villaLTcs  liuilt  fur  their  employees  by  Krupp.  the  j^nn  nianufactuier. 
and  Stiimm.  the  maker  id  steel,  are  notable  inslaiice.s  of  the  application  e! 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  NY.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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])riv;it('  ciipitiil  to  the  imitrovenu'iit  of  tin-  tlnincstic  conditions  of  the  liihorin^' 
class. 

In  Arsti'iii,  A'icnna  lias  (l('vi'lo]ic(l  wondert'ully  since  the  days  ot  ,Maria 
Theresa.  The  classic  I'arlianient  House  by  Hansen,  in  1(S4.'>,  is  one  of  the  most 
delightful  of  its  kind  to  be  found  anywhere  ;  Schniitt's  (Jotliie  town-hall  is 
interestin.LC,  but  cannot  be  .said  to  be  so  successful  in  (lesij,Mi ;  the  Votive  ('hni'cli 
by  Kerstel,  in  IS,")!)  (also  (iothic),  the  Upera  House  by  SicH'ardsburi,^  and  \'au 
der  Niill,  witii  the  City  Theatre,  an  elaborate  l{enaissan<'e  structure.  l)y 
Semper  and  ilasmauer.  are  all  worthy  (d'  note.  The  I'uiversity  with  the  two 
.Musi'uiu  buildin.ns,  facin;;'  each  other  ujion  a  small  jiark,  and  other  publii' 
l)uildin,i^s  and  residences  aloi.,L;'  the  Hin.i;'  Strasse,  ai'c  extremely  satisfactory, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  stncc(j  has  been  so  extensively  employed. 

Only  a  few  years  a,t,'o  the  miiincipality  of  iJuda-resth  offeicd  immunity 
from  taxation  for  iil'teen  years  to  all  prosjjective  builders,  under  cei'tain  con- 
ditions as  to  (diaracter  and  cost  of  biuldintis, -with  the- result  that  the  newer 
jiortion  of  the  Huni^arian  capital  was  (puckly  occupied  by  liuildin.^s  of  tlir 
most  desirable  kind;  the  Parliament  House,  Opera.  Cathedral.  Tecdiincal 
School,  and  several  clididu)uses  and  jirivate  residences.  ea(di  testify  to  liic 
.spirit  with  whicli  the  citizens  responded  to  this  desire  to  beautify  the  city. 

Since  the  unitication  of  Italy  there  has  been  considerable  iiuildiui;'  in  some 
of  the  princi|ial  cities,  but  very  little  of  special  imjiortaiice.  In  liome.  the 
chaii;j,'es  are  more  ]p(>rce|itil(le  than  elsewhere;  the  excavations  of  the  fonim. 
the  end)aid\ment  of  the  Tiber,  the  widening  and  straii;litenin,t; of  the  (,'oi-so. 
and  the  openiuij^of  the  Via  Nationale  and  other  streets,  have  destroyed  cimi- 
])aratively  little  of  the  pictures(pie  that  was  worth  retaiinu;^.  have  liroui^iit  to 
lii;ht  many  treasures  of  art.  and.  supplemented  by  the  draimi'^e  of  the  Cam- 
pagna  by  I'rinci  Torloida.  have  c"rtaiidy  made  it  a  healthier  city  to  live  in. 
The  monument  to  \'ictor  Emmanuel,  the  National  Museum,  and  the  JJiaccia 
Nuovo  of  the  Vatican  .Museum,  are  ainoni;  the  few  ])id)lic  structures  of  inter- 
est;  the  many  blo(dvs  (d'  apartmeids  and  tenements  are  orderly  and  inoffen- 
sive, thouL,di  brick  and  stucco  are  the  nuiterials  used  in  their  construction. 

Turin  is  the  modern  mainifaeturin!;'  (dty.  while  Florence  preserves  its  me- 
dia'val  air.  and  Veiuce  dieams  of  the  bygone  days  when  the  splendor  of  the 
Kenaissance  attracted  the  wealth,  beauty,  ami  talent  of  all  Europe  to  the  cit\ 
of  the  l)oges. 

liologna  ;uhI  (ienoa  have  each  built  in  the  s\d)urbs  a  nnignitieent  Campo 
Santo,  or  cemetery,  with  chajiels,  colonnades.  ;ind  other  accessories  of  archi- 
tectural value  ;  in  Milan  and  Naples  there  are  lofty  glass-covei'ed  arcade-^ 
through  the  centre  of  a  block  and  connecting  with  cross  streets,  and  the  semi- 
circtdar  coh)nnades  of  St.  Francesco  di  Taolo,  at  Naples,  surrouiul  a  ]iiazz:i 
whi(di  is  the  gre;it  public  resort  of  sumnu'r  evenings. 

During  the  reign  of  King  (Jeorge  a  new  Athens  has  sprung  wy  alongside  ol 
and  overlaijjiing  the  old  city;  although  the  nation  is  not  wealthy,  the  indi- 
vidu;il  beijuests  of  certain  (ireeks  have  given  her  the  .Museum.  Cinversity. 
and  Academy,  each  of  strict  classic  (h^sign,  and  a  hospital  of  J>yzantine  de 
sign,  ruder  the  sunny  skies  of  (Jreece  those  buildings  eertaiidy  appea; 
to  much  greater  advantage  than  if  in  a  more  northern  atmosphere,  and  the:: 
statuary  and  polychromy  show  the  value  of  t^hese  accesstnaes  to  sucdi  anh 
tecture  in  this  climate. 


:;,  ■'  11 


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m. 


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iiiair 

sent; 

As 

<'aiiii 

liiiiUl 

S|MTi 
1III])0 

\V,.st 


PROGRESS   OF   THE   CENTURY  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


177 


Abdul  Aziz,  tlio  pieilecessor  of  the  present  Sultan  of  Turkey,  liad  so  great 
a  fondness  for  building  that  his  extravagance  in  this  respeet  was  one  of  the 
eauses  which  led  to  his  downfall.  The  Dolnia  IJagtche  palace,  erected  directly 
upon  the  shores  of  the  liosi>horu.s  from  the  designs  of  IJalzan,  an  Armenian 
architect,  suggests  Spanish  work  of  the  sixteentii  century.  In  Constantinople 
and  at  Therapia,  —  a  summer  resort  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Hosi)liorus,  — 


m  U 


GLASS    roVEHKD    AHfAnF.,    MIF.AN. 


many  of  the  foreign  govennuents  have  built  official  residences  for  their  repre- 
sentatives. 

As  for  tlie  arcliiteeture  of  our  near  neigiibors  on  the  north,  tlu'  liuildings  f>f 
Canada  liave  been  sturdy  and  sul)stantial  ratlier  tlian  conielv  ;  but  the  long 
rniitiniiance  of  cold  weatlier  and  tlu;  lack  of  means  liave  often  hampered  the 
liiiiUlers.  Since  tlie  eom])letion  of  the  Canadian  Tacilic  l{ailroiid.  the  \m\- 
s|MTity  of  city  and  country  seems  more  assur(>d  ;  tlie  older  cities  growing  in 
liiiliortance  and  extent,  and  new  towns  springing  uj)  along  the  line  to  the 
West.     In  Ottawa  the   rarliament  Ihiildings  and  the  octagonal  Lil)rary.  in 


v.m 


''i\ 


I      I    :. 


B!  :i 


III:    I 


lilli 


1.1 


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fi 

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ill 


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^l! 


178 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   UF   THE  XI X™   CENTURY 


Toronto,  and.  to  sonio  extent,  in  Montreal,  the  rniversities'  Lnilcliiij^s,  are 
Victorian  (lothie.  The  hiter  huiklint^sol'  the  University  in  Montreal,  exeeptin;^ 
the  (iirls'  College,  are  not  so  interesting;  bnt  there'  are  two  railroad  stations. 
a  hotel,  cathedral,  with  several  banks,  insnranee  buildings,  and  residences 
that  call  for  more  than  passing  notice.  J'erhaps  the  finest  building  in  all 
Canada  is  the  Chateau  Froncenac,  in  (i)u(!be(^,  —  built  by  Uruce  Price  of  New 
York,  —  on  the;  Dufferin  Terrace,  ovtn'hioking  the  St.  Lawrence  liiver,  and 
conmiauding  a  view  that  is  hardly  surpassed  on  the  liosphorus,  the  Khine,  or 
the  Hudson. 

Although  the  history  of  architecture  in  America  cannot  be  written  without 
some  reference  to  contemporary  work  in  Europe,  —  since  so  much  of  our 
architecture  in  the  first  half  of  the  century  is  adojjted  from  that  of  our  ances- 
tors and  ada[(ted  to  our  uses,  and  in  the  last  lialf  so  many  of  our  architects 
have  studied  there  and  so  many  of  our  (iitizens  liaA  e  traveled  there,  —  the  jiro- 
blems  and  their  conditions  in  the  ( >ld  World  are  very  different  from  those  of  the 
New.  Europe  was  already  mature  when  steam  and  electricity  were  introduci'd; 
precedent  was  always  to  be  considered,  and  modern  re([uirements  were  often 
forced  to  conform  to  existing  circumstances.  There  has,  therefore,  been 
comparatively  less  change  there  during  the  century  than  during  the  past 
thirty  years  with  us.  With  our  republican  institutions,  many  of  the  monarchi- 
cal formulas  soon  became  obsolete,  though  the  general  trend  of  our  architec- 
ture has  been  in  the  direction  of  classic  models.  As  the  country  li.'is  grown 
larger  and  more  wealthy,  the  i)roblems  given  to  architects  liave  become  more 
complex ;  less  reliance  (ionld  be  placed  uiion  ])recedent  and  a  i)remium  was 
jdaced  upon  originality,  which,  in  spite  of  innumerable  vagaries,  has  brought 
American  architecture,  at  the  end  of  the  century,  to  be  the  most  notable  of 
the  day. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  this  republic  consisted  of  hardly  more 
than  a  number  of  communities  extending  at  intervals  along  the  Atlantic  se;i- 
board,  with  an  occasional  settlement  beyond  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and 
across  the  Ohio  Kiver.  Their  resources  were  extremely  limited,  their  wants 
very  few,  and  their  intercommunication  irregular ;  but  their  methods  of  living 
were  simple  and  frugal,  and  their  courage  and  endurance  phenomenal. 

Among  the  s''ttlers  of  New  England  were  many  mechanics  and  manufac- 
turers, and  these  soon  began  to  rejdace  the  primitive  log  cabins  with  frame 
dwellings;  those  of  the  Southern  States  were  chiefly  planters.  Avho  imported 
nnich  of  their  labor,  and  often  the  bricks  as  well  as  the  glass,  hardware,  tiles. 
and  other  materials  for  their  houses.  ^Fany  of  those  Avho  colonized  the  .Mid 
die  States  had  conu'  from  countries  in  E\iro]ie  where  these  materials  were 
made,  and  brought  their  secrets  with  them,  while  others  were  farmers  and 
stock  growers,  whose  snug  little  cottages  and  enormous  barns  may  be  seen  1" 
this  day  in  New  York  and  I'ennsylvania. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  we  ])ossessed  a  national  st\'le  ol 
an  hitecture,  which,  although  it  had  come  to  us  from  Italy,  through  Franc' 
and  England,  was  yet  distinctly  American.  It  was,  however,  almost  exclii 
sively  confined  to  residence's,  and  there  were  very  few  pid)lic  buildings  of  an\ 
descri]ition,  excejit  certain  churches.  —  said  to  have  been  designed  by  follower 
of  Sir  Christo])her  Wren,  some  of  whom  were  doubtless  ship  earj)enters  whi 
had  studied  the  works  of  Sir  William  Chambers. 


!  ; 


Imifiic- 

t'ninu' 

Ijioi'tcd 

I,  tiles. 

Mi.l- 

I's  and 

[■en  t" 

[ylo  111 

''raiu'i- 

lexclu 

l)t'  aii> 

lOWt'l 
Is  \vl[' 


o 

H 


o 


Ed 
H 


a 

'A 
H 


iiil 


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III 

m 


A\' 


m 


180 


rnicMi'iis  ,iA7)  noy mats  or  the  a/a'"  cicntuhy 


Tli*^  Coloniiil  styli",  as  wi'  now  term  it.  wiis  sniliciciitlv  diistic  in  its  ii(lii|it:i- 
hility  to  ('(inrdrni  In  tiic  i'i'i|uin'iiii'nls  oi'  liic  iiu'rcliaiit,  iiiwiiiit'iictMnM',  or  mari- 
ner livin,ij  ;il  Salem,  Hostun.  or  Newport,  as  well  as  t,o  tliose  of  the  planter 
livin};  iit  CMiiirleston  or  Savannah.  There  were  eertain  dilTerenees,  more  or 
less  pronoiineetl,  ]ieenliar  (n  eiieh  section  anil  toeaeh  city.  l)nt.  all  honses  were 
alike  ill  this  respect.  —  there  was  no  j^as  or  water,  ami  the  o]ien  tirephuM'  was 
depended  upt>n  i'or  heat. 

Ill   New  I'iiijjilaiiil   the  dwellini,'-honses  we 
ehimiievs  luiilt   in  an  interior  cross  wail,  the  Uitehcii,  with  its  accessories,  as 


placed   near  the  <M'oniid 


t,h 


near  to  the  dinintj;-room  as   jiossi 


hh 


ic    ceilin.ijs   were   low.    with  cornices 


sometimes  t)l'  plaster,  sometiini's  ol'  wood.     'The 


which  was  ol'ten  hipped 


am 


1  oi't 


en  of  th 


covered   with  sli 
exterior  walls. 


am 


l.rel 


snapc 


lint  rarelv  a  t^ahle  ol  even  slope,  —  was  al 


uu 


wliicli    coveniiLr   was   oceasioiialU'    nsei 


I    al 


ways 
so   on   the 


In   the  South,  some  oj'  the  characteristics  were  the  hi'jh  liasement,  hrc 


lail 


»ia//as. 


Ir 


('(Ml 


eutlv  at  the  level  ol'   the   second  as  well   as   the   lirst.  storv, 


anit 


(picntly  hipped  as  Ljaltled.  and  of 


placed  on  the  sout  h  and  west  sides  ;  the  chimney  on  outside  walls  ;  the  kitchen 
in  a  separate  huildinn'.  detached  Irom  the  dwelling;;  a  liroad  hall  tliiduj;li  the 
centre,  i^iving  access  to  lar^e  rooms  with  hi;4'h  ccilinj^s  ;   the  roof  (piite  as  t're- 

cii  —  in  either  case  —  a  hn.i.;e  ianlit,dit  set  in 
a  low  "iahle  on  the  I'ront  I'oi'  ventilation  of  the  attic  ;  dorim-rs  were  seldom  used, 
as  the  attic  was  not  inhaliited  ;  the  ^amhrcl  ro(d'  was  nncoinmon  ;  slate,  and 
occasionally  tile  or  shins^dc.  was  used  for  roof  ■.■overiiii,'. 

Our  first  pnlilic  linildin,!.is  of  any  im]iortaiice.  and  which  show  the  intlucnce 
of  cont(>inp(~i;':iry  W(M'k  in  l']nL,daiid.  were  the  White  House,  desi^nied  Uy  ilolian 
in  17',l- :  the  ('a])itol,  licun"  ''y  ' '''■  'riiornton  in  17'.*.'!  and  completed  hy  l>.  11. 
Latrolie  in  lS,">();the  win,i;s.  containinn'  the  ]ircsent  Senate  and  House  of 
JJepresentatives.  were  added  later  :  the  dome,  desiijiied  hy  Thomas  I'.  Walter, 


licmm  in  IS.'iS,  hut  not  completed  until  1ST 


was 

Our  early  Presidents  took  much  interest  in  architecture,  AVashiiijjrtoii  direct- 
in,!,'  and  cri'icisinj:,'  the  planning' of  the  Capitol  and  liuildiiig  his  own  home  at 
."Mount  \'ernon.  and  .lelfcrsoii  designing  the  donu'  and  colonnades  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  and  his  own  hoim^  at  iMonticello. 

^Massachusetts  was  the  tirst  State  to  erect  its  capit 
]>oston.  hy  I'uliinch.  dating  fiuun  17!l."i. 

The  Citv    Hall  of  New  ^'ol•k  was  our  lirst 


t  he  State  1  louse  ii 


work  of  unmistakable    I'''rencli 
character,  and  shows  the  intluence  of  the  time  of   l.onis  X\'i.      it  was  de- 


signed liv  .Mangin.  a  l'"rcuchn 


lan.  oeii-un 


After  the  war  ol 


I  Si: 


in  1S().">.  and  completed  in  ISlL'. 


maiiN  st.ite  ant 


1   iiat 


lonai 


l)uildiii''s   were   eri'ctcd 


from   that  time    colonnades    and    domes   seem    indispcnsalilc   to   the   iiropei' 


dignity   of   the  capitol  or  court  house 


The  use  <d'    both   lirick  and   st 


one 


became  more  general,  and.  \uy  private  honses.  the  form  of  the  gambrid  root 
gradually  disappeared  in  favor  of  the  hip  and  gable.  Subsc(iucnt  to  IS.'tO.  the 
accepted  type  of  the  larger  (U'  more  pretentious  house  was  the   Italian  villa. 


with  a 


cpia 


re  tower  acceiitiiatiiig  the  front  entrance,  often  one  storv  highei 


than  the  main  building;  all  roofs  of  low  jntch,  covered  v.  ith  tin  :  the  e.\teri(U' 
walls  faced  with  stucco.  About  this  time  bay  windows  and  sliding  doors  for 
prinei]ial  rooms  of  tirst  sto  y.  and  better  facilities  for  the  use  of  heat*  light, 
and  water  were  introduced  and  the  symmetrical  disposition  of  parts  (dtcn 
neglected. 


rifOf./thSS   OF   THE   CICNTUltY   IX  AliClllTECTUJiJ': 


IHl 


'riio  v»>rv  st.i'«'|(  pointed  (iutliie  rool'  diMiott'd  tlio  iiiodt-st  (iottauc,  Jiiid  the 
pi'i'luriitt'd  woddcii  triHTi'v  (if  windows  and  porclii-s,  oi'  t.lie  liiii^jc-lioiirds  of 
'gallics,  Ix'i'anii'  tlir  sini|iit'  lit'i^inniiijj  of  tliat.  lioloiis  j^rowlli  ol'  ji^^-sawtsd 
Irt'twork  iit'lvrwards  so  proniint'nt,  npon  tliosi'  lionscs  constriK^tcd  witli  Man- 
--ard  or  I'"i'(mi<'Ii  roofs  of  iccfiliMr.'ir,  coMca.vc,  or  convrx  form.  Tin'  works  and 
writings  <d'  hownini;  had  nmcli  iidlntMn-c  at.  tiiis  linir.  and  it  was  sliown  not 
iinly  in  llicse  Itulian  villas  or  (totliic  cotia^rs,  Imt  also  in  landscape  <.;arden- 
infj;  aliont.  snlmrlian  residences. 

'I'he  jiolitirMl  dist nrhances  in  varions  fionntries  of  lMiro|(e  in  iSlS  liron^^lit 
very  many  imnni(rants  to  onr  shores,  luul  tho  di.scovery  of  ^'old  in  (Jaliforidii, 
in  l.Sl'.>,  was  tho  lie^'iniuni^  of  that  stea,<ly  How  of  .settlers  which  has  sinco 
then  peopled  so  many  of  niir  W'estei'n  States  and  Terrildries. 


A 


'■  'uww 


DQ 


-    .Sj: 


.^.i  t  ■■  '•*. 


LIfr 


£m^ 


UNii-ft;^;*.*. 


Mim.MlY    IllMI.niNfl,    I'NIVKUSITV    OK    VIIKII.NIA. 

iTIios.  .loffcrsdii,  DosigntT.) 

Then  followed  our  own  Oivil  War,  from  ISCd  to  IS'!.",  and  subsequent  to 
tliat  the  period  of  reeonstruetion,  diirinj,'  which  time  there;  was  some  building, 
but  very  little  architt^irtnre,  throughout  the  country. 

In  ISCiO  the  I'aeilic  llailroad  was  completed,  and  this  not  only  pave  a  new 
impetus  to  Western  mining  and  farming,  but  created  a  new  market  fur  East- 
ern manufactures. 

So  great  was  this  manufacturing  and  commercial  activity  that  vast  fortunes 
were  made,  and  there  were  many  opportunities  calling  lor  the  services  of 
architects;  but  as  they  had  hitluMto  been  rarely  employed,  except  in  a  few  of 
the  larger  cdtie.s,  upon  churches  or  public,  buildings,  a  great  pro])ortion  of  them 
were  untrained  amateurs  or  self-taught  carpenters  and  masons.  However, 
the  first  school  of  architecture  had  just  l)cen  organized  at  tlm  .Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  in  IJostou.  and  to  William  J{.  Ware,  —  who  -was  its 
]irofes.sor  of  architecture  from  iSfUJ,  and  who  organized  a  similar  school  at 
Columbia  ('ollege,  New  York,  inlSSO, — the  jn'ofession  and  the  ]iublic  owe  more 
tiian  to  any  other  one  man  for  well-directed  efforts  towards  the  development 


I 


F^*^ 


ll|l||t 

liiiilii 


lit 


■ll'iiiiJIil 


1 


f 


!■■ ; ; 


mm 

ill!" 
m 


llii'  !"!  : 


ij 


4  !'ii 


'.'■'is 


■niih 


H'    ■ 
Ml    < 


!-i 


18i 


riUL'Mi'iis  AM)  \yoxi)/-:i!s  or  the  xix"'  ciisnitY 


lit"  siicli  (|iialiti(Mti(His  lis  may  cvciitiiiilly  j:i"i'  a  iiatioiiiil  cliiii'actt'r  to  our  arflii- 
tcctiiri'.  'I'licsc  .schnuls  caiiic  ikmic  too  sndii,  ami  within  tlic  past  t,\vciity-tivc 
yt'ai's  many  otlicis  have  Ix-iMi   tmimlcil  and   many  travclin,^'  scliohi-sliiiis  cii- 


(K 


)\V(((l ; 


ll.'Ct 


IdllS   (if 


|iliiit(igi'a|ilis,  a 


IK 


I  casts  h 


ia\i'  liccn   iiruvidt'd  in 


varnins  citn's;  aicliitrclMiai  |icn(idicals  iiul)li>lird,  and  arclutcctnral  sdcirtu 


and 


siictcli  clulis  Idiini'd.  cacli  dl'  \s  iiicii  has  cDntrilmtcd  to  the  hinlicr  educa- 


tion of  the  iniilcssion  and  to  th(>  ^nicatcr  aiijirfciation  liy  the  piiliiic, 

I'rior  to  this  time,  cadi  sc(!tioii  ami  cacii  city  lunl  certain  pecidiarities  ol 
arciiitc(!tni'e.  as  ot'siiecch,  wiiich  were  nnniistaiial)ie.  The  wiiiVe  New  l''.n,i;hinil 
nu'ctinj^-lioiise,  tiie  red  school-iionse,  tiu'  country  house  with  its  kitchen,  wash- 
room, and  Aood-.^iied  trailini,'  in  the  rear,  or  tlie  s\V(dl-t'ront  city  house,  were 
as  cliaracteristic  as  the  endh'ss  hh)cUs  of  brown  stone,  liijj;li  stoop  houses  of 
New  ^'ork.  or  tlip  monotonous  lows  of  red  hrick  dwelliti.t,'s  witli  white  marl'lr 
trimminj;s  of  I'hihidelpliia,  or  I  he  hroad  verandas  and  iialls  of  tlie  Soutliein 
liome. 

Cast-iron  was  the  reco<,'iu/.ed  mateiial  for  the  front  uf  liusiness  huildin.Ljs. 
tlie  designs  hein;,'  ehietly  in  tlie  Corinthian  or  eomiiosite  onh-rs.  and  the  arch 
or  lintel  used  indiscriminately;  and  when  the  dry  jj;oods  store  of  A.  T.  Stewart 
(S:  ("o.  was  huilt.  in  1S71.',  to  occupy  the  whole  block  from  Mroadway  to  l''ourth 
Avenue,  and  from  Ninth  to  Tenth  Streets,  it  was  the  lar>j;est  and  most  impor- 
tant of  its  kind.  Itefore  this  chiss  of  commercial  architecture  disa])peared.  a 
front  was  desifjjm'd  by  l{.  ]M.  Iliuit,  about  1S7S,  for  a  store  on  I>roadway.  neai 
IJrooine  Street,  where  the  plastic  forms  of  tlu'  tile  ami  stucco  of  Saracenic 
architecture  were  used  as  beini^  more  loi,ncal  for  this  material  than  an  imita- 
tion of  K'oman  forms  in  stone. 

There  were  not  many  summor  resorts,  and  a  few  weeks  at  Saratoga,  New- 
port, or  the  VirL,Mnia  Sjirinjjjs  was  the  limit  of  the  animal  vacation  ;  the  ortho- 
dox hotel  was  a  rectan.nular  frame  buildinj;-,  with  veranda  on  one  or  more 
sides,  covered  by  a  fiat  roof  supported  by  s<[uare  piers  having  the  liei,i,dit  of 
several  st(M'ies  ;  the  lenurth.  width,  and  lieinht  of  the  hnildin"'  were  "'overned 


by  no  other  proportion  than  that  of  the  inanber  of  giu'sts. 

In  the  South  and  \\'est  there  were  virtually  no  hotels,  and  the  belated  t 
veler  applied  for  food  and  shelter  for  himself  and  his  horst'  to  the  near 
friendly  farm. 

These  were  the  prevailing;'  conditions  when  the  iKinrruK  /■m7/c  appeared  u 
the  scene  ;  to  him  as  citi/en  prosperity  meant  a  better  home,  to  the  eoi 


ra- 

i'Sl 


iMlll 


lurc- 


gatiou  a  hii'ger  clmreh,  to  the  community  a  new  city  hall  or  court  house.  \> 
the  State  a  more  expensive  eaiiitol. 

^^'hil(>  these  buildin.ii's  were  being  everywhere  ei'ccted.  in  aecordance  wit! 
the  time  honored  fashions  of  construction  and  with  elaborate  finish,  the  disa- 

called  "remua 


tr(ju 


s  contlaurrations  of  1S71  in  Chicairo.  and  of  ISTL'  in  lloston. 


attention  to  the  necessity  for  more  permanent  building:  and  the  jirecautions 
now  taken  against  similar  occurrences  were  the  begiiniing  of  efforts  towai  i 


m 


ethods  of  tire])r(j()f  construction,     (iranite,  marb 


and 


limestone  were  di- 


)ru' 


am 


I  terra  cottii  ;   iron  beams  carrvin 


carded  in  favor  of  sandstone.  1 
brick  or  concrete  (subse(|uently  hollow  terra  cotta)  arclies  were  introduccij. 
and  metal  laths  were  substituted  tor  the  wooden  stri]is  to  a  certain  degree; 
but  as  these  tires  were  mainly  in  the  busiiu'ss  districts,  such  reforms  have 
been  coiiHned  almost  exelusivelv  to  eommereial  architecture. 


lUlMTY    lUllK  II,    MiW    YDUlv, 


•;>       '        'i 


Mi!: 


t.kM 


■'■  "Ip 

'  ¥mt 

liM 

If^NB 

Ih 


'J,i^ 


Til  1 1  r. urns  AND    WoXDHh'S   OF  Till-:   MX'"   r/vA"/77i'}' 


I'liuanhss  or  riin  ciiM'unY  ly  MicimKciiim 


IH'. 


sliow  tlirir  piirpost*  iiinl  riii|ili;isi/f'  llicir  iii;ilt'iijil ;  his  Inick  liiiildin^jH, 
wlit'llicr  a  i'i>||«'^Mt  liiiililiii^'  :il  Ciiiiiliiid^r,  riiilway  sliilion  iil,  Nr.v  l.oiiilon, 
or  rt'sidt'iifc  iit.  \ViisliiiiKl"ii.  It'll  llirir  sidiv  in  Inick  ;  ;iiiil  liis  (•(miiiIiv  linusi-s 
iihiMit  tilt'  Miliinlis  of  riiisldii,  t<i  lir  \vli;il  llii'\  me,  iniilil  imi,   Inixc  iirt'ii  olliri' 

lllilll    l>|'    WIIIHJ. 

His  iiilliii'iicf  ii|inn  till!  iiicliitrctiiii' ol  till- ciiiy  \v;is  t  licn'tnn' iml  siii|iiisiiii;-. 
lull  I  licit'  WHS  a  Milil  Iciicss  in  I  lie  cli;ir;ictfr  ol  his  ilcsiijiis  tiiiit^  his  iiniliiturs 
ciiiilil  never  actjiiirn  anil  cvfn  his  iiiiiiicdialt'  smi fssms  fniild  ntifc  hui;,'  rflaiii 
al'tiT  his  |i»'rst>naiity  was  lust  In  thi'iii;  and  Irniii  liif  lack  partly,  |ifiha|>s.  dI' 
ti'iii'  syiii|ialhy.    jiarMy   t'l'imi   tin'   iiiiidillt'alinn  nt  I'oiidil  inns.  Iiis   ail    iiiav  lie 


sail 


I  lt>  h 


lA'f  tlifil  With  liun. 


\f.n 


ST.    tlKDIKlKS    IIAI.I,,    I'llll.AIIKI.rillA. 


As  11.  M'.  limit  liail  tho  hist,  word  on   tl 


11'   cast-iron 


Iroiit.  so  lie   liad  the 


lirst  on  tlic  inoih'rn  sky-scrapi'i'.  a  |i»'ciiiiarly  Aincricaii  |iidductioii ;  tin*  walls 
of  the  Trihiinc  ISiiildiiiiX.  however,  carry  lioth  their  own  weii^dit  and  that  of 
tilt*  floors,  heiii;^' lniiit   licfore  the  thiys  td'   the  met iioils  id'  steel  skeleton  con- 


■it  ruction. 


Hunt 


was  traineil  in  I'aris,  as  was  liiehardson,  ainl   liad   assisti'd 


111 


the  ilesij,Mi  of    the   j'avillon    de    l''lore  under   Lefiicl,  and  he  showed  hii- 


111  for  tlio  T.eiiox  Lihrar 


}'• 


approoiatioii  of  tin;  Neo-(iree  iiioveinent  in  his  ilesi; 
it  is  somewhat  unusual  for  an  artist  to  do  his  hest  work  in  his  latest  years, 
hut  sundy  no  lietter  work  of  its  kind  has  lieeii  done  in  iiioilerii  times  than 
the  I't'sideniu's  whitdi  he  tlesii^'iied  tor  three  ineinhers  of  the  Vanderliilt  family 
at  Newport,  in  New  V'ork  city,  ai 


it  I'dlMiiore,  X.  C.     The  tlesiun  which  h' 


<M'. 


Ife 


m. 


186 


TRIUMPHS  AM)    WONDEtiS   OF  THE  A/A'"'  CENTUliY 


'■'    I 


left  for  the  Kil'tli  Avenue  I'nmt  of  the  jMetropulitiUi  Museum,  now  being 
carried  out  by  iiis  son,  is  a  niagnitieent  Corinthian  order,  whereas  mueh  of 
his  other  work  is  hite  French  Gothie. 

Tliat  lie  was  called  ui)on  to  design  the  base  for  Hartholdi's  Lil)erty  in  New 
York  Harbor,  and  the  Administration  J>nilding  at  the  International  Ex]tosi- 
tior.  of  1<SJ),">,  and  that  a  portrait  bust  has  been  erected  to  his  memory,  all 
testify  to  the  ajipreciation  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  ]>rofession. 

To  .McKim,  .Mead  iS:  White,  of  New  "^"ork,  we  are  greatly  indebted  for 
their  influence  upon  secular  architecture,  and  their  (.'asino  at  Xewjiort,  built 
in  ISSO,  was  probably  more  far-reaching  in  its  effect  upon  country  houses  than 
any  other  building  at  that  time.  Among  the  other  work  from  their  office 
may  be  nu'utioned  the  Uostim  I'ublic  Library,  the  Madison  Sipuire  Garden 
(rejtroducing  in  its  tower  thedriralda  of  Seville),  the  Library  and  other 
buildings  for  Columbia  College,  the  ^letropolitan  and  I'^niversitj'  Clubs,  the 
Agricultural  Uuilding  (of  staff)  in  Chicago  in  1H\V,\,  now  being  reproduced 
in  marble  for  the  lirooklyn  Institute,  the  Tiffany,  the  Villard,  and  other  city 
houses,  and  a  host  of  country  houses  at  Newport,  Lenox,  and  elsewhere. 

There  is  another  architect  whose  talents  should  be  acknowledged  ;  for 
about  ISSO,  when  the  shingle  house  had  just  begun  to  take  shajie,  there  was 
none  more  clever  at  that  sort  of  thing  than  W.  li.  Emerson,  of  Jioston,  and 
liis  resources  seemed  eiulless  in  harmonizing  form  and  color  with  condi- 
tions of  seashore  or  mountain,  as  shown  in  his  houses  at  liar  Harbor, 
Milton,  Newport,  and  many  other  summer  resorts. 

Philadelphia,  which  had  hitherto  always  been  extrentely  conservative  in 
architecture,  soon  began  to  erect  some  of  the  nu)st  singular  and  fantastic 
structures  that  cimld  well  be  inuigined  ;  l)ut  fortunately  the  refined  simpli- 
city and  fertile  originality  of  such  men  as  "Wilson  Eyre.  Frank  ]\liles  Day  i-V 
Bro.,  and  Cope  &  Stewardson  have  jirevailed,  and  in  both  city  and  suburban 
work  they  and  certain  otluM's  have  done  and  are  doing  nnich  to  cimnterbalance 
the  character  of  the  eccentricities  of  their  predecessors,  as  shown  in  buildings 
for  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

P>ut  the  restless  activity  of  Eastern  loom  and  machine  shop,  and  of  Western 
farm  and  mine,  seemed  to  meet  and  concentrate  in  Chicago  —  the  nifirjinf  for 
the  raw  material  of  tlu'  West  and  tlie  finished  product  of  the  East.  The 
\inprecedented  increase  in  value  of  land,  the  low  j)rice  of  iron  and  steel,  with 
the  introduction  of  high-speed  elevators,  combined  to  develoj)  a  new  tyjie  of 
sky-scrai)er  ;  and  as  the  nature  of  the  soil  was  entirely  unlike  that  of  other 
cities,  the  foundations  of  these  buildings  presented  jjroblems  which  were 
solved  by  Chicago  architects  in  various  ways  hitherto  untried.  The  IJookery 
by  Purnham  &  Poof.  I'ullman  Puilding  by  S.  S.  Beman.  and  the  Auditorium 
(o]iera  house,  hotel,  and  office  liuilding  in  one)  by  .\dler  &  Sullivan,  at  the 
time  of  tlieir  comjiletion  were  most  notable  examples  of  architectural  engi- 
neering, and  were  soon  followed  by  many  others  more  or  less  similar,  designeil 
by  W.  L.  P.  Jenny,  llolabird  &  Jioche.  Henry  Ives  Cobl).  and  others.  Tlir 
buildings  for  the  Chicago  Cniversity.  the  Athh'tic  Club,  and  Ncwburv 
Library,  by  the  last-named  architect,  .show  a  high  degree  of  ability  ;  the 
peculiarly  rich  arabesque  ornamentation  designed  by  Louis  II.  Sulliviin.  aiui 
the  direct  and  rational  haiulling  of  the  buildings  upon  which  it  was  used,  un 
certainly  indicative  of  the  spirit  of  enthusiasm  and  conscientitmsness  fif  ; 


I'lWGHESS   UF  THE  CENTUllY  IN  AKLHITECTUliE 


1S7 


well-ti'iiiiu'd  luiiul.  It  is  by  siieh  cluiraotpristirs  that  .rolui  W.  Knot  was  ablo 
to  accomplish  so  much  for  the  advancement  of  architecture  in  the  West. 

What  Kruppaiul  Stumm  liacl  done  for  the  employees  in  their  works  in 
(lenuany,  I'uUmaii  determined  to  do  for  his  men  and  their  families  here; 
and  a  town,  with  dwellings,  schools,  churches,  water-works,  etc.,  for  many 
thousiind  iuhahitants  was  designed  and  built  by  S.  S.  Uemau,  which  has  been 
reported  by  experts  to  be  the  best  of  its  kind. 

In  Chicago,  in  1<S'.)3,  was  held  our  second  international  Exposition ;  and  that 
theexhil)its  sl:ould  l)e  suitably  housed,  some  of  the  most  j)rominent  arehiteets 
of  the  country  were  called  together,  buildings  were  assigned  to  each  of  them, 
ami  Frederick  I^aw  Olmsted  was  appointed  to  lay  out  tlie  grounds,  waterways, 
and  bridges. 


Ij 


TitiMTY  (  iiria  n.   uosiox. 


Except  for  the  difference  in  material,  never  did  IJome  in  the  days  of 
Augustan  nuignitieence  show  buildings  similar  to  those  grouj)cd  about  the 
<'iiurtof  Honor.  A  (Jreek  would  surely  have  been  pro\ul  1o  walk  thniugh 
tilt'  j'eristyle,  or  to  have  visited  the  Art  (Jalleries.  and  a  IJoman  to  have 
sauntered  about  the  Terminal  Station  (U'  the  triumiilial  arches  of  tlie  Manu- 
lactures  Ibiilding.  IJight  nobly  was  the  Spauisli  aid  to  Cohinibus  acknow- 
ledged in  the  design  of  ^lachinery  Hall;  but  to  France,  wiiose  geiierdsity 
had  trained  so  many  of  our  architects,  sculptors,  and  ])ainters  to  do  surii 
tilings,  was  the  greatest  triumph  in  tlu'  unanimity  with  which  they  had  all 
worked  and  the  success  which  crowned  their  labors. 

The  building  occujiied  by  the  Federal  <iovcrnnient  was  one  of  the  few 
unworthy  of  its  location  or  of  tlie  occasion.  Wliile  the  arcliitccture  of  the 
people  had  been  advancing  steadily  for  litty  years,  that  proviiled  by  the  Trea- 


I 


r 

III  '■' 

h 

It' 


ih  I 


HI 


t:l  i 


ih  '  i 


f:!!  nil 


;  'fi! 

illi  'III 

■  iil 


188 


TRIUMPHS  AND   WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


siuy  ])epartm('iit  in  Wiishiiigtou  had  been  qnite  as  steadily  retrograding.  The 
Custom  Iloiist',  l>oston  ;  Snb-Tivasury,  New  York;  the  Mint,  in  Philadelphia; 
the  Treasury,  Post  Office,  and  Interior  Department  buildings,  in  Washington, 
have  stood  almost  alone  since  the  middle  of  the  century.  The  few  Gothic 
buildings  referred  to  i)reviously  were  honest  and  intelligent  attempts  to  im- 
])rove  the  quality  of  design  for  the  government,  but  the  politicians  decided  that 
artistic  ability  was  not  a  prerecpiisite  for  tiie  office  of  Sujiervising  Architect. 
Since  1895,  there  has  been  some  infusion  of  new  life  into  the  designing- 
room,  and  such  work  as  the  designs 
by  William  ]\[artin  Aiken,  for  the 
Buffalo  and  San  Francisco  Post  Of- 
tices  and  Court  Houses,  the  Denver 
and  the  Philadelphia  ]Mints,  and  the 
New  London  Post  Office,  were  about 
being  materialized,  when  once  again 
the  politicians,  who  cared  not  a  whit 
for  one  design  more  than  another, 
interfered  to  oblige  the  government 
contra(;tor.  Put  the  good  seed  had 
been  planted,  and  the  work  of  the 
present  incumbent,  James  Knox 
Taylor,  is  likely  to  show  a  nmrked 
advance  over  that  of  many  previous 
years.  ' 

The  general  scheme  of  the  Con- 
gressional Library  was  conceived  by 
Smithmeyer  &  Pelz,  the  details  car- 
ried out  subsequently 
by  Genertil  Casey  and 
his  able  assistants 
and  successors,  and 
the  building  opened 
to  the  public  in  ISlMi, 
'I'he  experiment  of 
the  collaboration  of 
sculptor  and  painter 
with  the  architect 
had  resulted  so  fa- 
vorably in  Chicago, 
that  the  artists  in- 
vited to  decorate  this 
building  gladly  re- 
sponded; and  al- 
though the  remuner- 
ation was  inconsid- 
erable, their  loyalty 
to  the  country,  as 
to   Art,   resulted    in 

THK  AMEUICA^    SUKKTV    COMl'AJJY'S   BUILUINU,    NKW    YOUK.       SUCll      HlUral     deCOrU- 


M 


PROfiHESS   OF  THE  CENTURY  IN  ARCHITECTURE 


189 


tion  as  had  not  been  seen  since  W.  M.  Hunt  det'oruted  the  Senate  Chamber 
in  Albany,  or  La  Farge  did  the  figures  in  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  and  St. 
Tliomas  Church,  New  York.  BhishfiehFs  dome,  tyi)ifying  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth  ;  Vedder's  Minerva,  in  mosaic ;  H.  (.).  Walker's  large  lunettes,  illus- 
trating English  poems,  and  Simmons'  small  lunettes,  filled  with  ex([uisite 
little  figures,  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  interesting  works  in  color.  Two  of 
the  nuiin  entrance  doors  of  bronze  were  modeled  by  Olin  L.  \N'arner,  but  he 
did  not  live  to  complete  them.  The  marble  stairway  is  by  Martini,  and  the 
statues  which  adorn  the  main  reading-room  are  by  Adams,  Uartlett,  Partridge, 
Ward,  and  others. 

The  plan  of  the  building  is  that<jt'  a  central  octagon  containing  the  general 
reading-i'oom,  connected  by  wings  containing  the  book-stacks  with  a  surround- 
ing hollow  sipiare  containing  rooms  for  special  collections.  There  are  am])le 
reading-rooms  for  representatives,  seiuitors,  and  the  public,  and  a  tunnel  by 
which  books  are  sent  to  the  Capitol.  This  is  the  last  building  of  considerable 
importance  constructed  by  the  government,  and  it  was  built  on  time  and 
within  the  ajtproiiriation  of  !i)!(),(l(K),(MM»;  it  ni;iv  be  said  to  be  dignified  and 
suitable  to  its  purpose,  and  to  be  representative  of  the  ])eople  at  the  close  of 
the  century. 

It  now  seems  probable  that  New  York  will  build  the  handsome  library 
designed  bv  Carrere  &  Hastings  ;  the  Egyptian  lines  of  the  reservoir  occupy- 
ing the  site  —  emphasized  by  the  varying  hues  of  the  ivy  for  so  many  seasons 

—  will  give  place  to  those  of  an  exami)le  of  modern  French  Kenaissance. 
Among  the  changes  incidental  to  the  growth  of  this  city  is  the  recent  dis- 

api)earance  of  the  old  Tombs  prison,  which  was  another  biiilding  of  Egyptian 
architecture,  good  of  its  kind,  and  (juite  dignified  and  impressive. 

There  are  certain  other  buildings  designed  in  the  style  of  a  country  almost 
as  troi)ical  as  Egypt,  and  as  light  and  airy  as  that  is  soud)re  and  gloomy,  but 
which  seem  quite  as  ap])roi)riate  for  their'  different  jturposes  :  they  are  the 
(.'asino  Theatre  and  the  Synagogue  at  Fifth  Avenue  and   I'orty-tliird  Street, 

—  each  an  excellent  examjile  of  Saracenic  anfhitecture,  —  the  fornu'rof  brick 
and  terra  cotta,  and  the  latter  of  vari-colored  sandstones.  Another  syna- 
gogue, by  Brunner  &  Tryon,  further  uj)  the  avenue  and  fiu'ing  Central  Park, 
has  a  decided  Byzantine  fiavor,  —  the  large  arch  accentuating  the  entrance, 
carrying  a  snuill  arcade,  and  being  surmounted  by  the  traceried  donu". 

The  largest  and  most  expensively  elaborate  hotel  in  America  is  the 
Waldorf-Astoria;  and  although  certain  features  of  the  exterior  may  not  be 
justified  by  interior  arrangenu^nts.  it  has  certainly  been  planned  witli  a  view 
to  great  comfort  and  luxury. 

While  New  York  has  the  largest  and  most  expensive  ])rivate  residences,  — 
the  chief  of  these  is  that  of  Cornelius  N'anderltilt. —  IMiiladelphi:i  has  the 
greatest  number  of  small  h(mses  owned  by  their  occupants  ;  and  of  late  years, 
there  are  a  greater  number  of  attractive  homes  in  St.  Louis  than  anywhere 
else  in  this  country.  Very  nuxny  of  them  have  been  ih-signed  by  Fames  & 
Young,  or  by  Shejdey,  Rutan  (S:  C!oolidge;  and  with  much  open  space  about 
tliem,  they  have  an  air  of  elegance  and  hosjjitality  that  is  lacking  to  the 
homes  in  nu)st  other  cities. 

New  Y'ork,  from  its  ])osition  as  the  commercial  and  financial  centre  of  the 
country,  in  spite  of  its  situation  on  a  hmg,  narrow  island,  may  be  accepted  as 


l^il 


i{\ 


U4 


I'-m 


liH) 


TlilVMI'llS  AM>    WOXDl'JIi'S   OF  THhJ  XIX'"  VENTUItY 


llu>  typiciil  city.  \Vli;it  is  ddiic  Iutc  iircliitoi'turally  is  doiu^  (only  iti  ii  dit't'or- 
«'iit  (lc;4:n'i')  t'lscwlit'it',  :iii)l  its  ^;nt\vt.li  liori/.oiitally  in  tlic  niullicni  jtortion  ol' 
the  city  li;is  kc|it.  |>;icc  with  its  ]ici|)cii(liculiir  ^nowtli  in  llic  nioro  confjcstcd 
business  [Htition.  Tliis  p'ncral  cxpaiiHioii  lias  altom'tlicr  cliiin^'cd  the  charac- 
ter of  many  strc«>ts,  the  resiik'nces  lK'co«iinji,'a|tartiiient.  liouses,  and  the  shops 
liecttniiui,'  (illi<'e  Iniildinjjs  Ironi  ti'n  to  twenty  stories,  —  or  even  more,  —  the 
musses  licconiing  lar^jer  and  tlie  (h'tail  pro|u)rtionat(>ly  h'ss  prominent. 

Tlie  sky-line  h;is  entirely  cliiin<j;ed  ;  the  spire  of  'I'rinity  is  lost  in  such  snr- 
nmndinirs  as  the  liowlint;  (ireen,  Kmpin'.  Washington  Life,  and  American 
Surety  buildings,  and  in  the  vicinity  where  tiie  Tribune  tower  was  once  con- 
spicuous, now  the  St.  I'aul  Uuildiug  rises  twenty-live  stories,  and  tlie  Ives 
Syndicate  I5uilding  eveu  higher;  further  and  further  up  Hroadway,  and  to 
the  right  and  left  of  it,  these  monster  luiildings  (U)utinue  to  rise.  I'lut  among 
them  all  there  is  not  one  which  shows  a  nuM-e  mastt-rly  handling  of  the  pro- 
blem than  the  Surety,  where  the  architect,  jiruce  I'rice.  has  emphasized  the 
entrance  with  a  colonnade  ami  six  liguresof  much  dignity  and  grace,  and  has 
eoncentr.'itcd  the  ornament  about  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  crowning  it 
with  a  line  cornice,  whitdi  is  n\ore  effective  from  the  simjdicity  of  the  four 
walls  beneath.  This  building  holds  its  own  among  such  others  as  the  Wash- 
ington l-ife  and  St.  .lames  buildings.  !New  \'ork.  (U-  the  .Anms  Muilding,  l?os- 
t(>n.  Harrison  Huilding.  I'hiladelphia.  Schiller  Theatre,  (Chicago,  Wainwright 
lUiilding.  St.  l/ouis.  or  Kxaniiner  IJuilding.  San  Francisco. 

It  is  imjiossible,  in  so  brief  a  survey  of  the  lield.  to  enumerate  more  than  a. 
very  small  fraction  of  the  buildings  illustrating  the  progress  of  the  andiitec- 
ture  of  the  century  ;  and  aside  from  the  residences,  apartments,  and  hotels 
where  we  live  winter  or  sunnuer,  ami  commercial  buildings  in  which  our 
working  hours  may  be  occupied,  there  are  very  many  exami)les  of  churches, 
schools,  colleges,  libraries,  and  museums,  donatt'd,  e(piipi)ed,  and  endowi'd  for 
our  instnu'tion.  theatres  and  music  halls  for  our  entertainment,  railroad  sta- 
tions for  transportation,  storage  warehouses  for  the  .safety  of  valuables,  and 
armories  for  tlie  use  of  our  militia. 

Uoaides  these,  there  are  engineering  works  of  considerable  imiiortance,  sucli 
as  the  Eads  llridge.  at  St.  Louis,  or  the  nocbliug  Mridge.  between  New  \'ork 
and  Brooklyn,  and  the  works  of  the  sculptor  St.  (laudens.  the  Washington 
Arch  by  Stanford  White,  tlu'  Karragut  and  liincoln  statues  in  New  ^'ol■k 
and  in  Chicago,  which  slioidd  surely  be  mentioned,  since  monunu'utal  Wiuks 
are  the  poetry,  whereas  the  seevdar  and  commercial  works  arc;  but  the  prose 
t)f  architecture. 

As  we  review  our  ])r(uluctious,  we  should  certainly  feel  encouraged  to  be 
lieve  that  if  we  continue  to  meet  and  solve  each  ])roblem  in  the  same  direct, 
honest  way  that  we  have  been  doing  for  the  last  quarter  of  th(>  century,  thciv 
need  be  no  misgivings  as  to  the  fut\ire  of  architecture  in  these  I'nited  States 


WlI.MAM    M.VUTIX    AlKI'.X. 


ly  to  ;i  (lilTor- 
111  jtortion  ol 
ore  coiifjcstt'd 
'»l  till'  cliariic- 
111(1  the  sli()|ps 
1  more,  —  tlif 
iiiiiiMit. 

t  in  siicli  sui- 
11(1  Aiucriciiii 

iVilS  (IIICC    Cllll- 

aiul  Mil'  Ives 
L(l\v;iy,  ami  l<i 
>.  I5iit.  niiioii.i; 
\fi  of  Uic  pm- 
iijiliasizod  Mic 
^racc,  iiiitl  liiis 
<;,  (M'owiiiii},'  il. 

V  <»r  tilt'  •<"ii" 

as  tlic  Wasli- 
?uil(lint,',  I'tis- 
),  Waiiiwriglit 


I  endowed  Inr 
railroad  sta- 


ortanco.  sucli 


asnmjrloii 


leiitnrv.  t.lieir 
Inited  States. 


THE  CP:NTUUY'S   I'KOGUESS  IN  CHEMISTRY 

Tiir,  siMciKU'  ol'  (•iieniistry,  as  it  is  known  to-day,  liad  its  real  orij,'iii 
towards  t.li(!  end  of  tlio  eij^diteeiitli  ecntiiry.  I'x'fon!  and  up  t.o  that  tiiiu!  it  is 
tiiit^  lUi'Vi'  were  many  K''''at  workers  in  (dieiiiistry,  whose  names  ai(!  associ- 
ated with  iiiv(!sti},'atioiis  in  eliemieal  s(!i(;n('(',  siKili  as  Itoyle,  Stahl,  l»la(rk,and 
Selieele.  ( 'ontciniiorary  with  thtM'los(!  of  th(!  eij^'hteenth  eentury  and  tia^ 
lie^'inninj,'  (d'  the  nineteenth  mnst  also  he  mentioned  particiilarly  tla;  names 
nf  I'riestly  ( 1 7.">.'{-lS(  11),  Cavendish  and  Humphry  Davy  (177H-1.S1JI)>  Ail 
these  workers  had  to  contend,  lirst  of  all,  with  erntncoiis  theories,  which 
made  it  (lilli(Milt  to  rif,'htly  interpret  the  data  of  exp(!riiimnt.  The  old 
theory  of  phlo^jiston  prodiKM'd  an  environuuMit  in  wlii(!h  it  was  diHicnlt  for 
triK^  scieiitili(^  methods  to  snrviv(!.  'I'Ik!  },'reat  investi},'a.toi,  who  did  more 
liian  any  other  one  man  to  ov((rtiirii  this  falsi!  th(!ory  iiiid  place,  (diemistry 
on  a  linn  fonndiition,  was  Lavoisier  (IT l.">-1 71)1).  l>orii  near  tlio  middle,  of 
the  ei},diteenth  c(nitiiry,  his  scientifi(!  iu^tivity  l)(!f,'iin  al)oiit  1770,  and  before, 
lie  was  twenty-live  hi'  was  made  a  memher  of  the,  l'"r(Mi(di  Academy  of 
Sciences.      At  i\n'.  af^(!  of  forty  he  was  r('c,of,'ni/(!d  as  thi!  foremost  scientist 


d'  his 


ag<' 


Priestly  (lis(!overed  oxyj,'(Mi  in  1771,  hut  failed  to  recof,'iiize  its  true  rf^Ia- 
tions  to  oth(M'  hodies.  It  was  liavoisier  who  disi^overed  o.xidation  (I77<J),  an 
achievement  wliiidi  iii(!aiit  iiion!  to  (diemistry  than  tin;  discovery  of  oxyj^iMi. 

'i'he  olis(M'vatioii  that  metals  when  heated  in  contined  air  iiicretised  in  W(d^dit 
wliihi  the  volume  <d'  tin;  confined  iiir  decreased,  is  the  crucial  (fX])eriment 
upon  which  tlm  whoh;  seioiice  of  chemistry  r(!sts.  This  exiieriment  was 
made  most  rif,'orously  l»y  I/ivoisier,  and  tin;  apparatus  wliich  he  usfid  is  still 
pr((served  in  the  .Museum  of  L'IO(;ole  des  Arts  et  .Mc'^tiers  in  I'aris.  'I'his 
apjiaratus,  simple  in  (!haract(!r  and  yet  almost  jierfeot  in  constrnetion,  has  for 
the  (diemist  a  pe(!uliar  si};nili(!aiH;e  and  sticredness,  jirodiuan^;  au  impression 
similar  to  that  iiis|)ired  in  tin!  ih'vout  Christian  hy  the  relics  of  the  (!ross 
and  the  Holy  S(!pulchre. 

In  tli(^  brief  sptico  which  is  assi.L,nied  for  a  discussion  of  the  prof,'ress  of 
chemistry  durin,!,^  the  nineteenth  century,  economy  of  wcuds  will  be  secured 
iiy  briefly  Iracinj^  souk!  of  tin;  salient  points  in  thf^  pro.tjress  of  some  of  the 
more   important  branches    of   ciiemical   science.       In   tin;   fojhjwinj;    p!',t^''^' 


tlierefore,  will  b(!  found  a  brief  statement 


what  lias  l)een  accom| 


jluplislierj.  of 


the  most  important  (diiiracter,  in  the  sci(.'n(!u  of  clH;mistry,  under  the  follow- 
ing heads: — 

Inorganic  ohemistry;  jihysical  chemistry;  organic  chemistry;  analytical 
clieinistry;  synthetical  (diemistry;  metallurgical  chemistry;  agricultural 
chemistry;  graphic  (diemistry;  didactic  (•heniistry  ;  chemistry  of  fermen- 
tation ;  and  lastly  (dectro-clieniistry. 

No  attemjit  will  be  made  in  this  jjaper  to  enter  upfui  the  discussion  of  the 


III 


Hi 


'■[  :isl 


192  TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 

progress  which  has  been  made  in  medical,  pharmaceutical,  and  physiological 
chemistry.  The  (liscussiou  outlined  under  the  above  heads  does  not  by 
any  means  embrace  the  whole  subject.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  only 
the  lines  of  jjrogross  along  which  the  greatest  advances  have  been  ;nade. 

I.    IXOntiAXIC    AND    IMIVSICAI.    CIIKMISTUV. 

The  three  propositions  established  by  Lavoisier,  which  serve  as  the  foun- 
dation for  inorganic  and  physical 
chemistry,  are  tlie  following :  — 

1.  I>()dies  burn  only  in  contact  with 
pure  air. 

U.  The  air  is  consumed  in  the  com- 
bustion, and  the  increase  in  weight  of 
the  burnt  body  is  equal  to  the  de- 
crease in  weight  of  the  air. 

.'».  In  comljustion  the  bod}'  is  gen- 
erally changed,  by  its  combination 
with  the  pure  air,  into  an  acid,  and 
metals  are  changed  into  metal  calx. 

The  total  nundjer  of  elementary 
bodies  known  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century  was  probably  less  than  thirty. 
jNIany  had  been  recognized  as  such 
since  remote  anticpiity,  but  none  of 
the  non-metallic  elenuMits,  exce})t  oxy- 
gen and  sulphur,  Avas  known,  and  even 
their  projx'rties  were  not  establis'hed 
(/^'^ /L.^ /^ /t^  with  any  degree  of  precision. 
£^Qr  ,        ^ot   only  did  Lavoisier   establi.sli 

^C ■^"'^{/^  ^^      the   fundamental   ju'inciples  of  niod- 
C/  eni  chemistry,  but  in  ccmnectioii  with 

Fourcroy  (ir.M-lSOU).  IJerthollet 
(1748-1822),  and  Guyton  de  ]\rorveau  (1737-1810),  laid  the  foundation  of 
modern  chemical  nomenclature. 

The  contributions  to  chemical  knowledge  at  this  time  were  greatly 
increased  by  the  works  of  the  Swedish  chemist,  Seheele  (1742-1 7<S()),  and 
in  tlie  beginning  years  of  the  century  the  great  work  which  was  accom]ilishe(l 
by  Sir  ILimphry  Davy  advanced  very  rajiidly  the  general  knowledge  til 
chemical  science. 

Davy's  first  works  served  to  elucidate  the  connection  between  electricity 
and  cliemical  ]>rocesses,  and  it  was  through  tlie  classical  exiieriment  with 
an  electric  current  that  he  isolated  (1S07)  the  metals  sodium  and  jiotassium. 
and  described  tlieir  in'ojierties. 

This  achievement  of  Sir  Hum])hry  Davy's  was  the  second  great  step  in 
the  i)rogress  of  chemistry,  after  the  one  taken  by  liavoisier.  l>y  means  'H 
the  metals  sodium  and  ])otassium  other  metallic  elements  were  separated, 
notably  aluminium  by  Wiihler  (1845).  ]>asing  his  work  upon  the  above 
exiieriment,  .Sainte  Claire  Deville  dcvelojted  the  metallurgj'  of  aluminiuin 
(18r)4),  and  Bussy  isolated  magnesium  (18o0). 


Si'^^ 


tm 


ij^ 


THE   CENTURY'S  PROGRESS   IX   CHEMISTRY 


!<»;$ 


In  J811  iodine  was  discovered  by  Courtois,  :ind  its  pruiR'rties  examined 
■  iiindtanoously  (1.S14)  by  Davy  and  (jray-Lussac. 

The  contributions  made  by  Uerzelins  (1"7'.(-1.S4.S),  who  was  a  (•ontempo- 
lary  of  Davy  and  (lay-Iiiissac  (ITT.S-l.Sod),  were  of  the  most  important  char- 
acter. JJerzelius  not  only  a(hhMl  to  tlie  knowh-dj^e  of  inorganic  cliemistry 
imt  also  estal)lished  many  of  the  imjiortant  theories  on  which  chemical 
action  depends.  His  elaboration  of  the  enqiloyment  of  tlie  blowijijie  in 
rliemical  analysis  was  of  the  greatest  practical  value. 

In  ISO?  Dalton  i)nblished  a  work  entitled  "New  System  of  ("hemical 
l'iiilosoi)hy,"  in  which  was  announced  for  the  first  time  the  law  of  the 
dciinite  projjortions  of  bodies  forming  a  definite  union.  The  atomic  theory 
of  matter  was  also  dev(doi)ed  by  JXilton,  who  gave  it  a  definite  foi-ui  and 
expression.  Chemists  now  began  t(j  consider  the  elements  as  definite  inde- 
structible i)articles  of  matter,  forming  uiuons  among  themselves  and  with 
<!ifferent  kinds  of  atoms  to  form  molecules,  which  were  considered  as  the 
units  of  substances.  As  a  result  of  this  sui)position,  the  development  of  the 
priniiiple  of  the  relative  weight  with  which  bodies  combine  was  the  logical 
conse(iuence. 

\ow  for  the  first  time  the  elements  began  to  assume  not  only  names  and 
(lcscrii)tions  of  properties  but  also  numbers,  showing  the  relative  weight  of 
tlicir  atoms  or  final  conditions  of  existence.  It  was  only  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  assume  the  standard  of  comparison  for  any  one  element,  in  order  to 
determine  the  relative  weights  with  which  it  combined  with  others.  Thus 
the  system  of  atomic  weights  was  developed. 

As  a  result  of  the  law  of  chemical  action,  that  most  elementary  bodies 
exist  in  a  condition  where  two  atoms  are  joined  together  to  form  a  molecule, 
it  follows,  that  in  most  instances  the  molecular  weights  of  the  elements  are 
double  their  atomic  weight.  There  are,  however,  many  notable  exceptions 
to  this  rule. 

The  supposition  of  the  existence  of  atoms  was  followed  soon  by  another 
tlii'ovetical  proposition,  advanced  by  Prout  (LSI")).  Assuming  that  the 
atoiiiic  Aveight  of  hydrogen  was  one,  I'rout's  hypothesis  asserted  that  the 
atomic  weights  of  all  other  elementary  bodies  were  multiples  of  that  of 
hydrogen.  The  most  rigid  investigations  of  recent  years  have  shown  that 
I'rout's  hypothesis  is  untenable  ;  but  the  remarkable  fact  still  remains,  that 
in  a  great  many  cases  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements  are  almost  whole 
numbers,  or  differ  from  whole  numbers  by  almost  a  half  unit. 

The  determination  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  various  elements  during 
flie  past  one  hundred  years  has  been  worked  on  by  hundreds  of  chemists 
whose  names  it  would  be  impracticable  to  mention.  The  most  im])ortant  of 
tlicm  are  lierzelius,  Cooke,  Cleve,  Delafontaine,  Dumas,  Hermann,  Marchand, 
Marignac  (1817),  Morley,  Xoyes,  Pehmse  (l.S()7-l.S()7),  Richards,  Schneider, 
Stas  (181o-lS<»l),  and  Thom])Son.  Of  all  these  workers  Stas,  a  Belgian 
clicniist,  is  perhajis  the  most  renowned.  Among  those  mentioned,  Cooke, 
-Morley,  Noyes,  l")elafontaine,  and  Kichards  are  citizens  of  the  United 
States. 

From  the  less  than  thirty  elements  which  were  known  at  the  beginning  of 
llio  century,  there  are  known  to-day  seventy -two  with  certainty,  and  iierha])s 
one  or  two  more  whose  identity  has  not  yet  been  fully  established.     The 


I 


■w 


n 


ii 


tl 


I 


I: 


r 


s  4 


m 


ISM 


riuuMi'Us  .i\n  wosdehs  of  y///-;  a/a"'  cfntuhv 


cht'iiiists  who  liiivc  Itfconu*  nn»Ht,  ii'iiownnl  l)y  Uiii  tlisi'ttvcry  ol'  cltMiicnfiiry 
liodics  iiit' :  Ciivciidisli.  Sclicrlc,  r.cr/i'liiis.  Wolilrr  ( IH(M»-|H.S1.'),  Duvy,  (Jny- 
Lussiic.   I'ricsllv.  Itiiiiscii  (li.  ISl  I ).  ( liiMikcs  (h.  I.s;;i.').  iind  IJiiiiisav. 

Tlic  InllnwiiiL;  flciiH'iils.  t\V('iitA-ci!,Mi(,  in  iiiiiiihcr,  wen-  kiuiwii  hdon!  I8(»(»: 


KI.KMKNI'S  KNOWN   ItKhdlii;  ISiio 


i; LI', mi: NTS  KNOWN  IIKI'OUK  Ihok. 


I.  <  iiinMr   Kiii'»ii  ii.  Am  j. Ills, 

•J.    <iul,|         

;i.  ii'.Hi 

4.  I..'ml 

6.  SihiT 

(!.  Till 

7.  < 'mliiHi  ....,, 

(Hill  llu'iT  liiniis  iioi   lili'iiiiili'il  iiiiiil   iTSii 
ISIKI.) 

5.  Mcrriin- Kimwii  In  Aiiricii(>. 

it.    AlllillliillV I'iflrrlllll  (  rllllirv. 

10.  Ilisiiiiilli 

11.  Ziii.' 

I'J.   riii>spliiirii> tllllll 

Wt.  Arsi'iiic  (Isiiliilril) imiy 

^Slllllll•^|l |7;|;| 


U.  rMlmli 

I.'i.  riiilMuiiii      |7;|5 

li;.  Ni.'krl . 

17.  Ilvdriip'ii    

IS.  Nilrnnni !........ 

111.  (>\.VKCII 

•JO.  M.in(r,iii(.vr     (Sliiijii'il     ill    niiii|iiiiiiiiU, 

isdiiili'il  III  iiiikniiwii  iliilr)    

•21.  Iliiiiiiiii 

a-.'.  TiiiikMi'Ii 17KI 

l!;i.  Miilyliilrllillli 

•Jl.  IVIIiiriiim ITH^J 

iifi.  Stiiinliiiiii 

Ull.  Yllriiiiii       

'27.  '  'linnniiiiii 

i!H.  lliTvlliiiiii 


I7;i.t 
I7IK 
Ur.l 
I7iii! 
177^2 
1771 

1771 
1771 
l7H.'i 
I7H'2 
I7!"S 
I7!KI 
I71II 
I7!i7 
171W 


l'\»ir  additional  rlcnicnls  wcii'  known  to  cxi.st,  lud'ort'  that  date,  l)ut  they  had 
not  lu'cn  isolalt'd  and  idt'iitilicd.     Tlit'sc  art- :  — 


KI.KMKNTS  KXOWX  1UT  NOT  ISOl,.\TKl)  OI!  KX.WINK.D  IlKKOltK  IHOO. 


•  liloriiM' 
TilaiiiiMii 
I'niiiiiiiii .  . 
ZirciMiiiiiii 


\  ('iim|Miiiii(l  Uiiiiwii |77.| 

/  ImiIhIi'iI  anil  ^linlircl    |h|ii 

(  Known  ill  ninipniiiKU    I7!i| 

/  IhiIiU.mI 1,S>21 

I  KiioHii  in  ciiiiiiHiiiiiils I7S'.I 

'  Nnlllli'il IK^JI 

\  Knnwii  in  (•inii|H>iinil'i I7H1I 

Msolalcil IM-JI 


Tht'  followiiiii  cdoincnts.  forty-nine  in  nninhor.  luivo  been  discovered  siiifc 
ISOU:  — 


KI.KMKNTS  nisroVKKKl)  SINCK  1800. 


1.  Xioliiiini    1801 

•J.  Vanaduiiii 1801 

;t.  Tantalum.     Stmlii'il  alioiil .    ISI)'2-18o;t 

(Xdt  \i\  ixilatcil.) 

4.  (Vrium ISO.'l 

."i.  Iriiliuni 180.1 

(>.  Osmiimi 180;t 

7.  I'alladinm ISO.'l 

8    Kliodiinii 180;) 

y,  rota^sium 1807 


KI.KMKNIS   DI.SCOVKKKI*  SINCK  1800. 


10.  Sodium 1807 

11.  Calriimi ISd.s 

12.  Hciroii 1WIS 

13.  Silicdii IHlr 

14.  Iodine 181  ' 

l.").  Cadmium ISI" 

1(1.   Ijtiiimii 181 

17.  Selenium 181 

18.  Hromine 18-.' 

19.  Aluminium 18-.' 


!» 


in  y 

("Icinciitury 
Davy,  (iiiy- 
iiy. 


(iKr.  iHoo. 


17:1:1 

.  ,     I7:ir.  17 1« 
nr.l 

I7fil' 

'•". 1772 

1771 

iniiiiiiiiiil", 

I       1774 

1771 

17H1  17Hri 

I7H2 

17K'J  17!W 

I71KI 

17)11 

1707 

nilH 


,  l»ut  (ht'V  hull 


Till-:   CliNTUItY'S  I'lKXililiSS   IN   CllliMISI  liY 


11)5 


i;i",  isoo. 

1771 
ISjo 

1701 

IH'Jl 

ITHO 

IH-Jt 

17S0 

\W>\ 

Dvored 

siiifc 

SINCE  1800. 


1S07 
1«0S 

l«lr 

IHl  ' 

\XV 

ISI 

ISl 

18-.' 

IH-.' 


1 

•;M',mi:nth  luscoviifi 

,l»  siNri;  iM 

00, 

Win 

-iMi:. 
1m;io 
)h:iii 
Ih:ii) 

iH|;t 
IHI:i 
IK»;i 

IHIIO 
IHIKI 
IHIil 
IHIIII 

IM7:> 

187H 

I.I.KMKNI'S 

ni.si  <»VI,l!l.l>  SINTI, 

I'll,  mill  1  li'iiii'iiliny  iialiiri 
.  1 

KlIiiH  II  illlrl'       

lililh'il.l 

MIMI. 

'0 

riioriiiiM 

:i)i. 

:i7. 

:iH. 

:io. 
40. 
II. 
12. 
4:1. 
44. 
4.-.. 
4(1. 
47. 
4H. 
40. 
.■((). 
U\. 

lllM'll    jillllll 
JH   l|iH|llltl'l 

.SriiiiihiiMi. 

(Ni>l    Ml    |K 

lii'miiiiiiiirri 

SlIIIIIII'MIOI. 

Iiiiiiiil  ill  ) 
lure  M  TV  1 

lliiliniiiiii. 

.\r^r"ii 

'I 

lElltlM-llillMI 

|Mi!H 

11. 
j:i. 
'1 

Md^iifMiiiiii 

Ijinthtiniiiu 

'rrrltitdn.      SliMliitl  mImhiI 

(Nntyrt  i-n|(itr.l.) 
I'',rltiiiin 

I«70 

I8H0 

(  \    lllllllr  ^'ivi'll  III  II   llll'lll 

ililiilliiili'.    I,lriiiriillir\  iiii- 

iiiiliiliil.) 

(.Niil  ytl  l-iiliil(il.J 

'i; 

Nfoil  viniiiiii 

'H 

If  iilti'liiiiii 

IHO.'i 

"1 

lli'liiiiii      .  . 

IHOll 

10 

Miliui;iiii .  . 

IHOM 

II 

Ki'\  |>liiii .  . . 

IHOrl 

v> 

IHOS 

1:1 

|)i'ri|iiiiiii  iNiiuii'  i;ivi'ii  In 
toir   of    Siinoii'Inni    iiinl 

Isllllltl'll          

lH7HliiiiiiN- 
|lr('i|iil|uij 

rnlKllilllll 
<  'iiriiiiiiiiii  . 

\H\IH 

IHOH 

|H0« 

II 

Vttrrltiuiu    . 

Moiiiiiiii 

ISOK 

.[^1 

riioliiini  (Niioir  yivc'ii  liy 
tint  nirtal  ill  (iiiiliilliiili'. 

'Irvcin  l«70 
lltiH  iml  yil 

I'.llirriipii  ('.'1 
(iiiiliiliiiiiiin 
If  (III  ill  III  1 '.') 

IHOH 

('.')          .      . 

IMM.'i 

iniiH 

Till'  (lute  in  ciK^li  cast'  is  fluit  of  tlic  discdvcry.  NiiiiiIkts  10,  ;">0,  ami  ."il  ;irf! 
nut  yet  siifliciciitly  well  known  to  justify  Itoiiig  coiisiilcrfd  flciiicnts,  innl  aro 
llicrcfoii'  ]inii>(!rly  followed  l»y  an  interrogation  [toint. 

II.    I'llVSK  ,\|,    niKMISTIiV. 

In  strictly  physical  chciiiiHtry  the  relations  of  electricity  and  heat  to 
ilieini(%T,l  action  have  heen  extensively  developed  diiriiif^  tlu;  century.  The 
s)iecific.  heats  of  the  elements  and  of  most  of  their  compounds  hav<f  hecn 
iMrefully  determined,  and  thermo  and  physical  chemistry  under  the  leader- 
ship of  such  master  minds  a.s  l>erthol]et,  'riiomp.son,  V'an't  Ilolf,  and  Ostwald 
have  been  hrouj^ht  to  the  hi};hcst  degree  of  jterfection. 

The  chemist  now  does  not  consider  that  he  knows  any  1)ody  until  he  ki:o\vs 
tliorouKhly  its  relations  to  heat  and  to  eleotrieity.  Tlie  aetion  of  li;,dit  must 
also  \m\  included,  but  this  subject  will  be  more  thorouf,'hly  discussed  under 
1,'raphic  chemistry. 

The  nature  of  solrtions  has  also  been  developed  by  the  studies  of  Ost- 
wald and  Van't  Ifoff,  and  as  a  result  of  these  studies,  a  flood  of  liyht  has 
liccn  thr()wn  upon  the  constitiition  of  coiii])oiind  bodies. 

In  the  development  of  jihysical  clKJiiiistry,  attention  should  be  directed 
to  the  help  afforded  by  Newlands  flSCl)  and  Mendcdejeff  (1S<;<»)  and  others, 
showing  that  the  elements  form  groujjs  which  tend  to  recur  with  a  periodi- 
city which  is  suttieiently  definite  to  enable  the  investigator  to  foretell  to 
some  extent  the  i»ro])erties  of  the  elements  which  have  never  yet  been  dis- 
covered, and  whose  existence  is  necessary  in  order  to  till  up  the  gaps  in  exist- 
ing grou|)S. 

liy  this  method  the  existence,  atomic  weight  and  jtrojierties  of  scandium, 
gallium,  and  g(!rmanium  were  foretold  years  before  thcii'  discoveiy.  Such 
actual  realization  of  a  scientiHc-]iroi»hetic  method  is  one  of  the  strongest 


1  Uf 


ino 


TRWMI'llS  AM>    WONhEllS   OF  TIIIC  XIX'"  CENTUnY 


h'fi 


indications  of  tlio  basis  of  tacit  upon  wliicii  it  rt'sts.  Although  a  rigid  appli- 
catiou  ol'  thf  priiiciplcs  of  the  periodic  hiw  is  not  possihh'.  yet  its  discoverv 
and  (ilaboration  mark  one  of  tlie  great  forward  steps  of  chemical  ])hilosopliv. 

If  we  regard  any  material  system  by  itself,  i.e.,  independently  of  anv 
other  system  or  intiuence  by  which  it  may  be  surrounded,  \vc  recognize  it 
as  consisting  of  essentially  two  things,  —  matter  and  energy.  A  jirecisc 
detinitiou  of  eitiicr  matter  or  energy  is  ditticult,  if  not  impossible;  liiit 
wiiat  is  (!onnot(!d  by  these  names  is  sutticiently  well  inuh-rstood  by  their 
well-known  properties.  JJoth  energy  and  matter  are  essential  to  each  and 
every  system.  They  are  coexistent,  lii  the  light  of  hnmiin  experience,  wc 
cannot  concreivc  of  one  existing  witlumt  the  other;  and  in  the  study  of  any 
material  system,  consideration  of  one  of  these  components  without  the  other 
can  only  bt'  regarded  as  incomplete.  IJut,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  this 
lias  been  the  practice,  and,  generally  speaking,  chemists  have  concerned  them- 
selves with  mutter  changes  of  e(piilibria,  while  jihysicists  have  more  esjie- 
cially  directed  their  attention  to  energy  e(piilibria.  The  object  of  the  physical 
chemist  is  to  foUow  t'lpiilibria  changes  in  given  systems,  having  due  regard 
for  both  the  matter  and  energy  involved. 

]>erthollet  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  true  physical  chemist,  on  account 
of  his  classical  views  on  mass  action.  Largely  because  the  time  was  not  rijic 
for  it,  his  views  were  not  generally  ado]>ted. 

A  (piarter  of  a  century  later  (1S(>7).  (iuldberg  and  "NViiage  gave  a  ]>recisc 
mathematical  expression  of  the  law,  but  still  it  attracted  very  little  attention 
from  investigators.  A  tremendous  impetus  was  given  to  the  subject  by  the 
electrolytic  dissociation  theory  of  Arrhenius  (1SS7),  and  the  extension  of 
the  additive  laws  of  gases  to  dilute  solutions,  by  Van't  Hoff  (iSSo).  This 
was  but  a  comparatively  small  Held  in  the  subject,  but  it  stimulated  activity 
along  the  whole  line,  the  wonderful  increase  of  our  knowledge  concerning  the 
velocity  or  rates  of  reaction,  the  heat  changes  involve<l,  and  the  marvelous 
development  of  electrolytic;  chemistry  being  i)ertinent  instances. 

Tlie  generalization  of  (Jil)bs,  known  as  the  phase  rule  (ISTC)).  which  aco;- 
rately  states  the  condition  for  equilibrium  in  the  system,  and  the  Theorem  of 
Le  Chatelier  (1>S.S4),  that  any  change  in  the  factors  of  equilibrium  from  o\it- 
side  is  followed  by  a  reverse  change  within  the  system,  together  with  tlie 
mass  law,  now  give  us  a  consistent  theoretical  foundation  for  tlie  subject.  In 
general  terms,  it  may  be  said  that  all  chemistry,  at  least  all  theoretical  chem- 
istry, properly  belongs  to  the  province  of  ])hysical  chemistry,  and  the  title, 
while  in  many  ways  convenient,  is  misleading. 


i,  :     .     ! 


III.       OKCiANFO    CIlKMrsTUV. 

Comjiouiids  containing  carbon  enter  into  all  the  products  of  a  living 
cell.  For  this  reason  the  chemistry  of  carbon  compounds  came  to  be  known 
as  organic  chemistry.  This  should  not  be  taken  as  a  definition,  however, 
without  limitations.  ^lany  of  the  compounds  containing  carbon  are  not 
known  to  enter  into  living  tissue  in  any  way,  and  their  connection  witli 
jt  is  very  remote  and  not  essential.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  many  organic  compounds,  and  those  even  of  most  imjior- 
tance,  contain  some  other  element,  —  nitrogen,  for  example,  —  as  the  signifi- 
cant one.  « 


THE  cENruuY's  I'liuaniiss  in  ciiemisthy 


197 


tl  iipiili- 

ISCClVITV 

lusopliy. 

ui  iiuy 
i^Mii/f  it. 

jn'cfisc 
)le  ;    but 
l)V  tlii'ii 
'iich  mill 
onct'.  Wf 
.y  of  ;iny 
;lu'  otlicr 
'lice,  til  is 
it'd  tlu'iii- 
ure  esin'- 

|iliysio;il 

U'    I'l'^Mld 
II  ilOCdllUt 

s  nut  I'ilii' 

a  ])rpoisi' 

iittcution 

Bct  l)y  till- 

jciision  lit' 


r>) 


This 
activity 
iiing  tlif 
arvclous 


licli  accu- 

■Ol'ClU  i>t' 

roiii  mit- 
witli  the 
)iect.  In 
ical  chcm- 
the  tith'. 


a  liviui? 
le  kiujwii 
however. 
1  are  not 
tioii  Avitli 
ihould  tie 
Ist  iiiipor- 
lie  signiti- 
« 


While  nearly  all  tiie  known  elenieiits  can  enter  into  or^Mnic  conijiounds, 
the  vast  majority  ol'  such  suhstances  are  coin|Kise(l  ul'  hut  vei'y  lew.  P'or 
iiistaiuM',  thost!  classes  of  which  sugar,  starcii.  the  lats,  etc.,  are  exainples, 
contain  only  carlion,  oxy^jen,  and  iiydrotten.  Witii  nitroLteii,  snl|iliur.  and 
|ihosiihorus  added  to  these  elenients,  almost  the  entire  ran^c  of  organit; 
chemistry  is  <'overed.  ( )r,i,'anic  chem- 
istry, therefore,  differs  from  inor- 
ganic chemistiT  in  that,  while  the 
immherof  coni|ionnds  is  mucli  larger, 
the  niimher  of  elements  involved  is 
very  limited. 

Iierzeliiis  may  lie  regarded  as  hav- 
ing founded  organic  chemistry  in  the 
lieginning  of  this  century.  As  a 
result  of  his  analyses  of  the  salts 
iif  (irganic  acids,  he  clearly  demon- 
strated that  the  laws  of  dt!tinite  and 
iiiiilti|ile  ])r()]iortions  hold  etjUiilly  for 
organic  comiiounds  and  for  inorgiinic 
lilies.  The  work  of  this  master  was 
ahly  furthered  hy  Liel)ig(  l.S(i;'.-1S7:;), 
ulio  devised  most  elegiiut  methods 
fur  the  analytical  investigarion  of 
organic  compounds,  methods  wliich 
arc  in  use  to-day  without  any  essen- 
tial change. 

Very  soon,  however,  it  was  found 
that  organic  comiiounds  existed  hav- 
ing the  same  ])ereeiitage  comiiosition,  hijt  quite  dissimilar  propertie.s,  ])hysioul 
and  chemical,  as,  for  instance,  sugar  and  starch.  Other  striking  examples 
arc  I'araday's  discovery  (182;"))  of  ii  compound  identical  in  composition  with 
ethylene,  but  wholly  different  in  properties;  and  Wdhler's  classical  synthesis 
( liSliS)  of  urea  by  the  tr.ansformation  of  ammonium  cyanate.  Similar  facts  in 
the  domain  of  inorganic  chemistry,  though  now  well  known,  were  at  that 
time  wanting,  ami  thus  this  most  fruitful  idea,  designated  as  isomerism,  was 
introduced  into  the  science. 

The  next  great  step  was  the  introduction  of  the  theory  of  radicles,  first 
suggested  tentatively  by  l»erzelius  (IStO),  but  put  forward  in  a  definite  way 
as  one  of  the  results  of  the  classical  investigation  on  benzoyl  by  Liebig 
and  AVohler  (1S.S2).  That  is  to  say,  a  group  of  elenients,  or  radicle,  can 
pass  through  a  series  of  compounds,  from  one  to  the  other,  as  though  the 
group  were  one  single  element.  For  years  this  idea  was  the  guiding  priu- 
eiiile  in  cliemical  investigations,  and  was  most  useful  in  aiding  the  classifica- 
tion of  chemical  compounds  and  bringing  order  out  of  the  chaos  of  accumu- 
lating observations. 

lUit  the  search  for  radicles  was  in  a  sense  a  vain  one.  We  now  know  that 
no  radicle  exists  as  such  by  itself.  !Meanwhih',  Dumas  and  his  ]iupil  Laurent 
had  introduced  and  developed  the  theory  of  tyjies,  whereby  all  chemical  com- 
pounds could  be  classified  under  four  types,  which  marked  a  distinct  step  in 


MM  IIAKI,    I'AUADAV. 


:i! 


198 


TiiirMrns  axd  woyoKiis  of  the  x/x'"  centuhv 


W'n 


U 


advancp.  Laurent,  tof^t'tluT  with  his  coUcamu'  (hsrhardt  (lMl(J-lsr»(>),  n'oo^;- 
iii/.('(l  tiit>  sli(irt('i»miii;^'s  of  h(jth  the  radicle  and  type  theories  in  tiieir  earlier 
forms,  and  showed  their  inter-relation,  when  modified  so  as  to  do  away  with 
certain  inconsistencies. 

Dumas  had  het'ore  this  demonstrated  the  thectry  of  substitution  (1S.'M), — 
that  is,  that  in  certain  com|iounds  one  or  nu)re  of  the  elenu'iits  can  he  driven 
out  and  rejilaced  hy  others  without  cliau},'in^,'  the  esstuitial  characteristics  ot 
the  compound.  For  instance,  chloracetic  acid,  in  whidi  part  of  the  liydro),'en 
of  acetic  acid  has  been  replaced  by  chh)riue.  contains  all  the  essential  ciuirac- 
teristics  of  acetic  acid;  in  fact,  some  of  them  —  its  acidic  ])roperties,  for 
e.xample  —  hcin^'  markedly  accentuated.  This  theory  was  fiercely  assailed  at 
first,  notably  by  Liebi<i;.  Like  all  theories  of  sciencv*,  it  was  in  the  beginning 
])\ishcd  to  the  extreme,  and  put  forward  to  explain  things  to  which  it  was 
not  api>licable.  It  gradually  came  to  tlenu)nstrate  its  own  right  to  exist- 
ence, largely  as  a  result  of  the  work  of  l.aurent  and  (Jerluirdt,  and  made  its 
inHuence  felt  in  the  exposition  of  their  i(h'as,  to  which  reference  has  just 
been  made. 

Tlie  develo]inient  of  these  theories,  about  the  mi(hlle  of  the  century,  was 
greatly  hastened  by  the  work  of  many  brilliant  investigators,  notably  Wurtz 
'(1S17-1SS4).  Ilofmann  ( ISlS-lSiL'),  Williamson  (ISL'f-),  Kolbe  (l.SlS-l.SSI). 
and  Kranklaud  (1S2"»-)  among  others. 

Kekule  ]iroposed  a  new  type,  nuirsh  gas  or  methane.  Shortly  afterwards, 
liis  well-known  formula  for  benzene,  the  starting-jioint  and  foundation  of  tiic 
vast  class  of  aromatic  bodies,  was  proposed.  He  insisted  that  th»'  time  had 
eonu'  when  chemists  nnist  ask  what  those  ultimate  ])articlcs,  or  atoms,  of  the 
elements  themselves  were  (h)ing  in  these  compounds  of  various  types.  Tiic 
answer  was  a  grand  one,  and  the  result,  our  magnificent  store  of  information 
concerning  the  <'iinsf!fiif!oit  of  organic  compounds,  or  the  way  in  which  the 
atoms  are  connected  with  each  other.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  our  know- 
ledge on  this  sul)ject.  in  !iny  one  case,  is  complete.  Far  from  it  I  ]Much  that 
is  nu)st  interesting  and  important  is  apparently  as  remote  from  our  grasp  as 
ever.  But  we  do  know  something  about  the  general  relations  of  the  atoms 
in  the  molecule,  and  our  knowledge,  so  far  as  it  goes,  is  definite  and 
precise. 

Somewhat  later,  Van't  Hoff  and  Lebel,  at  the  same  time  but  indepen- 
dently, introduced  the  study  of  the  space  relations  of  organic  compoun<ls  by 
suggesting  the  simjjlest  jiossible  space  formula  (the  tetrahedron)  for  marsli 
gas  or  methane,  of  which  all  other  organic  compounds  may,  tluforctically  at 
least,  be  regarded  as  derivatives.  Many  inexplicable  relations,  especially 
anu)ng  isomers,  now  became  clear.  The  theory  was  at  first  bitterly  as- 
sailed, especially  by  Kolbe.  It  found  an  able  champion  in  Wislicenus 
(ISMS-),  however,  and  has  so  thoroughly  established  itself,  that  it  may  ln' 
safely  said  that  at  the  present  day  it  is  the  controlling  idea  in  the  large 
majority  of  organic  investigations. 

The  carbon  atom  is  characterized  by  a  wonderful  facility  in  uniting  not 
only  with  other  elements,  but  with  itself.  It  would  even  ai)i)ear  as  thougli 
its  influence  in  this  regard  extended  to  other  elements  united  with  it,  as  nitro- 
gen, for  instance,  shows  an  \inexpected  ability  to  unite  with  nitrogen  in 
organic  compounds. 


THE   CENrCUrS  PIlOailKSS  in  CUK\tISTUY 


100 


Fuvthur,  tlu'  oiirlx)!!  atcuii  in  cluiiiioU'ri/t'd  by  uii  unusually  (fonstaiit  valciioy, 
imint'ly,  tour.  Tiit'se  two  uliaractrristics  account  for  hojuolo^jy,  that  is,  tor 
a  Ncrics  of  similar  coin|iuun(lH  ililT'iiiig  in  coniposition  onv  ironi  the  other  l>y 
— CHa,  anil  cnahlcs  »is  to  ivwvi  hack  all  or},'anic  compounds  to  one  motiuu* 
.substance  —  marsh  f^as  or  methane. 

Tliese  ideas  have  also  been  moro  or  less  suecesstuUy  applied  to  the  study 
of  the  composition  of  inorganic!  compounds.  The  assistance  organic  chenii.s- 
try  has  >,'iven  to  the  geiu'ral  subject  is  incalculable.  Finally,  it  nuiy  be  .said, 
that  while  in  the  nature  of  the  case  our  ideas  of  structure  in  or,i,'anic  com- 
pounds  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved,  or  as  iu)t  subject  to  possible  future 
inoditioations,  wo  have,  at  least,  a  consistent  theory  and  good  working  hypo- 
thesis. A  homely  illustration  of  our  present  iih'as  may  be  drawn  from  the 
juodern  liigh  city  building.  The  skeleton  of  this  building  is  made  of  iron, 
about  which  are  grouped  the  brick,  stone,  wood,  and  other  materials  to  form  a 
complete  building.  So  the  organic  body  is  built  on  a  chain  or  frame-work  or 
.ikeleton  of  carbon  atoms,  about  which  are  grouped  the  atoms  of  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  or  radicle  (Hjinjiounds  thereof. 

It  is  not  |)ossil)le  here  to  even  name  some  of  the  more  eminent  workers 
who  for  a  ([uarter  (d'  a  century  have  contributed  to  our  knowledge  of  organic 
chemistry.  This  branch  of  chemistry  has  been  the  vogue,  and  has  been 
|iushed  almost  to  the  limit  of  possibility  since  ISTo.  Many  almo.st  unexjjlored 
lit'l  N  still  remain,  but  chemists  recogidze  the  fac^t  that  in  theory  and  practice 
or.  nic  chemistry  has  reached  a  high  (h'gree  of  perfection,  and  they  are 
returning  to  continue  the  researches  in  other  fields  which  have  for  .so  long 
been  almost  nt>glected. 

IV.       AN' AI,VTI('AI<    <  IIKMISTRV. 

No  branch  of  chemical  science  has  a  more  general  interest  for  the  ])nblic 
than  that  which  relates  to  the  determination  of  the  materials  of  which  bodies 
are  composed,  and  the  proportions  in  which  they  exist. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in 
tliis  branch  of  knowledge  by  the  researches  of  Hoyle  (l«L'(i-l(>!H  ),  Ilofl'mann, 
y[  irgraff  (17<>*.)-17.S()),  Scheele  and  P.ergmann  (17.'!rt-17S4).  I'.erzelius.  as  has 
already  been  mentioned,  had  adch'd  a  new  and  valuable  factor  to  chemical 
analysis  by  the  developinent  of  the  blowpipe,  and  in  the  early  jiart  of  the 
ccntiiry  mineral  analysis  was  still  further  advanced  by  Klaproth  (i74.')-l<S17), 
iiose  (17!).S-187.S),  and  many  others. 

No  one  man  ditl  so  much  to  advance  this  branch  of  chemical  science  as 
Krcsenius  (l(Sl.S-l,Si)7).  He  collated  and  proved  all  the  pro])osed  methods 
of  analysis,  both  (pialitative  and  (piantitative.  and  out  of  a  confused  mass  of 
material  formed  a  logical  system  of  procedure,  which  has  proved  invaluable 
to  the  progress  of  chemical  science  in  all  its  branches. 

The  volumetri(^  methods  of  analysis,  which  save  so  miu-h  time  and  labor 
without  sacrificing  accuracy,  were  develojjed  by  Gay-Lussac,  Vaucpieliu 
(17();}-1S70),  ^[ohr  dSOft-lsYo),  Volhard,  Sutton,  Fehling.  and  Liebig. 

The  methods  of  gas  analysis  have  been  worked  out  chiefly  by  Biinsen,  ably 
assisted  by  Winkler  and  Hempel. 

The  methods  of  determining  the  elementary  bodies  in  organic  compounds 
have  been  developed  by  Dumas,  Tiiebig.  Will,  Varrentrap,  and  Kjeldahl,  to  the 


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200 


rnifJMPIIS  AND   WOSDKRS  OF  THE  A/A'"'   CENTURY 


last  of  whom  clu'iuinal  analysis  owos  a  debt  of  ,u;ratitii(l(!  for  the  invention  ol 
a  sitecdy  and  at^onrah'  method  of  deterniininj,'  nitrogen. 

S'ot  nuu'li  lt>,ss  is  the  debt  due  to  (iooeh  for  the  invention  of  the  ])eiforati'ri 
](latinmu  erucible,  carry  ing  an  asl)estos  felt  for  seenring  precipitates  by  filtra- 
tion, in  a  form  suitable  to  ignition  without  further  jtrejuiration. 

'I'lirough  the  classie  researelies  of  Arago  (irSii-lS,"),'))  luul  IJiot  (1774-lS(>L'i. 

liolarized  light  has  been  made  a  most 
valuable  adjunct  to  chemical  r(;scarcli. 
serving  as  it  does  to  measure  the  (piau- 
tity  of  various  alkaloids,  essential  oils, 
and  sugars. 

l>ased  on  these  researches  of  Ilidt 
and  Arago.  Ventz-ke.  Soleil.  Scheiblcr. 
l)id)osc(i,  Landolt.  and  Lipjiich  have 
constructed  apparatus,  which  have  made 
an  exaet  science  of  optical  saccharime- 
try.  Ojitical  analysis  is  not  without  its 
relation  to  theoretical  chemistry,  for 
by  it  has  b-.'cn  ])r(ivcd  tlie  assumption 
that  optically  active  bodies  contain  iiii 
asymmetrical  carbon  atmn.  —  tha\  is. 
one  which  combines  with  four  ditfercni 
atoms  or  raxlicles. 

I']lectricitv  has  become  also  one  of 
the  most  useful  factors  in  chemicid  ana- 
Ivsis.  Manv  metals  are  easily  deiios- 
ited  by  electrolytic  action,  and  tlieir  sc[)aration  and  determination  rendered 
easy  and  certain. 

Chemical  analysis  has  not  only  given  lis  accurate  knowledge  of  the  consti- 
tuents of  matter,  but  by  revealing  the  deportment  of  molecules  and  groups 
of  molecules  in  inorganic  tind  organic  com))ounds,  has  opened  up  a  path  for 
organi(i  and  synthetic  chemistry  whitdi  otherwise"  must  have  remained  forever 
closed. 

The  discovery  and  develo])ment  of  s]iectrum  analysis  is  one  of  the  great 
achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  chemical  science. 

AVollaston,  in  ISOl*,  first  noticed  that  the  spectrum  of  the  sun's  light,  when 
greatly  magnified,  was  not  composed  of  colors  gradually  changing  from  one  to 
the  other,  biit  that  the  continuity  of  the  colors  was  interrupted  by  dark  bands. 
Kriinnhofer,  in  1S14,  had  made  a  map  of  the  solar  spectrum,  showing  ">"()  of 
these  dark  lines.  Fraunhof'cr  was  entirely  ignorant  of  the  cause  of  these  dark 
lines,  but  when  he  had  found  them,  not  only  in  the  light  from  the  sun,  but 
also  from  the  moon  and  the  fixed  stars,  he  pro|ierly  concluded  that  they  were 
due  to  som(>thing  entirely  inde])endent  of  the  earth. 

It  reniiiined  for  Hnnstui  and  Kirchoff,  in  1S()(),  to  point  out  the  fact  that 
these  dark  lines  were  characteristic  of  certain  chemical  elements  existing  in 
the  sun  ami  its  pliotosphere,  and  this  fact  is  the  foundation  of  s])ectrum  ana 
lysis.  The  broad  black  band  in  the  sun's  s]»ectrum,  called  by  Kraunhofer  I), 
corresponded  t>xactly  in  position  and  in  width  with  the  yellow  band  ])roduccil 
by  a  flame  containing  incandescent  sodium.     There  was  no  doubt  whatever. 


Wri.MAM   CKOOKKR.    K.    U. 


vm 


Tine   CENTURY'S  PJiOdnKSS  IN   CIIKMISTIIY 


'JOl 


tlu'i'ofore,  tliat  tlic  two  phiMionu'iia  were  (iiu-  to  thi>  sanu*  cause ;  luit  why  in 
tilt!  Olio  case  should  tho  band  ho  hhu;k  and  in  the  otlior  ycHow  '.'  Tliis  ques- 
tion was  answoi'od  by  the  discovery  of  the  tact  that  a  ray  of  liijht  colin-ed  hy 
incandescent  sodium,  ])assinj,'  throu^di  a  huninous  atniosphere  of  the  same 
luetal,  wouhl  lose  by  absorption  all  of  its  yellow  color,  and  would  display  a 
black  baiul  where  before  the  yellow  color  existed. 

I.ased  >ipon  this  obsi-rvation,  tht^  develojniient  of  s])ectrum  analysis  went 
forward  with  amazing  ra[)idity.  The  hundreds  of  lines  in  the  sun's  spectrum 
wore  found  to  occupy  exactly  the  position  of  huninous  lint  s  in  the  spectra,  of 
various  nu'tals,  and  thus  it  was  jiossiblc  for  the  chemist  to  extend  his  investi- 
gations beyond  the  limits  of  the  t-arth.  and  distinguish  the  chemical  elenu'uts 
in  the  sun  and  in  the  tixed  stars  billions  of  miles  farther  away  from  us  than  the 
sun  itself.     Celestial  chemistry  has  thus  become  a  tixed  and  detinite  science. 

i>ut  the  value  of  spectral  exaniiuatious  has  extended  still  farther.  Many 
huuiuons  lines  were  observed  in  the  spectrum  which  were  not  found  in  the 
spectra  of  any  known  elenu-nt.  The  inl'erence  then  higically  arose  that  theri* 
were  elements  yet  nndiscovt'red  to  which  these  lines  were  due.  l'"roin  this 
starting  |»oint  investigations  jiroccM'ded  whii-h  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  a 
large  nundtei'  of  tdementary  bodies.  .Among  th(>  impoitant  elenients  that  have 
been  discovered  by  nuMUS  of  s])cctrum  analysis  may  be  mentioned  :  cu'sium, 
rubidium,  thallium,  indium,  gallium,  ytterbium,  and  scandium. 

Spectrum  analysis  is  al.so  extrenudy  useful  in  proving  the  verity  of  su|i- 
jiosed  new  eleuuuits  ;  for  if  a  supjiosed  new  element  slididd  lie  found  to  give 
a  scries  of  spectral  lines  coincident  with  those  alreatly  known,  it  wmld  be  a. 
iKisitive  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  sup])osed  now  element  was  but  a  mixture 
of  bodies  already  kiH)wn  to  exist. 

V.       SYXTIIKTICAI.    ellKMISTKV. 

This  brandi  of  chemical  science  has  for  its  object  the  building  up  of  the 
more  complex  from  the  simider  forms  of  nnitter.  In  the  early  jmrt  of  the 
century.  Chevreul  and  Wiihlcr  laid  the  foundation  of  the  scienct>  by  the  syn- 
thesis of  fattydiko  bodies  and  urea.  UertheUot  and  Kriedel  ( iS.'tL'-)  in  Kram-e, 
and  Williamson  and  Kranklaiid  in  ICnglaud,  added  much  to  o\ir  knowledge. 
Kolbe.  in  CJermany,  made  salicylic  acid  so  abundantly  as  to  banish  the 
natural  article  from  the  market.  The  synthesis  of  coloring  matters  resem- 
Ming  indigo  was  also  a  grt-at  blow  to  that  industry.  I-^rom  the  products  of 
the  distillarion  of  coal,  chemists  were  able  to  make  thousands  of  valnabb- 
Imdies  of  the  greatest  utility.  .Many  medicinal  substances  ami  m-arly  all  the 
loiumon  dyes  trace  their  origin  to  coal. 

f'ischer  (b.  ISoL'),  in  (iermany.  has  contributed  his  remarkable  results  in 
the  synthesis  of  sugar  to  the  last  years  of  the  century.  !^illienf(dd,  in 
Austria,  has  gone  still  further,  and  has  built  up  a  body  winch  has  many  of 
the  ]U'o[)erties  of  ])rot(dn.  one  of  the  most  highly  orgaiuzed  of  orgaiuc  sub- 
stances. 

In  the  inorganic  Avorhl  synthesis  is  not  so  dithciilt  a  matter  ;is  the  vast 
luuuber  of  comjionnds  attest.  I!y  means  of  the  electric  furnace.  .Moissan,  in 
l"rauce,  has  siuiceeded  in  uiuting  carbon  with  many  of  the  nu'tallic  elements, 
;ind  thus  opened  the  jKitli  for  new  achievements  in  passing  directly  from  inor- 
ganic to  organic  comjuninds. 


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202 


TIUUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


The  progress  of  cliemical  syntliesis  lias  already  blotted  out  the  old  distinc- 
tion between  inorganic  and  organic  chemistry,  and  we  can  no  longer  say  of 
organic  bodies  that  they  are  the  products  of  living  cells.  Organic  bodies  are 
those  which  contain  a  carbon  or  other  elementary  skeleton,  to  which  are  at- 
tached the  elements  or  groups  of  ele- 
ments forming  the  complete  body. 

The  clai)n  which  has  been  made  that 
synthetical  crhemistry  would  in  the  near 
future  produce  the  food  of  man,  and 
thus  relegate  agriculture  to  the  domain 
of  the  useless  or  forgotten  arts,  is,  how- 
ever, wholly  without  scientific  founda- 
tion. The  function  of  the  farmer  will 
not  be  usurped  by  the  chemist.  The 
future  will  see  the  most  important  con- 
tril)utions  to  chemistry  coming  from  the 
field  of  organic  chemistry,  but  it  will 
also  see  the  farmer  following  in  the  fur- 
row, and  man  depending  for  his  food  on 
the  fields  of  waving  grain. 


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silt    llKNltV    HKSSEMKK. 


VI.      MKTAI.MIMiK'AL    (  IIKMISTRY. 

This  is  the  oldest  branch  of  chemical 
science,  and  naturally  the  one  whicli 
was  furthest  advai.ced  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Xevertheless,  tlic 
advances  wliicdi  the  ]iast  one  hundred  years  have  seen  in  this  science  are 
most  surprising,  (lold  and  silver  are  now  secured  from  ores  so  poor  as  tn 
have  rcMuhu'cd  them  of  no  value  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  IJessemer  i)rocess 
of  steel  making  (18r»())  has  revolutionized  the  world,  and  made  possible  rail- 
roads and  steamshijjs.  The  basic  liessemer  process  of  making  steel  from 
pig-iron  rich  in  i)liosphorus,  has  opened  up  rich  mines  of  iron  ore  hithertci 
valueless.  The  basic  ])liosi)hatic  slag,  resulting  from  this  process,  is  of  tlif 
highest  value  in  the  fields,  and  has  brought  agriculture  and  metallurgy  into 
intimate  relationship.  The  electric  furnace  has  made  aluminium  almost  as 
cheap  as  iron,  bulk  for  bulk,  and  electric  welding  bids  fair  to  take  the  place 
of  the  old  process,  with  the  cheaiiening  of  metals. 

VII.     AOKH'ILTIUAI.    CIIKMlSTHV. 

Sir  >ruiiii)hrv  Davy,  in  the  beginning  of  the  century,  delivere<l  a  course 
of  lectures  on  the  relations  of  chemistry  to  agriculture,  and  these  were  j»uli- 
lislied  in  book  form.  In  France,  iin])ortant  contributions  were  made  to 
agricultural  chemical  science  by  Vauquelin,  ("hevrenl  (17S((-l<SSi)).  and  l>ou< 
singault  (ISOL'-IS.ST),  who  made  imjtortant  researches  before  the  middle  nl 
the  century.  The  most  inqtortant  work  in  agricultural  chemistry,  however, 
was  done  by  Liebig.  His  achievements  so  overshadowed  tho.se  of  his  ]ire- 
decessors  that  he  is  generally  regarded,  although  imi)ro])erly,  as  the  fatlic 
of  that  branch  of  the  science. 

The  early  acliievements  of  these  workers  showed  the  relatively  small  jkh 
tions  of  the  crops  that  were  derived  from  the  soil.     The  study  of  the  asl' 


THE  CENTURY'S  PROGRESS  IN  CHEMISTRY 


i03 


onstituents  of  plants  laid  tlio  foundation  of  rational  fertilizing,  and  the 
tilization  of  the  stores  of  plant  food  preserved  in  great  natural  deposits. 
IJeginning  with  tlie  middle  of  the  century,  the  attention  of  agronomists 
as  called  to  the  desirability'  of  utilizing  the  deiiosits  of  guano,  found  in  the 
lands  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America ;  of  the  deposits  of  phosphate 
.)ck  existing  in  many  localities;  and  lat«'r,  of  the  potash  salts,  disciovered 
car  Stassfurt,  which  completed  the  trio  of  available  natural  foods  most 
seful  to  plants. 

The  establishment  of  an  agricultural  experiment  station  by  Sir  John  Lawes 
;:t  Rothamstead  (1<S,'}4),  before  the  middle  of  the  century,  set  an  example 
V.  hich  has  been  followed  by  the  establishment  of  ex[)erimeut  stations  in  all 
tiie  civilized  countries  of  the  world. 

Under  the  great  stinuilus  given  to  agricultural  research  by  these  stations, 
]'rngress  during  the  latter  half  of  the  century  has  been  very  rapid.  There 
1,1  iw  exist  in  Europe  nearly  one  hundred  stations  devoted  to  agricultural 
ri  search,  aiul  in  this  country  the  number  is  half  as  great. 

Conspicuous  achievements,  marking  the  closing  years  of  the  century,  have 
lii't'ii  the  discovery  of  the  nu>thods  whereby  organic  nitrogen  is  rendered 
suitable  for  plant  food,  and  atmospheric  nitrogen  fixed  and  rendered  avail- 
jil>le  by  leguminous  ]ilants.  In  the  first  instance,  it  has  been  established  that 
(n>;anic  nitrogen  in  the  soil  can  only  be  utilized  by  plants  after  it  has  been 
oxidized  by  bacterial  action.  Jn  tlie  case  of  leguminous  plants,  nitrogen  is 
rendered  available  for  nutrition  by  means  of  bacteria  inliabiting  nodules  in 
tlie  roots  of  the  legumes.  These  two  great  discovei'ies  havt>  proveil  of  incal- 
culable benefit  to  practical  agriculture.  (Jhemical  science  in  its  relations  to 
a,i,Miculture  has  shown  that  the  feitil- 
ily  of  the  soil  may  be  con.served  and 
increased,  while  the  magnitude  ol'  the 
01(1] )s  harvested  is  sustained  or  aug- 
nit'iited.  Thus,  no  matter  how  rapid 
may  be  the  increase  of  jiopulation,  agri» 
cultural  chemistry  will  provide  abun- 
dant food. 

VIII.     (illAIMIIC    (  IlKMISTIiV. 

The  honor  of  discovering  that  jtrints 
could  be  made  by  the  action  of  light  on 
ccrrain  salts,  such  as  t.iose  of  silver, 
lielongs  to  Daguerre.  in  IS.'W. 

'i'hc  fundamental  principle  of  grajihic 
clicniistrv  is  that  metallic  salts,  sensi- 
tive to.  the  light,  when  in  contact  witli 
oiLranic  matter,  suft'er  a  complete  or 
]iartial  reduction  and  are  rendered  iu- 
soinble.  The  intensity  of  the  reduc- 
tion is  measured  exactly  l)y  the  iutensily  of  the  light.  When  light  is 
ivHected  from  any  object  cajiable  of  producing  diirereiit  degrees  of  iiileiisiiv, 
as  from  the  hair  and  face  of  a  man,  the  reduction  of  tlie  metal  is  greatest 
b\  tlu'  liglit  from  that  portion  of  the  iihysiognomy  which  gives  the  greatest 


i.oiis  .1  A(  (jri;s  i)A<iri;itui;. 


I* 


|i 


1    ■ 

1  II 


li%\ 


p!  '^ 


ill  .;m= 


i:l:yi 


! 


I 


i  * 


•.>0I  rUIIMI'HS    AM)    ]\()MH:i{S    or    the    Xism   CEM'l  HY 

rrllcclidii.     Tlius,  wlitMi   tin'  iinri'iliiccii   iiiclnllic  sjill    is  Wiislit'd  out,  ii  pcriii;! 
iiciit  rt'covtl,  tlic  m'j;;itiv(',  of  I  lie  olijiM't  is  Iclt. 

It,  is  a  long  sl)'|i  IVoin  llir  tirsl.  (liii,Mi('rn'oty|M'  l,o  llic  modern  |iliol,ogiii|ili, 
l)nt  tin'  priiK'iplf  oi'  llif  process  liiis  ii'niiiiiuMl  nnt'liiuiKt'd. 

I'litxoLji'iil''"^  '"  "iitinai  colors  liiivc  oT  liilc  vt'iirs  liccn  oiilainrd.  Oim' 
nu'lliod  is  hy  inliM'iiosin.i;-  a  film  of  niclallic  ini'icnrv  lu'liind  tin-  smsitiM' 
|ilalt'  wliit'li  nnist.  1m'  transparent.  Tlie  relleeted  rays  oi  liglit.  liaviii;;-  dit'lri 
<'nl  wave  leni;tlis.  pre<'ipitate  tlie  metal  in  snpeiimposed  lilms,  eorrespondiii'. 
to  tlie  \va\e  or  liall'-\\a\e  leni^tli.  Wlien  a  iie,i:ative  t.luis  i'ormed  is  seen  ii\ 
vetleeli'd  liglit.  the  enier,<,n'nt.  ra \  s  Irom  the  superimposed  lilms  aetiiej;  ,\. 
minors  an'  tianstcirmed  into  the  oris^inal  etdors  u\  the  phot(tfj;rapheil  olijeel 

'The  various  methods  of  iirinliu}^  hy  heliotypes,  photojil  hotjraphs.  pholci 
gravuies,  ele..  are  illustralitins  of  the  application  o\  )i\\v\)\\u'  chemistry  to  tin- 
arts, 

IN.    i)ii>A(Tic  (  ni:>iisriiv. 

The  lectures  of  Davy  and  i-'araday  in  I'liiijland.  of  Wiihler  and  laehii^  in 
(ieiniany.  ol  Chevreul  and  |)umas  in  l'"rance.  and  of  Silliman  (I771I  •lil, 
in  this  country,  made  tlie  stinly  of  cliemistiy  attract  ive  and  eas\  dinin;,  'lir 
early  part  of  the  ci-nlury. 

it  was  noticed,  however,  that  the  students  who  linisheil  these  coiirsr,. 
while  well  versed  in  the  principles  of  the  sciciii'e.  were  not  idile  to  appl\ 
them  in  practice.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  <'enlury.  therefiue,  a  radii;il 
ehant^e  in  the  sy-tem  of  insfrnction  was  iiiaii!i;uratod.  The  student,  was  piil  to 
wiu'k  and  tau,u:hl  to  (|uestiou  nature  tor  himself.  'I'he  universit  ies  of  l''raiicc> 
and  (iermany  were  ('(pupped  with  workini;  desks  where  students  of  cliemistiy 
]>ut  into  practice  at  once  the  principles  (d'  the  science  which  lliey  heard  ehiii 
dated  in  the  lecture  room.  Cooke,  at  Harvard,  was  the  (diief  iipost.le  of  tlir 
lalxu-atory  method  in  tliis  country,  and  this  method  of  instruction  has  now 
sjiread.  until  even  the  lii,s,di  and  grammar  S(diools  have  their  (diemieal  laliora 
torics. 

Ill  our  universities,  students  may  now  liegin  their  (diemieal  studies  asso- 
ciated with  lahoratorv  ]tractice  in  the  first  year  of  their  course,  and  conliniii' 
it  to  the  end.  (iraduates  of  such  courses  are  not  only  gnunuh'd  in  the 
theorit>s  of  chemist  ry.  lint  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  its  practice,  rinlir 
this  syst(Mn.  coupled  with  the  demand  for  (diemieal  services  in  every  hraiidi 
of  industry,  the  number  (d'  trained  (diemists  has  speedily  increased.  .\t  this 
time  t  IS'.tih  tliere  are  nnu'c  than  four  thousand  trained  chemists  in  the  rnilcil 
States. 


\.     (  IIKMISTHV    OV    KKl!Air.NT.\rioN. 


Our  knowh'dge  id'  fermentation  and  bacterial  action  is  ]>ra('ti('ally  all  ( 


Olll- 


]>rise<l   in   the  a(diievements  td'  the  nineteenth  century.      Prior  to  this  time  il 


w 


as  known  that  fermentation  to(d\   place,  but.  its  causes  and  (diaractcr 


wholly  mysterious.  The  great  work  of  Pasteur  ( ISiV.*)  resulted  in  the  Iih  i 
that  termentations  were  chietly  caused  by  the  activity  of  living  ctdls,  whicli 
have  the  cajiaeity  (d'  reproduction.  The  most  common  form  (d'  fermeiitatii'ii 
is  that  whereby  sugar  is  converted  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  Tli, 
name  of  the  organism  that  jn'odiices  this  (diange  is  s(irr/iiiri)iiii/rrs  rrrm'si'in . 

.\nother  class  of  tVrmeutation  is  seen  in  the  process  (d'  digestion.     Th  > 
species  of  fermontatioii  is  tyiiitiod  by  the  action  of  sprouted  barley  on  starcli. 


77//!;  cijixri/nvs  rhux.iiKss  ia  ciiEMismv 


•jon 


'SC   cnlirsrs, 

Ic  to  iilMilv 
■('.  ii  imiIIimI 
t,  WHS  pul  lo 
s  of  l''i';iiH'i' 
)!'  clu'inislrx 
lit'iiril  cliiii 
tsUf  of  IIm' 
oil  lias  now 
liiciil  liilioia 

Indies  nsso- 


(TV  nriini'ii 


Ills  lime  il 


licrt'liy  tlif  sfaicli  is  coiivcrltMl  iiilo  siij^ar.  'I'lic  iictivc  prin('i|il<'  of  tlic 
iliva,  piyaliii,  liiis  Mio  saint'  iiropcrty,  and  wlicn  Hlandiy  liodifs  arc  inaHli- 
,ii('<l,  a  parf,  at  least,  (d'  llic  sfairli  wliirli  Miry  eontaiii  is  ronverlfd  into 
iinar.  TIm"  active  principle  (d'  mall  is  known  as  diastase,  and  tliis,  as  well 
;  ptyalin,  bidongs  to  a  classed'  fcinicnts 
.|ii(di  arc  iiutapalilc  of  rcprodnclion. 
All  the  (lecoinpositJoMH  of  oi>i;anie  niat- 
■r,  siicli  as  tlie  decay  of  meats  and  vc^r- 

'  lahli's,  itrc  now   known   to  lie  forms  of 

Ic'i'iiicnfation.  due  to  tlie  art  ion  of  ccit.a.iii 

I'l^janisiiis  known  by  tJic  ^roiip  name  (d' 

l.actcria.      Tliis  discdvery   led   naturally 

I'p  t.lic  process  of  | 


f  id'cscrvin 


)j 

i 

r-  ^ 

II 

I^^^B    ^f^^- 

■0* 

m^^3r 

y  -    \ 

HriNr\ 

I.       ij 

^^niSuL^  V  ti 

.. 

tItww^^^M 

^k 

^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

■ 

ff  orj^anic.  coin- 

iiinds  liy  sterili/atrion.  'I'lic  piinci|des 
I'll  wliicli  this  process  depends  arc  vci'y 
Miiiple.  If  an  organic  liody,  siiidi  as  a. 
Iiiiit  or  venctaJile,  he  sniijccted  for  some 
lime  to  a  lii^li  teinpcrat inc.  —  that  of 
iiiiiliii},'  water  will  iisiiallv  siillice.  —  tlie 
leriiicntation  germs  whieii  it  contains 
will  be  destroyed.  If  then  it  be  sealed 
in  siiidi  a  way.  either  hermetically  or 
with  a  )tlng  of  sterilized  eotttni.  so  that  no 
living  germ  can  rca,cli  it,  decomposition 

cannot  take  place.  Certain  <dieniieals,  such  for  inslance  as  sali(\ylic  acid  and 
jiirmaldeliytle,  have  the  property  <d'  paralyzing  or  suspending  germ  action, 
,iiid  hence  organic  bodies  treated  witJi  these  snl)Mtaii<'cs  may  also  be  pro- 
ti'ctt'd  against  decomposition. 

'I"he  activity  .of  fermentation  is  made  use  (d'  in  the  tc(dlni(^'ll  ails,  i'licatl  is 
made  light  by  fermentation,  and  wine,  beer,  and  cider  are  made  by  tic  fcr- 
iiiciitation  of  fruits  and  grains.  Alcohol  is  produced  by  the  fernicntation  of 
grains  ami  potatfK's,  their  standi  having  previously  been  converted  into  sugar 


i.oriH  I'AHri.mi. 


IV  ma 


It. 


Ibichner  has  latcdy  shown  that  all  fcriiieiitatioii  is  of  one  kind,  namely, 
that  due  to  ferments  <d'  the  diastase  tyjie.  The  fermentation  produced  by 
yi'ast,  for  instance,  is  not  due,  a(!(!ording  to  his  observations,  to  the  living 
cells,  but  to  the  ]irodiicts  (d'  their  atdivity.  I'.y  destroying  yeast  c(dls,  by 
grinding  and  high  pressure,  and  using  their  contents,  he  has  secured  a 
vigorous  fermentation  similar  in  every  res|)cct  to  that  (tan.scd  by  tln^  cell.s 
tlicmsclves. 


,\i.    K.i,i;(  Ti!o-(  iii;\nsri!V. 


Tlit^  (dpctric.  furnaco,  wliiidi  affords  a  higher  heat  than  (dieniists  had  been 
aide  to  secnns  has  been  tin-  promoter  of  great  advances  in  inorganic  chemis- 
try.    Moissan  (b.  lcSr»L'),  a   Krencdi  (diemist,  has  been  the  most  siicftessfiil   in 

One  of  the   iirai^tical   rt'siilts  whicrli  has   come   from   these  studies  has  been 


iplying  the  licat  of  the  (dectric  furnace  to  analytic  and  .synthetic  studies. 


till'  virtual  bridging  over  of  the  chasm  whiidi  has  been  siipjiosed  to  exist 
between  organic  and  inorganic  componnds.  Cnder  the  intliience  of  the  heat 
tif  the  electric  furnace,  carbon,  whiidi  is  the  keystone  of  organic  compounds, 


JK 


i 


IH 


!i 


»•  ^  y 


]  ! 


Si, 

I'' .  in 

liiil; 


111' 


•  T''    !        'I 


.  ct^S^. 


1 

i 

'   \^^ 

lj 

11!^ 

1            ;   i::l 

ao6 


rillUMPHS  AND    WONDEIiS   OF   THE   XIX"^  CENTURY 


lias  boeii  iiiiuli'  to  ('oinbiiu'  diroctly  with  tlu*  motals,  terming  a.  scries  of  bodies 
known  as  inctallic  carbides.  The  earbi(h'  of  calciuin,  under  tlic  action  ol 
water,  yields  a  yas  known  as  acetyhuie,  wliich  by  a  series  of  reactions  can 
be  converted  into  alcohol.  Thus  alcohol,  which  only  a  short  time  ago  wa^ 
supposed  to  be  solely  the  product  of  organic  life,  is  shown  alst)  to  result  from 
a  simple  inorganii;  reaction  such  as  has  been  shown  above. 

The  importance  of  electrolysis  in  inetallurgi(;al  and  analytical  cheniistrv 
has  already  been  noticed.  So  rajtid  has  been  the  ju'ogress  along  these  lines 
tiiat  the  terms  nu'tallurgical  chemistry  and  electro-chemistry  are  in  some 
respects  almost  synonymous. 

Electricity  has  also  been  employed  in  many  of  the  chemical  arts;  e.  ;/.,  in 
the  ])romotion  of  (n'vstallization  and  purification  of  organic  solutions  as  j)rac- 
ticed  in  the  sugar  industry. 

•  '((NCMSION. 

There  is  no  branch  of  science  that  holds  such  an  intimate  relation  to  the 
progress  and  welfare  of  man  as  chemistry.  First  of  all,  it  is  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  providing  him  with  food  and  clothing,  as  has  been  shown  in  tin' 
paragraph  on  agricultural  chemistry,  in  the  second  plact*  it  has  extended 
liis  domain  over  matter  and.  in  connection  with  physics,  has  established  the 
identity  of  the  composition  of  the  universe  witli  that  ol'  the  earth.  The 
universe  has  thus  been  shown  to  be  of  a  single  origin  and  of  uniform  pro- 
perties, liy  understanding  the  constitution  of  matter,  with  which  he  is 
surrounded,  nmn  is  able  to  utilize  to  the  best  advantage  the  material  at  his 
disposal.  Thus  invention  is  promoted  and  the  a])plication  of  chemical  know- 
ledge in  the  arts  extended.  With  every  step  forward  of  this  nature,  the 
power  of  man  to  secure  bread  is  increased,  and.  under  the  favorable  environ- 
ment which  the  study  of  chemistry  has  created,  the  physical  and  intcUeotua! 
condition  of  nnin  has  been  improved.  With  a  wider  view  of  natural  phc 
nomena  and  a  nnn-e  complete  control  of  them,  the  intellectual  and  spiritiiul 
life  of  nnin  is  widened  and  strengthened,  and  the  principles  of  equality, 
justice,  and  liberty  more  firmly  established. 

Habvey  W.  Wilky. 


THE   CENTURY'S   MUSIC   AND   DRAMA 

I.    MI'SIC. 

MiHic  Hiids  its  liiLjhcst  iirtistic  dcvt'lopiiu'iit  in  tlw  liiippy  ('Ouil)iiiiiti(>ii,s 
\vlii(Oi}j;()  to  luakf  up  tin;  o|u'rii.  'I'licsc  coiiihiuiitioiis  jiiisstMl  tlirouyli  various 
liistoric  stages,  antl  vijiciicd  into  iiol)lc  maturity  l)y  t\w.  mid  of  the  ci^'htccutli 
(I'litury,  under  the  f^uidiii}f  <(fnius  ol'  tlic  Ihmdids,  .Mo/arts,  and  (ihuiksof  tlu' 
I  inu'S.  Their  lef^acy  |)assed,  in  tlie  niiieteentii  century,  to  a  host  of  wortiiy  sue- 
cessors,  aniouf,'  whom  stands,  as  a  (central  tif^nn;,  Vtu'di,  the  f;reat  Italian  oper- 
iitio  eoniposer;  whih' Waf^ner.  ol'(}ermany,  lias  striven  witli  liereiilean  niiiflit 
to  revolutiuni/e  the  lyrical  drama  by  polemical  writiii^^  by  twofold  author- 
slii|»  of  words  and  notes,  and  by  a  new  apitlication  of  jirineiphis  gathered 
tidin  antecedent  reformers.  His  efforts  iirodmuul  a  (iomniotion  in  tlu^  art 
world  which  mi,t;lit  be  eompanMl  to  tliiit  excited  by  the  rivalry  between 
Unonocini  and  Handel  in  liomlon,  or  I'iiMMiii  and  (iluck  in  Paris,  but  for  the 
tact  that  in  each  of  these  instances  the  oontention  was  between  one  (^miposer 
iind  another,  whereas  in  the  cas((  of  NN'aj^ner  it  was  tli(^  ()p|)osition  of  one 
(■(im]ioser  to  all  others  in  the,  world,  save  the  few  who,  believing,'  in  the  man. 
Ills  teacliinjj;s,  and  his  wonderful  powers  of  appli(!ation,  undertook  propa- 
.i,'aiidisiii  as  a  duty,  and  ench-avored  to  make  proselytes  to  their  faith.  He 
(lid  not  liv(^  to  set;  the  day  when  his  efforts  could  be  called  conii)letely  siu;- 
cessful,  ijiid  his  death  in  l.S,S,'Meft  jndf^iiient  (piite  wide  open  as  to  his  theo- 
retical and  ])ra(!tical  merits.  The  nineteenth  century  closes  with  tlit;  (piestion 
still  on  as  to  the  jiermanencc^  or  evanescen(!e  of  his  many  unique,  ponderous, 
and  revolutionizing  productions. 

Verdi,  who  still  lives,  surpasses  all  the  comjiosers  of  hi.s  time  in  the  beauty 
(if  his  melodies  and  the  intensity  of  his  dramati(!  power. 

Kossini,  whos(!  "  (Juillaume  Tell,"  which  was  jiroduced  in  I'aris  in  ISL'K, 
was  his  masterpiece,  ruled  the  ojieratic  world  before  Verdi,  until  he  died  in 
I'aris  in  18«;,S. 

Meyerbeer,  whose  principal  o])eras  are  "  Les  Huguenots."  •'  Lt>  I'rophete," 
and  "L'Africaine ''  (the  latter  i)rodueed  in  Paris  in  ISCm,  the  year  after  its 
composer's  death),  was  regarded  as  a  remark.nlde  composer,  whose  knowledge 
(.f  effect  was  unsurpassed,  and  whose  tine  intelligence  and  musical  knowhulge 
almost  made  the  world  forgive  him  for  frerpient  lack  of  ins])iration. 

Ilalcvy,  whose  only  lasting  success  was  "La  .Inive,"  conqiosed  other 
operas,  such  as  "  Charles  VI.,"  "  La  Heine  d(^(;hy])re,"  "  L' Eclair,"  and  "  Les 
Mous(i\u'taires  de  la  Heine,"  that  achieved  a  certain  amount  of  success  in 
1'" ranee,  which  success  was  interrupted  by  Halevy's  death  at  Nice  in  1S(>1,*. 

(Jounod,  in  lSr»9.  made  his  most  remarkable  success  with  his  greatest 
epera,  ''  Faust,"  which,  after  the  subject  had  been  treated  by  Sjiohr,  Liiid- 
painter,  Schumann,  Berlioz,  .and  other  distinguished  composers,  has  remained 
the  (mly  completely  successful  opera  on  the  subject,  although  Hoito's  "Metis- 


>i 


JIM 


.« 


m\ 


m 


•_'(»s        iL'iiMi'iis  .i.v/>  noMnais  or  the  mx'"  iiisiritY 


lilt'"  (;innl  lii'i' vcrsimi  of  tlic  siilijccn  ;  I'liicvnl  :i  iiiiiiki'd  si 


irccss 


ill  It 


il\   III 


iNtiS,  1111(1  |il;ic('(l  rnulu  illllnii;^  t  1:  i  rllllirl<;ililc  ('()lll|itisris  til  tlictliiy.  As  tnl 
( itiiiimil.  Ills  til  liiT  (i|it'r;is  iii'vtM' ('i|ii;ilt'il  liis  "  l'"imst ."  Ni'Xl  in  nii'ril  fiiiiit'^ 
••  ili'iiutt  t'l  .lulit'llf"  (  iMtiiluft'tl   ill  I'liris  in  |S(I7)  .iiitl   iIhmi   liis  ••  Miifiilc," 

wliifli  ;i|i]ic;in'il  in  ISCil.  iintl  '•  riiiltiiinii 
ct  I'niiit'is."'  ;in  t'\i|iiisili'  lit  lie  fiiinic  ()|i('i;i 
|)r(itintM>(i  in  iS(l(i.  His  last  (i|M'ra.  ••  I,r 
'rriliiil   (If    /aintna.""    was    irivi'ii    at    llif 


(iraiitl  npcra.  I'aris.  in  ISSI.  ami    lailfil. 
huni/i'lli.    wliii    (lifil    in    rvt'iuanm    in 


ISIS. 


Itif    iiiaiiv    vi-ar 


s   tine   (1 


I'   111 


iiH'str  |iti|iular  ii|ii'ratif  ('(iiii|)(isi'is.  lit' 
|nisst'ssftl  iintltiiilili'tl  aliilily.  liut  wintr 
(Ni,rclfssl\ .  as  the  Italians  diil  in  tlial 
ilay.  r>iit.  liis  ti|n'ras  ftmlain  niiirli  that 
is  ImmiiI  il'iil.  and  til'ti'ii  slitiw  lint'  ilia 
iiialif  |H)\\('r.  His  "laifia"  ftmlaiiis 
inspirril  paLit's.  wliili'  titlicr  |HirtitMis  arc 

It'    saiiir 


int'Sfiisahlv    ftiiiinitinplat'c 


V 


I'l'iiiark    a|i|ili('s    In    liis    "  laitTf/ia    I! 


^'la.      " 
K'flian 


\m     l"'av(irit 


anil 


Ml 


na    tl 


tiirsKi'i'i;  viatni. 


Willie  111  Ins  coniit'  ii|)rras, 
siit'li  as  "Htiii  Pastjiialc "  (wliicli  was 
('iiiii|ittst'd  in  tliri'i'  wct'Us),  liis  "1/  l''.li 
siro  d' Amort' "  ami  '•  La  I'illo  dii  lu'nimt'iit,''  I)tiiii/.i'lt  i  appears  to  lielter 
atlvanlagt'.  'I'liey  are  meltiditms  and  verv  ai^reeahly  written.  His  Icrlility 
may  lie  iiiiat;iiieil  when  ynii  aie  tnltl  that  he  enmposed  over  sixty  o|i(>ras  dm 
in<;-  his  career,  as  weil  as  other  eonipositioiis. 

liellini.  whose  eareer  was  a  short  one.  as  he  was  horn  in  ISOL'  and  dietl  in 
IS.'),"),  was  badly  traiiietl  ami  foultl  not  lie  ealled  a well-sehooleil  niiisii-ian.  heiii^ 
rather  a  nuisifian  hy  instinct,  lint  he  possessed  reinarkahle  altil'ty.  and,  per 
et^iviiiij;  that  the  persistently  llorid  style  of  IJossini  (which  all  the  (Mimposers 
of  that  time  lilimlly  iinitaled)  was  approachin.L;  an  eml.  treatcil  his  melodic- 
wit  h  a  sim|)licit\  ami  dirt'ctness  that  at  once  attracted  attention  and  met  wil  li 
ai>proval. 

rx'llini's  knowlt'il'^t' of  instrumentation  was  childish.  \m\    his   iiiliiiiacv  wit  li 


Hubini.  the  famous  tenor,  aitletl  him 


III  acli 


ieviii"'  an  admirable   freatiiieiit 


■.111 


the  voice.  His  operas  were  very  sweet  ami  inelodions.  The  two  operas  1> 
which  he  will  be  rememberetl  are  '•  l.a  Sonnambula  ""  and  "Norma."  th 
latter  being,  with  all  its  faults,  a  s^reat  opera. 

Another  talented  ami  prolitic  ojieratic  composer  was  Mercailaiite.  wlm,- 
"11  (iiurainentt) "  (prodiiceil  in  1S;!7)  aehievetl  consiilerable  popularity.  I 
Mei'i'atlante's  successes  wer(>  i^'cnerally  continetl  to  Italy.  He  composeil  sixt; 
ojieras.  ami  ilied  in  IS7(*  in  Naples. 

I'onchielli.  who  was  born  in  1S.'!1  ami  dietl  in  1SS(!,  will  be  jirinfipal!; 
remeinbered  by  his  remarkably  beautiful  opera,  "  l.a  (iiocomla"  (  proiliit  >. 
in  1S7<)).  which,  toj^ether  with  a  re-written  version  id'  his  lirsf  opera,  '•  I   1''' 


t'ssi  Sposi."  i^ave  him  ureat  popularity  in  Italy  ami  spread  his  reimtati 


ni 


other  countru 


on 


i"3 


U\\  I 


ll 


1 1 


I     > 


,    i  .:'*:^„^ti'i'^C.'s''  'i^vsKi**!!--.  .vrM 

2 

■     > 

j 

!. 

t 

:  m 

] 

1 

-  .1 
■■■■■M 

i 

K  J 

>        '^^ 

'  w. 

V 

/  t  W'fe;^ 

j 

'   n 

h 

4     '.-..itML. 

/l 

J     ■ 

■                -■  :    'y.v-wii?!--*  ■'••■.■;■•. ■(<;;:  i 

.  ■.*A..-»'''"'J*I* 

-     -    f 

!l 


:t     ■-(' 


ii:!>-i*l 


!       i^'-l 


lll.KTIIOVCN    IS    Ells    sri.DV. 


%^m 

in 

^m 

11 

"f:|| 

m 

.f  ■#' 

'  ly. 

»  j;fi 


^^,: 


;)'    ii 


' ••'ill 


%    I 


THE   CKNTI'llY'S   MUSIC  AND   IHIAMA 


stoir 


As  I'oi'  Itiily's  yt)Uiij,'  compostMs  tliiit  prnlVss  to  n-pn'M'iit  tlio  iiiodt'iii 
tiiliun  S(!lu)ul  of  (>iK'rii,  tlu'V  arc  U'tl  l)y  I'lici-iiii.  wliosc  ••  MaiKiii  I.t'scaiit  " 
lul  '•  Lii  I'miIii'Iuc  "  art'  iiiclodioiis  and  lull  of  int'iit. 

Masca^iii    and    IjOoiicavallo,   wliost-  ••  Cavallciia    Kusticana "    and  "1    I'a- 

liac'ci"  acliicvt'd  popidarity,  liavo  n<»t  n-ali/.t'd  «'Xpt'ctati(»us.    Jsor  has  (iior- 

auo,  wliost'  "  Aiidiva  Clicnifr"  was  well  rcfi'ivt'd  in  Italy. 

Hizt't,  whose  "Cannt'u  "  is  ont*  ot   tlio  must  n-iuarkaltlc  of  nioth-rn  ointras, 

ilied  in  I'aris  in  ISTA.    "Carmen"  has  remained  in  the  repertoire.     His  other 

ciiera.  *'  I..t's  Pt^eheurs  de  Verles."  oidy  achieved  a  mod(M'ate  sm-cess. 


(iUAxND   Ol'EllA   HOISK,    I'AIUS, 

One  of  France's  jjjreatest  musicians.  Hector  Herlio/.  was  born  in  1S0.'>  and 
(lied  in  l.S()!».  His  operas.  "  Les  Troycns."  '•  l>envenuto Cellini."  his  "  Damna- 
tion de  Faust."  his  "  Honieo  et  .Juliette '"  symphony,  are  all  great  and  afforded 
\Va,i,'ner  a  model  that  he  imitated  jicrsistently. 

in  1S71  France  lost  one  of  its  most  talented  operatic  composers,  Auher, 
whose  ••  Masaniello  "  iuid  "  Fra  Dia\'olo  "  are  two  of  the  most  pojiular  operas 
ever  written  by  a  Frenciinian.  Auber  c()ni])ose(l  comic,  operas  charniint^ly,  and 
liis  "Domino  Xoir."  "  Diamants  de  la  Couronue,'"  '•  Haydce."  and  other 
works  of  a  similar  (diaracter.  entertained  the  French  ])eople  for  many  years. 
Aulx'r's  death  has  left  a  vacancy  that  has  not  been  tilled. 

The  modern  French  comjiosers  cannot  be  called  ureat.  Saint-Saens.  whose 
most  successful  work  is  "Samson  et  Dalila"  (which  is  more  of  an  oratorio 
than  an  opera,  and  which  was  produced  in  1S77).  has  com]H>sed  other  operas. 
14 


n  m 


i 

^1! 

m 

'5  Hi! 

y 

I        I 


'll     ' 


MO 


tkhmi'IIs  as  It  h«>.v/>/;a'.s  <>i'  tiii-:  a/.v"  <'i:.\Ttn) 


siicli  US  '•  llfiiii  \l  1 1.,"  ••  ANCiinin,"  I'l,  itIvim.  w  liirli  liiiK  ()rij;iiiiilil  \  aiitl 
iiis|iiriitiiin. 

.Massenet  liiis  ctniiiiDsed  ••  l,e  It'ni  ile  I.alinre,"  ••  lleioiliatle,"  "  Miiiiiin,' 
"  Wertlier,"  et  eeleiii.  tliiit  liave  liiiil  juissiii^'  siieeesses. 

I'lulli  Saint'Saeiis  iiiiil  .Masseiicl  liavc  atleiii|ili'(|  In  lollnw  W  a,i;Mer  in  llicir 
siiMui'diis  <in'lie>l  lilt  inn  :  Init.  llieir  works  lack  ilisliiietioii.  Tlie  l''i'eiieli  enni- 
pusers  (if  t(i-ila_\   iia\e  Imtii  (Irinipralizcil  liy  \\  a^Miei's  alt'ectiit.inns. 

'riie  (leatli  nt  Aiiilti'oise  Tlionias,  in  IS',),">.  caused  I'laiice  the  loss  of  one  nl 
lier  iiidsl  siiceessliil  anil  aeeoiuplislieil  oiieiatic  coniiiosers,  wliose  "Mi.ijiion" 
will  he  loni;  iidniiieil  as  a  mtv  ehaiiniiij,'  opeiii  i'nniii|Ue.  while  his  '•  Hamlet," 


MiriiOl'OI.I  TAN    urKliA    IIOI  SK.     NKW     Vni!K. 


;  mi 


till! 


Ihoujxh  containiie^-  iMtrtions  that  are  ahly  written,  has    never  attained  onlsid' 
I'ranee  aiiv  reinarkahle  se.'i  "ss. 

Kever.  whose  ••Sij.'ur!!  '  n-;  ;  prodneed  in  ISSI  with  eonsideriilile  sneeess.  i- 
a  folhiwer  (d'  Meverheei  l!is  •■  Salainniho  ""  was  imiihieed  in  1  Slid,  lint  cji'i 
not  attract  the  att.enti<.n  .■>  peeted  outside  of    !•" ranee. 

(iernian  ojiera  of  the  latter  part  oi'  the  century  has  been  so  deniorali/ed  \" 
the  inHuenee  of  Waicner  that  the  (Jeruian  composers  ha,ve  become  little  inn!. 
than  imitators  of  his  pronounced  mannerisms. 

Weber's '•  I )i'r  Kreisehiitz '"  remains  the  most  luipuhir  of  (Jerman  opeij 
just  as  Verdi's  *•  11  Trovatore  •'  is  tlie  most  popuhir  of   Italian  operas. 

Spohr.  Lindpainter,  and  many  other  (lerman  eomjiosers  of  ability  have  Ihm  > 
laid  on  the  shtdf. 


CI'    ill   tlu'ii 
rciicli    cniD- 


l<)l).   l)Ul     ili'l 


////•;  ri:yn'iivs  Mtsu'   i.v/*  /»/.•. u/i 


211 


Miirsliiirr,  w  Im  dicil   in  lliiimvcr  in  |cS)l|.  slmwiii    in   Ins   ••  Hiins    llciliii;,' '* 
iImiI  lie  WHS  II  InildWiT  III  Wi'liiT.  .IS  well  its  in  liis  •• 'rt'nipliir  iiiiil  .Icwcss." 

( 'nrnt'lins,  will)  ilinl  in  Miiiii/  in  IS7I.  niiiiii'  liis  |irinri|i;il  siircrss  with  his 
••  I'liirlirr  III'  Uii^'iliiil."  II  roniK!  ()|icr;i  in 
which  Ihr  iii;inni'i'  nl'  WiivJiicr  wiis  iiiii 
l;ilril.  In  iSCil  ••  'riic  <  'id  "  was  |iiiMluri'il 
III  \\  I'iniiir.  hut  il  was  Imiiiil  ili'iiri's,-<iii-l\ 
iii'avv  ami  lalmrril. 

(ioiillliaik.    a    Inlliiwrr    nl'    MrM'li r. 

iiiiiili'  a  suiTi'ss  in  |S7.'»  with  his  ■•(,»ui'i'ii 
n|    Salia  "   till!    was   iml    i'i|ualt'il    ii.v   his 

•  Mi'i'liii."  iirddiicrd  in  ISS(>.  or  his  ••  I'li,- 
iiiicr  ol' War."   pindii I  in  IS<l',». 

To  ri'tnrii  In  tin-  >,'rrat  Icadrr  of  npi'ia 
—  N'rrdi — inir  may  siiy  nl  him  that.  Iii> 
i.|ii'ias  art'  dividi'd  iiitn  thrrr  |ii'iinds. 
Tilt'  lirsl,  inrlmli'd  the  wmUs  writh'ii  in 
tlir  nld  Nra|Mililaii  styii-  as  In-  hiid  I  nil  mi 
It,       Tn    this    (d;iss    lndnli;^'    ••  Naiiiirrn."" 

•  Altiiii."  ft  I'i'ti'ia.  'I'll  till'  srcniid  pr- 
I  inil,  whirh  shows  iiMiiarUalili'  diamalir 
rnjni' and  Itcaiitiriil  mrlndv.  hidonn  ••  IJi- 


wii,i,i  \M   linn  Mill  w  AOM'iii 


-iiii'lti 


Kniani,"  and  "  iSailn  in  Mas- 


ijii'iii  "  (in  wliicii  N'crdi  lii'<;an  In  pay  aMmtinii  In  his  inst  rmm'ntation ).  'i'o 
till'  tliii'il  period  lM'ioni;s  ••  Aida."  whirh  is  his  most  charai'fi'ristic  and  ri'inarU- 
:ii)l«' opera,  in  wiiirli  tlie  meioily  is  woiiderriillN    I'lesli  and  lirinil  iliil.  eomiiini'd 

«  itii  remarl\;iiili'  seiei 

••(Mi'ilii"  is  also  a  i^reiil  wdili,  wriltrii 
at  a  time  ol'  iij'e  wiieii  iiiosi  I'oinposers 
retire,  iiiid  Inoiidly  driiiiiiil  ie  in  its  treat- 
nn'iit.  of  tile  situations,  iiliiniiiialed  iiy 
rieh  and  expressive  inst  niiueiitat  imi. 

As  I'oi'-*  l'"al>t;itr.""  tile  liitest  opera  tiiaf. 
\'eriii  lias  written,  and  piolialiiy  tlie  last 
he  will  write,  it,  is  the  L;reatest,  niodeni 
comic  opeiii.  just  as  Mozart's  ■■  No/.ze  di 
l'"i,iiaro  "  is  the  ^^I'eatest  comic  opera  ol" 
the   past.      It  convinces   the   world    that 


Verd 


1  s  ireiiiiis  IS  iiiexliaiistiiile 


Next    to    N'irdi     comes    \\"a.!.;iier.    the 
iinarchisl    of  music,  who  l)eiran  in   '•  |{i- 


en/.i      ami 


Tl 


e  l'"l\  in-'  Diitidmii 


in  "  Itv 


iniitatiii>4-  the    Italian   lorms  of  melodv. 


In     " 'raiiiihiiusi 


poitiinis    are    very 


i:i)Wi\   ini!i:i>r 


lieantiful    and    melodious;    in    "  Lohen- 

Lliiii."    portions  are  line;   Itiit   W'ai^ner's 

idea  of  effect    was  had  and  lie  never  knew  when    to    stop,  .so   that   many  of 

the  scenes  ;ire  interminable.     'I'liis  fault  increased  as  Warner  eomimsed  the 

•  Nilieliinjren  "  Kcries   for  tlie  cra/v  kini.;  of  Havaria.      .Melody  vanished,  the 


I        i 


I     ^l' 


s    jtfii 


'     ■i'^ 


II 


212  TIUUMPHS   AM)    WONDEliS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEM'UliY 


'lU 


singers  lu-canu'  secoiidarv  to  tlio  oiclicstra,  whicli  was  juMsistcntly  noisy. 
Wa<,Mit'r"s  t't'tort  was  to  create  a  new  seliool  ot  opera,  in  wliicli  ever^'thinj,' 
should  be  minutely  descriptive.  He  went  too  far  and  opened  the  question 
ol'  failure.  In  opera  the  voices  claim  the  first  place,  and  the  orcliestra  is  an 
accompaniment,  so  that  Wagner's  meriiod  was  radically  wrong. 

ln(le|iendent  of  this,  ho  attempted  to 
infuse  life  into  the '•  >«'il)elungen  "  series, 
whereas  he  a(h>}>ted  a  tangled  and  cliild- 
ish  fairy -story  tliat  was  more  absurd  than 
impressive.  The  lati'r  Wagner  operas, 
whicli  the  composer  calls  •■  nuisie  dra- 
mas." ai'c  tiresonu'  and  monotonous  to 
such  a  degree  that,  with  all  the  remarka- 
ble  talent  of  Watrner.  thev 


(llAIM.ori  !■;    SAl   N|)|;l!S    (  1  SIIMAN. 


may  nt'ver 
become  ])opular.  and  may  be  event\ially 
laid  on  the  shelf,  to  be  regarded  in  the 
future  as  nuisical  curios. 

The  musicians  of  the  I'liited  States 
are  steadily  developing,  and  for  so  young 
a  country  we  have  a  largt>  numbei'  of 
composers  of  lirst-class  ability,  such  as 
Macdowell,  {'"oote,  Kang,  rhadwick.  ( iil- 
clnist.  and  many  otiici's  who  have  pi-o- 
duced  iiMporvant  compositions. 


ve 


In  opera  tiie  Ameiican  composers  ha 
done  nothing,  i'oi'  tlie  reason  tbat  tiiere  are  no  opportunities  for  the  ](rodue 


tion  of  such  works,      if  there  were,  we  siiould  soon  have  nianv  o 


posiM's.  and  should  spet 


(lil\   lake 


iii-1 


I  ran 


k  in  tile  lyric  drama. 


perati 


c  com- 


Ifl 


II.     in;  A  MA. 

Tiie  theatre  of  the  latter  par.  of  the  eentiirv  shows  a  remarkable  advance, 
in  certain  respects,  owv  the  fheafie  of  the  past,  which  consisted  of  a  "star,'' 
an  inferior  eiunpany.  poor  scenery  and  apjiointnients,  et  cetera;  whereas 
to-day  there  are  many  more  really  good  actors  and  actresses,  the  theatres  are 
far  more  comfortable  and  artistic,  the  scenery,  costumes  and  details  are 
beautiful  and  correct. 

We  have  no  .Mrs.  Siddons,  no  Kemiile.  no  liachel.  no  Talma  :  but  W(?  are  con- 
fident that  tiie  actors  and  actresses  of  to-day  are  like  the  theatre  of  to-day. — 
they  have  more  tiiush,  and  the  results,  while  they  may  not  rise  to  the  plane  ot 
the  school  id'   Shakespeare,  are  nearer  nature  than  they  have  ever  been. 

'file  school-of  declamation,  which  belonged  to  the  plays  of  the  past,  is  the 
severest  loss  the  stage  of  to-day  has  felt.  The  actors  and  actresses  fail  in 
elocution,  'fliey  do  not  know  wiiere  to  put  their  emphasis.  They  seem  lost 
when  they  a)ipear  in  eoNtume.  and  Shakesjieare  to-day  has  no  distiiiguisiied 
ex]ioiients 

The  i'higlish-speaking  stage  of  tiie  century  has  lieeii  ad(U'iied  by  such  ejn. 
(jueiit  interpreters  and  powerful  tragedians  as  Ivilwin  i''orrest.  Charlotte  Cusli- 
man,  Kdwin  l>ootli.  and  Henry  Irving.  I!ut  this  illustiious  I'oll  has  been 
almo.st  cctinguished   liy  death:   and.  especially   if  iip]plied    to    .\iiieriea.   tfn 


Wii' 


scKM.  •••|!'i;ii  .  :!  \ki;si'i:ai.'i;  s  i'\  w    )i      •  imMio  ami  .iii  ikp. 


f  -il  \  I 


'J14 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOMJEHS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTURY 


I!    M! 


question  niay  well  be  asked,  where  is  the  actor  or  actress  who  can  \Ai\.\  Ham- 
let, or  Maebeth.  or  King  Lear,  or  Slulock  as  we  Avere  wont  to  see  them  ren- 
dered by  those  masters  of  the  dramatic  art.  or  as  thev  should  be  rendered  '.' 
Salvini  and  Hossi  have  botli  passed  away.  Irving  verges  on  retiracy.  <>l 
the  great  dramatic  actresses  left  to  the  closing  of  the  century.  M  me.  Sarah 
Bernluu'dt  stands  i)reeminent.  The  (hiy  of  the  imposing  (h'clamatory  drama 
seems  to  have  lost  its  lustre  at  the  sunset  of  the  century. 

Hut  the  modern  dranuis  and  c(jmedies  are  acted,  even  in  the  smaller  parts, 
with  admirable  intelligence  and  effect,  and  we  may  add  that  the  vice  that  dis- 
graced the  stage  of  the  ])ast  is  by  no  means  so  visible  in  the  theatre  of  the 
present. 

The  coarseness  that  clung  so  long  to  the  theatre  is  gradually  disapjiear- 
ing,  and  the  theatre-goers  of  to-day  have  discovered  that  the  theatre,  which 
was  created  to  entertain  the  world,  can  do  so  without  recoui.c  to  vulgarity. 

The  theatres  of  the  United  States  are  the  handsomest  and  most  convenient 
in  the  world.  This  Mme.  Sarah  Bernhardt  acknowledged  the  other  day, 
while  criticising  the  theatres  of   I'aris,  which  lack  many  conveniences. 

Up  to  within  twenty -five  years  of  the  close  of  the  century,  jdays  written 
by  American  authors  were  rare.  Managers  had  to  rely  upoi-  tlir,-,:'  comjiosed 
in  Europe.  Jiut  at  present  the  United  States  jtosscssco  m;r  ^  a'lle  and  suc- 
cessful idaywviglits.  just  as  it  does  its  artists  in  all  <lc,i;;vt.in'ntr,  ''here  has 
not  been  a  time  during  the  century  when  tin*  ]ierson:il  '  aracls  ;•  of  actors 
and  actresses  lias  e-scajted  discussion,  and  sonu'times  violent  ciuicisni.  by 
those  prt^judiced  against  the  theatre.  'I'his  does  not  :;  'em  to  have  lesseniMl 
the  estimation  in  which  dramatic  art  is  held,  nor  to  liav(  s"riously  diiiinislicd 
in  number  the  legion  who  find  in  the  drama  their  most  pleasurabh'  jecreatioii 
and  keenest  intellecttml  delight.  In  answer  to  challenges  ')t  ;li;  'lui'-ality  of 
the  stage,  ]>ronson  Howard  has  fittingly  said  :  "I  have  -.lexeryet  ,s"en  any- 
body who  wanted  a  bad  ]ncture  just  because  it  was  pain.ed  liy  a  rood  man 
It  IS  society  that  corrupts  the  stage,  not  tlie  stage  that  corrujjts  society.'" 

l\ITi:i!     FlTZ(ii;i!AI,I). 


m 


i;    !i!'i 


:ln  II :'' 


I 


THE  CENTURY'S  LITERATURE 

l.v  contrasting  the  world's  uineteentli  century  liteniturt'  with  that  of  the 
■ighteenth,  one  is  impressed  with  the  many  remarkal)k^  dift'crences.  !>ut 
hy  no  means  all  o^'  such  differences  artr  to  the  discredit  of  the  older  litera- 
iiue.  As  instar.ces.  the  jirose  literature  of  the  nineteenth  century  may 
not  surpass  that  of  tlu'  eighteentli  in  elegance  ami  accruracy  of  exjiressiou, 
though  its  progress  has  heen  very  marked  in  the  diversity  of  its  apjdications 
to  mental  needs  ;  and  the  poetical  literature  of  the  nineteenth  (century  may 
not  excel  that  of  the  eighteenth  in  beauty  and  virility,  though  it  has 
;ulv;in(;ed  in  loftiness  of  theme  and  tenderness  of  mode.  And  so,  wlien 
literat\ire  is  divided  into  its  miiny  minor  l)raiudies.  as  history,  phihtsophy. 
the  sciences,  etc..  various  features  of  the  old  comjKire  favorably  with  tiie 
new. 

It  is  in  its  general  tone  and  universal  aptitutle  that  the  literature  of  the 
nineteenth  century  stands  out  ])re('miuent.  The  wonderful  intellectuni 
activity  of  the  century  has  heen,  as  it  were,  compelled  to  go  fortii  aion^- 
literary  lines  (juite  parallel  witii  those  that  distinguish  otiier  fields  of 
luttivitv.  This  may  have  had  a  tendency  in  some  instances  to  rolt  tlie 
century's  literature  of  some  of  the  sweetly  imaginative  elements,  and  tn 
liarden  it  in  some  of  its  essential  forms,  but  the  ])roc«'ss  was  neccssiirv  to 
secure  for  it  just  that  (piality  which  would  best  meet  a  progressive  demand. 
.Vs  tiu'  drift  of  human  energy  was  toward  the  practical,  so  the  dominant 
literary  thought  took  on  the  form  of  direct  and  exact  expression.  There  was 
less  aiul  less  room  for  the  indulgence  of  literary  foible  oi'  s))eculative  whim- 
sicality. Even  where  elegance  of  style  met  with  occasioUi'd  sacri*i(;e.  it  was 
more  than  compensated  by  that  geiu'ral  rise  in  littu-ary  tone  which  has 
characterized  the  century.  Literature  could  not  be  untruthful  amid  active 
incjuiry  and  scientific  progress,  it  must  refle(;t,  nuire  accurately  than  ever 
before,  its  birth  inspirations  and  its  legitimate  uses.  It  must  kec])  even 
liitce  with  the  demands  for  it.  A  world  crying  for  intellectual  bread  could 
not  be  pvit  off'  with  an  anti(iuated  stone. 

Without  closer  analysis,  the  above  is  true  of  the  literature  of  all  reading 
and  writing  peo]iles  who  liave  kept  touch  with  the  century's  progress.  J>ut 
it  is  especially  true  in  the  literature  of  Knglish  speaking  ])eoples.  History 
lias,  in  acconhmce  with  a  growing  sjnrit  of  research.  l)econie  more  truthful, 
ipjnlosophy  more  exjiressive.  and  science  more  exact.  The  outcroj)  of  books 
shows  the  yearnings  of  the  century,  not  only  as  to  their  nnndjer  but  'as  to 
theme  and  treatment.  Authors  have  multijilied  as  (hiring  no  other  world's 
era,  and  the  jtroportion  of  those  who  have  attained  jiernument  distinction 
was  never  larger. 

"(r^rman  literature,''  says  Professor  Ford,  in  ''Self  Culture"  for  February. 
ISiM),  "has    liMil   its   measure  of  ups  and  (h)wns.   but  its   first  age   v,;is  its 


mi 
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1 


216         T/ilUMPHS  AM)    WONDERS   OF   THE   XIX'"  CENTURY 


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GEOH(iK   HANCUOI'T. 


•'.;.,.     1 


golden  ag«'  Kroni  the  lu'giiiiiiui^  of  the  century  to  tlie  present  (hiy  is  a  tar 
cry  in  (iernian  letters.  ItDniiinticisni,  idealism,  realism  —  tin;  Fatherland 
has  lived  through  tiiem  all.  And  lor  what ".'  in  a  land  of  seholars  no  great 
philosopher;  among  hosts  of  verse-makers  no  great  poet;  among  innumer- 
able story-writers,  not  one  who  has  he- 
come  known  over  a  eontinent. 

'•Still  these  last  years  in  (Jerinany 
havt,'  not  been  without  sonn;  good  work 
done,  though  often  aehieved  under  the 
spur  of  wrong  ideals  and  imj)roj)er 
motives.  From  the  days  of  '48,  when 
Young  (iermany  felt  for  the  first  time 
the  seductive  charm  of  revolutionism, 
a  new  feeling  has  possessed  German 
literature  —  a  feeling  that  the  ])ast  is 
past  and  out  of  date,  potent  once  but 
]totent  no  long.'r.  and  that  the  new  age 
of  num  demands  new  ])rinciples,  new 
ideals,  a  new  faith.  And  so  the  mod- 
ern literature.  ])articularly  so  sin(!e  1(S70, 
has  been  marked  by  iconoclasm  and 
startling  innovation ;  it  has  discarded 
sentiment  and  tine  writing,  and  made 
a  plea  for  .scientific  methods,  with  the 
privilege  of  exhibiting  e.xaet  scientiHc  results.  Crimes,  disease,  and  grin- 
ning skeletons  have  been  dragged  forth  to  the  i)ublic  gaze,  for  art  is  no 
longer  art  that  portrays  the  ideal  and  not  the  true.  Such,  in  short,  is  the 
creed  by  which  the  realistic;  or  naturalistic  school  has  thought  to  over- 
throw the  old,  conventional,  and  frivolous,  to  foster  the  spirit  of  the  new 
nationality,  and  prepare  a  balm  I'ov  the  wounds  of  tlie  poor. 

"Two  men  stand  to-day  as  leaders  of  this  new  movement,  —  Hermann 
Siidermann  and  (ierhardt  lTauj)tmann, — the  most  commanding  figures  in 
contemjuiraneous  (Jerman  literature."' 

During  the  nim^teenth  century  the  United  States  took  a  high  and  firm 
place  in  the  domain  of  lit(>rature,  and,  it  may  be  said,  has  evolved  a  litera- 
ture that  in  scope  and  style  is  peculiar  to  her  institutions  and  environment. 
Her  array  of  authors,  both  in  number  and  reinitation,  compares  favorably 
with  that  of  countries  boasting  of  a  thousand  years  of  literary  domination, 
and  her  literature  is  as  diversified  and  practical  as  her  activities.  Among 
the  many  illustrious  historians  of  the  century  she  nund»ers  her  Bancroft, 
her  Hildreth,  h(>r  I'rescott,  her  Motley,  worthy  counter j»arts  of  F]ngland's 
Lingard,  Hallam,  ^facaulay,  Buckle,  and  Kinglake.  Anu)ng  her  poets  are 
Longfellow,  Whittier,  Bryant,  Lowell,  Halleck,  fit  comi)anions  of  Tennyson, 
Browning,  Wordsworth.  Scott,  Swinburne.  Among  her  novelists  are  Coo]ter, 
ILawthorne,  Stowe,  worthy  congeners  of  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and  Eliot. 
And  so,  the  comparison  holds  in  travel,  philosophy,  theology,  law,  and 
science. 

If  in  dramatic  literature  the  United  States  has,  during  the  century,  pro- 
duced few  authors  of  permanent  reputation,  and  perhai)S  none  to  be  con- 


1;'!  - 


THE   CENTUllY'S   LITEHArUHE 


•J17 


lan'tl  with  Kiiuwli's.  Uoiicicault,  Tuvlor,  and  Hdhcrtsoii,  of  tlic  Old  World, 
1..  vcrtlu'lcss  it  ciiniiot  be  said  of  these  that  their  plays  liave  had  more  than 
i  stage  value.  The  drama  of  the  century  in  following  the  demand  for 
iptistie  and  coniniercial  results  has  sustained  only  in  part  the  reputation  of 
i:.  literature.  Hut  in  lieu  of  this  partial  dec^adeniie,  there  have  sprung  up 
111  \v  branches  of  literature  which  are,  in  a  measure,  eonipensatory.  Among 
liii'se  are  the  critical  literaturi'  of  arts  and  design,  the  literaturt;  of  philology, 
(M  of  language,  and  the  literature  of  jwliticul  and  social  science.  To  these 
must  be  athled  two  other  kinds  or  classes  of  literature  which,  if  not  peculiar 
111  the  century,  have  yet  found  in  it  their  most  surprising  evolution,  greatest 
i;l(>ry,  and  widest  iuHuence.  These  are  the  literature  of  the  newsi)aper  and 
liiiigazine,  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  book. 

iUit  before  making  further  menticui  of  these,  let  us  read  somewhat  of  New 
World  literature  as  viewed  from  a  critical  English  standpoint.  Says  the 
critic,  "  English  critics  are  apt  to  bear  down  on  the  writers  and  thinkers  of 
tlic  New  Worhl  with  a  sort  of  aristocratic  liauteur  ;  they  are  perpetually 
ri'ininding  them  of  their  imnuiturity  J.nd  their  disregard  of  tht!  gohlen  nu'an. 
Aiacricans,  on  the  other  hand,  avo  hard  to  ])lease.  Ordinary  men  among 
tlicin  are  as.  sensitive  to  foreign  censure  as  the  irrltn/i/c  f/riiliix  of  other 
lands.  Mr.  Emerson  is  permitted  to  impress  lioine  truths  on  his  country- 
iiicu,  as  'Your  American  eagle  is  very' well;  but  beware  of  the  American 
peacock.'  Such  remarks  are  not  permitted  to  Englishmen.  If  they  point  to 
any  flaws  in  transatlantic  manutu-s  or  ways  of  thinking  with  an  effort  after 
politeness,  it  is  '  the  good-natured  cynicism  of  well-to-do  age ; '  if  they 
conunend  transatlantic  institutions  or 
achievements,  it  is,  according  to  Mr. 
Lowell,  '  with  that  pleasant  European 
air  of  self-compliment  in  condescending 
to  he  pleased  by  American  merit  which 
we  find  so  conciliating.' 

"Now  that  the  United  States  liave 
reached  tlieir  full  majority,  it  is  time 
that  England  should  cease  to  assume 
the  attitude  of  guardian,  and  time  that 
they  should  be  on  the  alert  to  resent 
the  assumption.  Foremost  among  the 
more  attractive  features  of  transatlan- 
tic [American]  literature  is  ita  firK/nirss. 
The  authority  which  is  the  guide  of 
old  nations  constantly  threatfus  to  be- 
come tyrannical ;  they  wear  their  tradi- 
tions like  a  chain;  and,  in  canonization 
of  laws  of  taste,  the  creative  laws  are 
depressed.  Even  in  England  we  write 
under  fixed  conditions  ;  with  the  fear  of  (U'itics  before  our  eyes,  we  are  all 
liinuid  to  cast  our  ideas  into  similar  moiUds,  and  the  name  of  ■  free  thinker* 
lias  grown  to  a  term  of  rei)roach.  Munyan's  •  Pilgrim's  I'rogrcss'  is  ])erhai)S 
the  last  English  book  written  without  a  thought  of  being  reviewed,  'i'liere 
is  a  gain  in  the    habit   of   self-re.straint  fostered  by  this  state  of  things; 


.lOMN    (i.    Wliri'TIKU. 


.:ii 


u 


ii.it^: 


m 


:i^-^  :,t 


i 


m 


218 


TUIUMj  tiS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


but  there  is  ;i  loss  in  tlie  coiisecjuent  lack  of  spontaneity  ;  and  we  may  learn 
something  t'lom  a  literature  that  is  ever  ready  for  adventures.  In  America 
the  love  of  uniformity  gives  place  to  impetuous  impulses ;  the  most  extreme 
sentiments  are  made  audible,  the  most  noxious  'have  their  day  and  cease  ti> 
be;"  and  the  truth  being  left  to  vindicate  itself,  the  overthrow  of  error, 
though  more  gradiud,  may  at  last  })rove  more  complete.  A  >«ew  England 
poet  can  write  with  contidcnce  ol'  his  country  as  tiie  land 

"  '  AVIicrr  no  one  suffers  loss  or  bleeds 
For  llioughts  that  men  calls  heresies.' 

•'  Another  feature  of  .VnuM'ican  literature  is  nniijirt'/n-iishu'ni'ss.  What  it 
luis  h)st  in  depth  it  has  gaiiu'd  in  breadth.  .\(hlressing  a  vast  audience, 
it  appeals  to  univer.sal  sympathies.  in  the  >(orthern  States,  where  coni- 
jtaratively  few  have  leisure  to  write  well,  ahuost  every  man.  woman,  and 
child  can  read,  and  does  read.  l>ooks  ai-e  to  be  foimd  in  every  log-hut. 
and  public  questions  are  discussed  l)y  every  .scavenger.  During  the  Civil 
War,  wlieu  the  Lowell  factory-girls  were  writing  verses,  the  'Uiglow  J'ajters" 

were  being  recited  in  every  smithy. 
The  eonseciuence  is,  that,  setting  aside 
the  newspajiers,  there  is  little  that  is 
sectional  in  the  ])0])ular  religion  or  lit- 
erature; it  exalts  and  <les))ises  no  class, 
and  almost  wholly  ignores  the  lines  that 
in  other  countries  divide  the  ti])])er  ten 
thousand  and  the  lower  ten  million. 
Where  manners  uuike  men,  the  people 
are  proud  of  their  })eerage.  but  thev 
blush  tor  their  boors.  In  the  New  World 
tlieic  are  n()'(Jrand  Seigniors '  and  Ud 
hiunaii  vegetables :  and  if  there  are 
fewer  giants,  there  are  also  fewer  mani- 
kins. .\nierican  poets  recognize  no  es- 
sential distinction  between  the  '  villai^e 
blacksmith  *  and  the  -caste  of  Vere  de 
Vere."  Hums  sjieaks  for  the  one  ;  Byron 
and  'rennyson  for  the  other:  Longfel- 
low, to  the  extent  of  his  genius,  for 
both.  The  sanu'  spirit  which  gloriKes  labor  dtMumnces  every  form  of  despo- 
tism but  that  of  the  nuiltitiide.  Freed  of  the  excesses  due  to  wide  license, 
and  restrained  by  the  good  taste  and  culture  of  her  nobler  minds,  we  may 
anticipate  for  the  literature  of  America,  under  the  mellowing  iuHuences  ot 
time,  an  illustrious  future." 

In  treating  of  uewsi)aper  literature,  oiu'  cannot  jiroceed  without  blendin- 
itsorigin,  style,  and  aims  with  the  business  enrer])rise  that  cultivates  ami  sup- 
]K)rts  it.  And  this  may  be  done  idl  the  more  cheerfully  and  properly,  for  tlie 
reas(m  that  there  is  no  history  nu)re  interesting  than  that  of  the  evolution  "t 
the  newspaper,  and  no  consummation  of  mental  and  jihysical  energy  tliit 
])laces  the  nineteenth  century  in  more  vivid  contrast  with  ]»reeeding  c'  m- 
turies. 


AI.KItK.n   'niNNVSON. 


THE  CESTURTS  LITEtlATUllE 


21J» 


Ill'.MiV   \v.    i,()N(;i'i;i.i.<p\\ . 


For  tlio  I'atliorhood  of  the  ii('\vsiiiii»t'v  we  have  to  travel  to  a  land  and  date 

iih'ulated  to  rob  modern  eivili/.ation  of  some  of  its  Itoastfuluess.     The  oldest 

oiown  newspuiter  is  the  ••  Tsini^-I'ao."  or  ••  l'ekin<,'  Ni-ws,"  mention  of  whose 

.id)lioation  is  made  in  C'hinese  annals  as  tar  liaek  as  a.  h.  71o.  wlieu  il  was 

lien,  as  now.  the  ottieial  elironieler  of 

he  aots  of  the  emperor,  the  doinsfs  ol 

he  eourt,  and  the  rejiorts  of  ministers. 

It  has  ajipeared   daily   for  nt^arly  fonr- 

een  hnndred  years,  in  the  form  of  a  yel- 

nw-eovered   magazine.  st)me   ."i^    hy    7.J. 

iiehes  in  size.   The  ])ages  numi)er  t  wenty- 

!nur,  and  are  ]trinted  from  wooden  mov- 

altle  type.     Two  t'ditions  are  jiublished. 

line  on    siijierior    paper,   for   the   (Jourr 

and  up]»er  classes;  the  other  on  ini'erior 

pajter,  tor  <,'eneral  readers.    Its  edir.orsliip 

s  in  the  (Jrand  Oonneil  of  State,  whieli 

hirnishes  to  seribes  or  reoorters  the  news 

ileemed  tit  for  indtlieation.     As  an  olli- 

rial  or<,'an.  it  first  finds  eireulation  amoni;' 

I  he  heads  of  provinces,  and  is  by  them 

liirther   distribnted    to    patrons.      This 

ancient  pnrveyor  of  news  seems  to  liaAc 

pretty  fully  t,M'atified  the  (,'hinese   taste 

Inr  that  kind  of  literature:  for  even  at  the  prestMit  day  there  are  lew  news- 
papers in  the  emjiire  ])ublished  in  tiic  native  lan<4iia.y:e.  The  few  tliat  have 
s|)r\nijj;  up  ai'e  eoidincd  to  the  lari^ei'  cities,  as  Shantjhai.  Iloniikoni;'.  and 
iVkin,n'.  where  they  are  liberally  jpatrfJiiized.  I>nt  their  circidition  and  in- 
Huence  do  not  extend  far  into  the  interior,  owin;^  to  tli(>  lack  of  postal  facil- 
ities. The  modern  Chinese  newspaper  can  hardly  be  called  a  native  enter- 
prise. It  grew  out  of  the  necessity  for  a  literature  and  a  means  of  news 
nimmunication  which  arose  at  the  time  the  Chinese  jiorts  were  forced  open 
to  tilt!  world's  commerce.  As  a  consequence,  a  majority  of  the  ('hinese  i>ub- 
lications  have  found  their  inception  in  foreign  brains  and  capital,  and  re- 
main under  the  management  of  foreigners.  The  same  is  tru*;  of  .lapan. 
where  the  modern  native  newspaper  ]iractieally  dates  from  the  arrival  of 
the  foreigner.  I  Jut  by  reason  of  their  greater  mental  and  commercial  activ- 
ity, and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  adjusted  themselves  to  modern  modes 
iif  civilization,  the  .lapanese  have  far  outstripped  the  Chinese  in  their  evolu- 
tion of  newspaper  literature  and  enterprise.  Whereas,  what  may  be  called 
tiie  first  modern  .lapau'se  newspaper  was  founded  in  1S71.*.  there  s])rang  up  in 
the  following  twenty  years  the  almost  incredibh>  number  of  (548  newspapers 
and  )»eriodioals,  not  only  due  to  native  capital  and  enter])rise.  Imt  under 
native  contnd.  This  wonderful  growth  took  ]ilace.  too.  in  the  face  of  the 
■severest  code  of  ])ress  laws  existing  in  any  country. 

In  Euro])e.  the  earliest  inklings  of  a  news]ta])er  literature  consisted  of  news 
pamphlets  of  iufreciuent  and  uncertain  jmblication.  and  de])endent  for  eireii- 
lation  u]H)U  temporary  demand.  The  earliest  departure  from  this  stage  was 
in  flermanv.  in  1()I.">.   when  the  "  Frankfurter  .Fournal ""  was   organized  as  a 


.  i-iiia 


I  i     il 


§:^'i  t 


l,.W. 


220 


TlilLM/'HS   AM)    WOSDEUS   OF   Tin:   .MX' I'   VENTUUY 


weekly  imblication,  tor  the  piiiptjse  of  "collectiiifj:  and  cireiiliitiujj  t!ie  news 
of  the  day."  Antwerp  followed  with  a  similar  euter|)rise  in  KlKi.  The  lirst 
attempt  to  do  likewise  in  (ireat  l>ritain  was  in  Kll'lf,  when  "  Tiie  Weekly 
>«'e\vs"  was  founded  in  London.  None  of  these  enterpri.ses  were  by  editors, 
in  a  modern  sens*',  but  by  stationers,  in  the  line  of  their  ordinary  trad<'. 
They  did  not  depend  for  patronaj^e  on  i'e,!j;ular  subscribers,  but  sold  their  pub- 
lications on  the  strei'ts  throuf^h  the  aj^ency  of  hawkers,  corresponding  to 
our  modern  newslioys.  thoujjjh  they  bore  the  classical  name  of  "mercuries." 

The  foundation  of  the  iirst  newspaper  in  France  that  attaineil  pernianeiiee 
and  fame  was  in  I(>.'!1.  It  was  calhul  tiie  "(iazette  de  Fran(u',"  and  owed  its 
ori<,Mn  to  a  demand  for  mingled  news  and  original  discussion.  It  was  largely 
under  the  control  of  Hichelieu,  and.  of  course,  reflected  his  sentiments.  In 
these  beginnings  of  the  newspaper,  we  find  little  or  no  attein])t  sit  journalism, 
as  now  understood  and  j)raeticed :  no  promise  and  pot»'ncy  of  a  literatui'e 
])eculiar  to  newspaper  enterprise.  The  journalist  had  yet  to  c(mie  into  being. 
He  first  appeared  as  a  writer  of  "news-letters."  generally  frO'  .some  capital, 
or  seat  of  legislation,  or  commercial  centre.  His  duty  was  to  keep  a  line  of 
masters  or  patrons  supplied  with  news  during  their  absence  from  court,  legis- 
lative hall,  or  business  mart.  His  duty  evolved  into  a  calling.  His  patrons 
became  regular  paying  subscribers,  to  each  of  whom  he  wrote.  These  letters, 
coming  from  all  countries  of  the  conti.'ont  of  Europe,  and  covering  a  wide 
field  of  iniormation.  became  of  great  interest,  and  many  collections  of  them 
are  still  in  existence  in  libraries,  adding  no  little  to  their  historic^  value. 

The  stcji  was  easy  from  this  journalistic  stage  to  the  regular  periodic  ])ub- 
lication. open  not  only  to  the  "news-letter,"  but  to  discursive  thought.  Thus, 
in  1(541 ,  "The  Weekly  News."  of  London,  began  the  publication  of  parlia- 
mentary proceedings  in  addition  to  its  budget  of  '*  new.s-letters."  This  era 
witnessed  a  rapid  establishment  of  weekly  newspapers,  retiuiring  editorial 
supervision  and  regular  contributions.  They  were  not  without  their  vicissi- 
tudes. Many  of  their  careers  were  brief  ami  marked  with  pecuniary  losses; 
yet  out  of  the  wreckage  sprang  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  modern 
journals. 

]iy  170;?  (Jreat  IJritain  was  ripe  for  a  daily  newspai)er,  and  in  that  year  one 
appeared umler  the  name  of  "The  Daily  Courant."  The  advent  of  this  enter- 
prise gave  further  impetus  to  newspaper  jndjlication.  The  English  press  of 
the  eighteenth  century  rose  into  great  ])opular  favor.  It  was  able,  and  (juitc 
too  inde|)emlent  for  royalty  ami  royal  e(mrtier.  For  corrupt  ami  and»itious 
government  it  often  became  a  whip  of  .scorpions,  and  in  revenge  was  both 
severely  taxed  and  invidiously  censored,  lint  it  seemed  to  ])rosper  amid 
op])osition  and  persecution,  and  by  177(1  fifty-three  newspapers  were  jmblisheil 
in  London  .alone.  During  the  reign  of  (Jeorge  MI.  (17GO-1820)  the  history  of 
the  English  news|)ai)er  is  one  of  criminal  ])ersecutions,  amid  which  editors 
aiul  contributors  were  re))eatedly  defeated,  and  sometinu's  severely  ])Uinshe(l : 
yet  it  is  doubtful  if  at  any  jjcriod  the  press  gained  greater  strength  frimi  pro 
tracted  conflict,  or  turned  ignominious  jjcnalties  into  more  signal  triuni])hs. 
It  is  sigi\iticant  that  out  of  this  dark,  tumultuous,  and  forbidding  era  s])ran^ 
many  of  the  newspapers  whose  influence  is  most  potential  to-day  in  Englisli 
affairs  of  state  and  in  the  literature  of  journalism.  The  era  marks  the  turn  in 
newsjiaper  values.     The  establishment  became  a  concrete  thing,  a  lively  jjro- 


^  the  news 
Till'  fust 

\)y  t'ditovs, 
navy  trad*'. 
I  their  i)ub- 
ipoiuliug  to 
oiTUvios." 
jH'nuaneuci' 
Mi\  oweil  its 
was  lavf,'ely 
iiuents.     In 
[.  jovirnalism, 
a  litevaturc 
le  into  being, 
some  capital, 
eep  a  line  ol 
[\  court,  legis- 
11  is  i)atr(nis 
rhese  letttMs, 
vering  a  wide 
tions  of  tlieni 
ic  value, 
periodic  pub- 
ought.    Thus, 
;ion  of  parlia- 
■s."    'Ihis  era 
.ring  editorial 
their  vicissi- 
luniary  losses ; 
if  the  modern 

1  that  year  ont> 
of  this  enter- 
Jrlish  press  of 
ble,  and  (piite 
iiud  ambitious 
luge  was  both 
I  prosper  amid 
lore  pidAislu'd 
jthe  history  of 
Iwliicb  editors 
l«dy  ])unisluMl ; 
Jigth  from  pro- 
Tnal  tri\imph^^ 
tig  era  sprauij: 
,ay  in  English 
Iks  the  turn  in 
I,  a  lively  iirn- 


THE   Ch:\TL'in"S   LtTEItATUHE 


221 


■rty,  an  energy  compo.scd  of  practical  business  minils.  surrouii(U'(l  aiul  sup- 
trted  by  the  best  procurable  literary  talent,  adapted  for  treating  diversitit'd 
i[)ics.     Thus  "The  London  Morning  Chronicle,''  fountled  in  17S*.),  rose  to  be 
|)roperty  in  l.SL'.'i  wiiicli  sold  for  .1i<'_'l(>,(Kt(t ;  while  "The  Morning  Post"  not 
;dy  gave  to  Coleridge  his  fanu'  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  pid)licists,  but  en- 
sted  the  brilliant  attaiiuuents  of  .Mackintosh,  Soutliey,  ^'oung,  and  Moore. 
he  sturdy  "  Lonch)!!  Times,"  which  dates  from  17<sr».  and  for  years  eneoun- 
red  malignant  royal   hostility,  jirovcd   itself  strong  enough  to  brave  the 
ivernmcut  and  at  the  same  tinu'  suthciently  enterprising  to  introduce  sti'aui 
I  lilting  and  every  nieehanism  calculated  to  give  it  precedence  as  a  metropol- 
,;iii  journal.      As  a  property,  it  is  to-day  worth  a  Hgiire  incredible  at  tlie 
1    ginning  of  the  century,  and  so  powerful  was  its  hold  on  popular  favor  for 
t  ;i'  Hrst  half  of  the  century  that  no  other  daily  couUl  compete  witii  it.     lu- 
lled, it  may  be  said   to  have  had  a  lone  Held  up  to  the  establishment  of 
•   l"he   Daily  News,"   in    l.S4(),  "The  Daily  Telegrai)h,''  in  liSr»r».  and  "The 
^;|;llldard,"  in  l.sr»7. 

The  nineteenth  (ientury  journalism  of  (Jreat  l>ritain  is  diaracterizcil  by  its 
t;icat  plenitude.  Mtu-ning  and  evening  papers  alxmnd  in  all  tin-  centres. 
Tlic  wetikly  pajier  is  still  an  important  literary  and  news  factor.  ('lii,;s 
jiipers  arc  niunerous  and  t'xeellent  in  tlieir  way.  Again,  the  century's  jour- 
nalism is  characteri/ed  by  its  propt'rty  value.  .Many  of  the  leading  Kiiglish 
journals  have  become  immense  properties  worth  millions  of  dollars  each,  and 
r((|iiiring  the  ablest  management  to  improve  and  perpetuate  them.  Further, 
the  iMiglish  press  is  characteri/ed  by  able  and  conservative,  if  prosaic,  edito- 
lial  methods.  Its  eori'espoiideiice  is  cautious,  and  covers  every  important 
field.  Ifs  news  columns,  so  far  as  they  depend  on  the  tidegraph  and  tele- 
plione,  are  sprightly  and  well  tilled,  Imt  limited  and  dull  when  the  local 
reporter  is  the  source  of  sii})ply. 

As  alreadv  stated,  the  annals  of   l'"reiicli  )ouriialisni  began  with  tin'  louiid- 


iii'''  1)1 


th 


■(Jazette  de  France"  in  1().">1.     The  evolulion  of  the  French  new; 


])a|icr  was  not  rai)id  till  the  ciglite«'iitli  century  was  well  along,  when  the  era 
el  the  tiist  revolution  called  f(U'  a  news  and  literature  i)cculiar  to  bloody  and 
exciting  times.  Myriads  of  newsjiapers  sprang  into  existence,  all  but  two  of 
which  found  their  graves  with  the  passing  of  the  emergency  which  called 
them  into  being.  Karly  in  the  nineteenth  century  (l.S.'id)  the  introduction  of 
cheap  journalism  gave  great  impetus  to  enterjirise.  and  by  the  middle  of  the 
cciitury  the  number  and  circulation  of  French  newspapers  had  more  than 
ti'el)led.  Tiiis  rate  has  been,  in  great  part,  sustained  throughout  the  latter 
lialf  of  the  century,  and  the  French  iteojile  are  to-day  abundantly  supjilii'd 
with  a  newspaper  literature  whicii  for  vivacity  and  amplitude  is  unex(;elled. 
It  may  not  have  the  solid  and  lasting  iuHuenee  of  the  soberer  outcrop  of  other 
nations,  but  it  is  singularly  adapted  to  a  sprightly  and  mercurial  people,  and 
is  well  sustentative  of  the  great  p(ditical  transition  of  the  people  and  empire 
.since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  ci'iiturv. 

The  evolution  of  the  newspaper  in  (lermany  was  slow.  F.etween  !(>];">, 
the  date  of  the  founding  of  the  "  Fraid<furter  .Journal."  and  17!)<S,  when  the 
•'Allgemeine  Zeitung'"  ((Jeneral  News)  was  foiimled  by  the  bookseller  Cotta, 
at  licipsic,  no  journals  oi  a  high  order  made  tiicir  appearance,  and  it  needed 
the  inspiration  of  the  French  Uevolution    to  bcjjit't  in  the  (ierman  mind  a 


I   <<i 


c  m 


^m 


m\ 


ti 


[  I' 


li;'i'if 


IP       ,      - 

if!    -         !  1  » 

ill      i 


^:|    .1 


Ih 


i"\ 


332 


TIUUMPHS  AM)    WON UE lis    OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTUHY 


(lesii'P  tor  a  liveli«'r  lu'wspiiper  litenitiiic  than   luul  pici'XisU'tl.     Thus,  fli 
'' Zeitiin^'"  soon  spraui,'  into  fj^rcat  popiilaiity  as  a  puivryc  r  of  lu'ws  and  ;i 
a  iiicdium  of  (liscussioii,  ami  has  over  siiitf  luaiiitaiiit'd  a  holding  phicf  in  tli' 
(Tcniian  i)oliti('al  ])n'ss.     It  not  only  si't  tlu-  style  of  the  jm'ihs  at  the  turn 
of  the  century,  hut  jjroved  to  ht.'  a  |)ioneer   in   that  wonderi'u'    jouruidistii 
luanrh  which   spread  over  all  Cienuan-speaking  (•o\iiitries   during  the  nim 
teenth  century,  giving  to  them   media  of  news  and  diseussior.  as  ahh'  unn 
influential  as  exist  in  any  land.     J»y  1870  there  existtMl  in  (iijrmany  propii 
.'(TSO  newspajM'rs  and  periodicals;  in  Austria-Hungary.  "(»<►;  in  Switzeriaml. 
.")(MI;  not  to  mention  the  many  hundreds  jirinted  in  (lerman  in  other  coun- 
tries, especially  in  the  I'nited  States.    A  proportionate  iiioroase  would  greiitl\ 
augment  the  ahove  figures  by  the  eml  of  tlu;  century,     'i'he  rise  of  (Jeriiian 
socialism  proved  to  be  a  prolific  source  of  journalism,     The  socialist  seeni> 
to  be  a  born   editor  and  literary  ctmdtatant.     Me  is  also  a  great  rea(h'r  anil 
bold  and  indep.endent  thinker.     Under  the  socialistic  demand  for  a  literatuiv 
pecidiar  to  itself,  there  has  arisen  a  score  of  (lerman   jtrinting-otfices  ami 
pcriiaps  fifty  jioiitical  journals,  a  third  of  which  are  dailies. 

In  the  Netherlands,  Uelgium,  Denmark.  Norway.  Sweden.  K'ussia.  Ital\, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  European  countries,  the  press  of  the  nineteenlli 
century  has  kept  pace  with  the  mental  needs  and  spirit  of  enterpri.se  of  tin- 
res|iective  peoples.  Indeed,  tliert>  is  no  such  an  accurate  criterion  of  the  gen- 
eral make-up  of  a  peo])le,  of  their  [ilace  in  the  lines  of  progress,  (if  tlicir 
influence  upon  civilization,  as  that  atforded  by  their  press.  Tiie  liclgiaii 
press  is  ninddy  commercial,  that  of  the  Netiierlands  ])rosy  and  substantial, 
whihi  that  of  the  Scandinavian  (Miuntries  is  rugged,  accurate,  and  solemn l\ 
influential.  The  Ifussian  press,  where  free,  is  desjiotic  and  unprogressiviv 
r)\it  it  is  so  fre([uently  under  cens(n\ship  tliat  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  rcHcr! 
with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  popidar  spirit  of  the  em])ire.  The  Italian 
press  is  indolent  and  easy-going,  inaccurate,  sjiicy  by  spasms,  of  little  relativr 
influence,  exce]it  as  it  has  been  improved  since  the  unification  of  the  Italian 
States.  Spain  is  a  countrv  of  ]S.0( )(>.(»( HI  ])eople,  but  has  fewer  newsiiai)cr> 
and  periodicals  than  the  single  State  of  New  York.  Of  Spain's  IL'OO  papt  is. 
only  ."iOO  ar(>  news])ai)ers.  Of  the  rest.  .'UMt  are  scientific  journals,  mostl\ 
monthly.  KM)  an;  devoted  to  ndigion.  and  Mn  to  satire,  music,  i)()etry,  art.  ctr. 
l>arcelona  ami  Madrid  are  the  great  centres  of  journalistic  literature.  Tln' 
political  papers  are  the  most  powerful.  The  reading  public  of  Spain  is  liin 
ited.  and  the  average  circulation  of  a  Spanish  newspa])pr  is  oidy  about  I'-'t"* 
copies. 

In  the  New  World  the  demand  for  newsi)aper  literature  during  the  niiir- 
teenth  century  has  proven  (piite  as  strong  as  in  the  ( )ld  World,  and,  in  certain 
hicalities.  even  stronger.  Kven  among  the  youthful  and  tumultuous  rcimii- 
lics  of  South  America,  with  their  large  percentages  of  lower  classes  and 
illiterates,  there  are  few  centres  of  im])ortance  that  do  not  su|)port  resptci- 
ahle  and  fairly  infiuential  j(mrnals.  The  news-gathering  and  news-consunii!i',' 
spirit  may  not  be  so  active  as  elsewhere,  nor  the  commercial  sense  so  acni' . 
yet  the  century  has  laid  the  groinuhvork  of  journalistic  enter))rise  so  lin  i'\ 
that  future  years  can  afford  to  build  upon  it  with  certainty.  The  same  ni.v 
be  said  of  journalism  in  Mexico  and  the  other  Latin  rep\iblics  of  Xoi  h 
America. 


THE   cestui: )"S    LlTEIt. I  77  HE 


.'•j;» 


Itl'N.IAMlN     KIJANKI.IN. 


In  Oanadii,  the  I'entiiry  sliows  a  lii!j;lily  ('(iiiiiilimfiitiiry  j,'r()\vth  in  uows- 
ijK'v  literature  and  intiiUMice.     (irt'at  iiride  is  talit-n  in  accnrate   and  aide 
litorship,  and  in  tliat  kind  of  nianau'enient  which  is  best  calculated  to  cou- 
rt investment  into  permanent  and  |tn)titalile  iirnpcrty,     Wiiat  they  lack 
II  the  reportorial,  or  strictly  newsy,  side,  they  make  np  in  tree,  clean,  and 
i.ideptMident  di.scussiou.    Tiie  people  are 
,1'aders  and,   therefore,   <,'(nierous   snp- 
icirters  of  the  enterprises  desi^nied  to 
Mipply  them  with  their  periodical  liter- 
.ilure.     During  the  century  the  news- 
|i,ipers  and   periodioals  of  Oanadu  in- 
(  leased  in  nmnher  from  a  very  lew  to 
Sdl.',  as  reported  in  181)4.     Of  these.  S7 
iiic  dailies,   ."»S;!  weeklies,    l.'tS   monlii- 
li.s,  3  tri-weeklies,  L'l}  semi-weeklies,  fi 
lii-weeklies,  lit  semi-monthlies.  U  ipiar- 
tcrlies.     The  largest  centres  of  oiniulu- 
tidu  are  the  province  of  Ontario  with 
."til"    newspapers   and    periodicals,    and 
(,»iicbcc  with  l.'JL'. 

The  century's  grandest  licld  for  joiir- 
!.,,listic  opportunity  has  liecn  the  I'nited 
States.  Here  journalism  has  tievelopcd 
with  the  greatest  rapidity,  exemplilicii 
its  manifold  features  to  the  fullest  cn- 

tt-nt.  most  successfully  jiroved  its  iiitiucncc  us  an  educative  .'ind  civili/.in-- 
ugeiicy.  Starting  with  the  great  and  essentia!  encouragement  ol  Ireeiloni.  \x 
lias  found  luiremitting  and  energetic  propulsion  in  the  unprecedented  grnwili 
(if  population,  in  the  marvelous  activities  re(|uiring  intercoiunninication  of 
tiiought,  in  an  intelligence  wliicii  (constantly  recruited  nrmies  of  oiunivoroiis 
readers,  and  in  facilities  for  tlie  prepai-ation  und  disseniination  of  the  litera- 
ture at  command. 

The  beginning  (d'  newspaper  enterprise  in  the  I'nited  States  was  in 
iJiiston,  in  1090,  when  the  ••  I'ublick  Occurrences  "' appeared  uiiiler  the  all- 
spices of  jicnjamin  Harris.  It  was  designed  to  be  a  monthly,  and  was 
printed  on  three  sides  of  a  folded  sheet,  each  side  i)eing  only  eleven  inelies 
long  by  seven  wide,  it  was  suppressed  after  its  first  issue  by  the  coloniiil 
government  of  .Massachusetts,  thus  restricting  the  avenues  of  news  to  the 
foreign  journals  or  lo(?al  cofl'ee-liouses.  ]>nt  the  demand  for  home  news 
was  not  thus  to  be  crushed.  There  s])rang  up  a  medium  of  communication 
by  news-letters,  such  as  then  existed  in  England;  and  in  1704  the  ])ost- 
niaster  of  Uoston  undertook  to  keep  ( ertain  fiiiictio':,  iis  informed  of  the 
course  of  events  by  a  periodical  news-letter  in  jn-inteu  '-in.  This  he  called 
"  The  Xews-Letter,"  a  title  which,  with  some,  is  treated  as  that  of  a  news- 
piiper.  ]t  was  to  a])pear  weekly,  and  would  l)e  sent  to  subseri1)ers  for  such 
reasonable  sum  as  might  be  agreed  n])on.  .Vfter  a  lapse  of  fifteen  years, 
without  competition,  it  had  attained  a  subscription  list  of  oidy  three  hundred 
(•e|iles.  A  .subse(pient  postmast(n'  started  an  op])ositioii  sheet  in  1710.  called 
•'The  H()st(m  Gazette."     Its  ap])earance  caused  him  to  lose  his  ottice.  but 


!|« 


224 


rniL'M/'ns  and  mcav^a'avv  of  the  a/a"'  vemuhy 


Mi 


•  t!!, 


tlu'  riviil  puiHMs  ('((iitiiiiu'tl  to  i-xist,  •' Tlu'  Nt-ws-IiCtttT "  up  to  tlu'  t'viicua- 
tii)ii  ul'  MiKsltm  by  llif  Itritisli  troops  in  177<"».  ami  tlu'  ■•  (Ja/ulti' "  up  to  17^1. 
"Tlui  Uostoii  (iu/.t'ttf  "  iippt'iirt'd  on  Di'i'i'IiiImt  1*1,  171*.(.  ( Mio  tla.v  uttt-r, 
Dt'ct-niltor  I'l'.  17I'.>.  Aiiilicw  Itiiuiroid  wtarlcil  "Tin'  Aiiiciicau  \V»'t'kl_\ 
Mercury '' at  IMiiladflpliia.  On  Auf,'u.st  17.  17L'l,  .laiui's  Krankliii  startt-d 
"Tilt'  Now  KuLclunil  Coiirant."  on  which  licnjiiniin  Kranklin  h-arncd  tin 
tradi' ot  prinl»'r.  Alter  an  existence  of  seven  years  its  publication  ceased. 
(  Ml  October  U.'i.  I7l.'"».  William  Ibadlbrd  started  "Tin-  New  York  (Ja/.ette." 
••  'I'lic  New  Kn},'laiid  Weekly  dournul  "  succeeded  "  Th«'  lUistoii  (.Jazetle  "  ami 
*'Co\irant  "  in  17L'7.  ••The  Maryland  tla/ette,"  the  first  pa|)er  published 
in  that  colony,  appeared  in  17L'7.  In  I71.'S  Saniuel  Keinier  started  " 'I'hr 
I'niversal    Instructor  in  all   the   Arts  and   Sciences  and    I  "Ivania  (ia- 

zette,"   at   I'hiladelphia.     The    following   year    l>enjandii  xlin  l)ou},dit 

!\ein»er's  jdant.  and  shortened  the  name  to  "The  I'eiinsylvania  (}a/ette."' 
The  first  jiaper  in  the  colony  of  South  Carolina,  called  " 'l"he  South  Caroliuii 
Gazette,"  was  published  on  .lanuury  .S,  17.'!1.  On  November  ~>,  17.'{.'{,  '• 'I'lic 
Mew  York  Weekly  .lonrnal  "  ajipeared  as  a  rival  to  the  >' ( Ja/.i'tte."  In 
17.'»<>  the  first  newspaper  appeared  in  N'irginia.  It  was  pul>lished  al 
Williamsbui;;.  and  was  called  "  The  N'irjjinia  (iazette."  In  I7.')'.ta  (Jermaii 
newspaper  appeared  at  (iermautown,  I'a,,  and  another,  in  17l.'>.  at  I'hiladel- 
phia.     Ml  these   pioneer  papers,  with  tlie  exception  of  a  few.  notalily  "The 

Pennsylvania  (iazette"  under  Franklin, 
and  "The  New  York  ^Veekly  . lonrnal  " 
under  Zeii;,^'!',  were  merely  news  pur- 
veyors, or.  if  any  ojiinions  were  ex- 
pressed, they  were  in  accord  with  tlir 
authorities  of  the  day. 

After  MAT)  the  press  he  colonics 

became  more  indepeiid  'd  profjres- 

sive,  in  obedience  to  a  uei...iiid  for  litci- 
ature  bearing  upon  the  (juestions  rel;i- 
tinjj;  to  the  comini,'  revolution.  New 
journals  (d'  the  weekly  class  sprang  up 
with  considerable  rapidity  and,  for  tli>' 
most  jiart.  in  opposition  to  I'aiglaiidV 
met Ic ids  of  colonial  government.  Anion- 
tin  se  were  "The  IJostoii  Indeiieiideui 
Advocate."  started  nnder  the  auspices  dl 
Samuel  Adams,  in  174.S;  "The  New 
llamiishire  (iazi'tte."  in  17r)(»  ;  "  Thr 
I'.oston  (iazette  and  Country  (ieiilli- 
niMii."  in  17;");  the  "Newjiort  (1!.  li 
^lercurv."  in  17">S;  "'J'lie  Connecticut  Conrant."  in  17(i4. 

15y  177."'>,  the  comnieiK-ement  of  the  struggle  for  in(le))endence,  the  eoloni:i! 
])ress  numbered  thirty  imblications.  all  weekly.  Of  these,  seven  were  ])ul'- 
lished  in  iMassachusetts.  one  in  "New  llamiishire.  two  in  lUiode  Island,  thivr 
in  C'onnecticut,  eight  in  IViinsy Ivania,  and  three  in  New  York.  In  the  fir-! 
vear  of  the  war  eight  new  weeklies  were  ad(h'd  to  the  list,  four  of  tin'. 
being  in  rhiladelphia.     On    December.'!.   1777.   the   first  newspajier,  •' Tl 


noil  \CI',    OltKK.I.KV. 

Fiimnli'i' <i|'  -'New  York  'riilmin' 


il 


\     I- 


rill-:  ij-:\iiii)s  1.111:1;  \ri  in: 

<  .i/.t'ttf,"  ;i|i|it';in'(l  ill  New  .It'isi'V.  mnl  in  ITnI.iIh'  lii>t  in  N'miumt.  •  Tlit* 
(  .i/.i'tlf  or  ( iii'cii  Mdiintiiiii  I'ost  l»n_v."  Such  was  the  laliility  ovt«rliaiii,'iu!ij 
I  111' ('(iliinial  pi'i'ss  tliat.  ol'  the  sixt  v-tliicc  iit'\vs](a|n'is  wliicli  liad  utmif  iiil(» 
I  \ist»'iicr  prinr  lo  I7S.".  milv  I'ortv -I  liri't>  siirvivi'il  at  thai  liafc 

|'"ii)iii  ITS'.t,  ilic  ilatc  on  wiiicli  tiic 
(  oiisiitiii  loll  went  into  o|M-ralioii,  liii 
till'  I'losc  of  tlu!  <'i;^Iit('('iit  li  ccntiiry  and 
riily  lir^'imiinj;  ol'  llic  uiin'ti'cnlli.  si-v- 
1  i;il  nc\vs]iaiM'ra  wrrc  roiindi'il.  most,  (d' 
winch  were  anh'iitly  political,  and, 
lliiMC^h  fiiiphty iii!^  writers  of  ability, 
Will'  liittt'ily  \  itupcralivt'.  'I'lm  most 
liiiwcrfnl  ol'  this  class  wciv  •• 'I'lic   Aii- 


I'li 


a  "' of  I'hiladidphia.  .It'lTcrson's  Iciid- 


ni;4  organ 


The  lOvcnin"'  I'ost,  "ol'  New 


^tll'k,  tilt'  oiKan  id'  tlie  iMMieralists :  and 
•The  Aim'ri(Nin  (.'itizen  "  oi'  New  ^'o^i^. 
;iM  nr;j;an  of  the  Clintonian  democracy. 
Tlic  close  (d'  the  ei<,diteeiitli  oentniy  wil- 
iicsM'd  also  the  advent  (d'  the  jiress  in 
tlic  .Mississippi  Valley.  '■  The  (!eiil  iiiel 
ut  the  Northwestern  Territory  "  was 
>larted  at  CiiKdnnati.  November  ",».  IT'.K!; 


aiK 


1    "Tl 


le    Scioto    (Jazette 


at  Chill i- 


.nUIN    \V.    KOUM  V 
I'diiiidi'i' (if  "  I'hilailrlpliia  I'n-ss.' 


cot  he,  in  IT'.Mi. 

The  jiress  of  the  early  part  of  I  lie  nineteenth  century  ,y;rew  rapidly  iii 
iiiniilier,  cireiihition.  and  inllnciice.  While  it  was  lari,'ely  jtartisan.  the  Held 
(il  discnssion  gra<lnally  broadened,  and  the  news  deiiartments  became  more 
vivMcions  and  comprehensive.  Many  of  the  newspapers  founded  diirinu;  the 
tir.st  decades  of  the  century  exist  at  its  (dose.  ha,vin<,'  enjoyed  their  Ioii.l; 
careers  of  inflnence  with  honor,  and  become  properties  of  incalciilalile 
value.  J)nring  this  jieriod  the  transition  from  the  weekly  to  the  daily  news- 
paper gradually  went  on  in  the  large  cities.  The  first  .\iiierican  ilaily  ])a|ier, 
'•  The  American  Daily  Advertiser."  was  published  at  riiiladidpliia  in  1781. 
With  it  came  the  first  use  of  reporters,  or  regularly  employed  news- 
gatherers,  an  innovation  as  important  to  the  public  as  the  advent  (d'  the  daily 


itself. 


Special,   or  class,    newsjiapers   also   began 


to   i^et   a   tirni    foothold 


during  this  period.  "1'he  Xilos's  Weekly  Iiegistci"  app(;ared  in  lialtimore 
ill  IHll.  The  first  ndigious  newsi)a])er  attempted  in  the  I'liited  States 
appeared  at  Chillicothe.  ()..  1.S14.  The  first  of  the  agricultural  ])ress  was 
"The  American  Farmer.'"  whitdi  appeared  at  lialtimore.  .\pril  1'.  ISlS.  to  be 
Inllowed  by  "The  I'longhnian."  ut  .\lbany,  N.  Y.,  in  IS'Jl.  and  by  ••  Tin' 
New  England  Karmer."  in  ISL'L'.  Several  strictly  commercial  and  financial 
pai)ers  found  an  origin  in  this  jieriod,  the  most  successful  of  which  was 
••The  New  Orleans  I'rii-cs  Current."  established  in  ISL'L'. 

During  this  period  the  newspajier,  whether  daily  or  weekly,  w  as  distributed 

"uly  to  the  regular  subscriber.  —  the  ]U-ice  of  a  singlecopy  on  the  street  being 

piiihibitory.     The  slow-going  mail  facilities  of  the  time  ])revented  the  large 

<ii<'ulations  that  are  credited  to  modern  journalism.    Trior  to  IS,"."!  no  leading 

15 


'J 

i 


\' 


t^ 


'i^'.i 


-2'2(i 


TUlUMrHS  AM)    WOSDEIIS   OF   THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 


I  III 


n 


Hi 


.nil   I 


11 


iM'\vspa]M'r  could  throw  siitticit'iit,  fiiteriirisc  into  its  businoss  to  niise  itscirciiLi 
tioii  ;iiM)vt'r>OOncn|iit's.  'I'liis  kept  the  ]irit'i'ot'ii(lvt'rtisin<,'lo\v.;iiiiloonse(jut'iill\ 
liiuitcd  a  soiiici'  ol  jjiolit  which  lias  since  ;4ru\vn  to  I'uonuDUS  projiortions. 

'I'hc  pciioil  cndt'd  with  the  advent  of  the  i)enny  j)ress,  in  New  A'ork,  in  IS."..;. 
The   initial   experiment  in   this  line  was  made  l>y   H.  I).  Shepard  with  hi> 

"  ^Iornin,t,'  Post,"  and  it  jiroved  a  tail- 
ure  in  the  short  ]ieriod  of  three  weeks. 
'I'he  next  was  "The  l>ail_v  Sun."  Seji 
teudier  L'.">.  IS."!,'!,  claiming-  to  be  ■•  wril 
ten,  edited,  set  up,  and  worked  off  "  by 
Uenjamin  Franklin  Day.  It  remaiiicii 
a  penny  paper  for  a  lon.Lf  time  and  at 
tained  a  large  eireulution.  It  was  re- 
organi/.ed  in  l.S(>7.  when  Charles  A. 
I>ana  became  its  editor.  Though  tlir 
[•rice  was  put  uji  to  t  wo  cents,  it  became 
under  ids  control  oiu'  of  the  most  jio- 
teutial  news  ami  political  factors  of  the 
century,  and  attained  a  circulation  ot 
over  ItKMMK)  C()i)ies  daily.  In  :\ray. 
IS."!"),  .lames  (iordou  ISenuett  followed 
in  the  tracks  of  Day  with  "The  New 
\'ork  Herald."  Its  sprightly  news  col 
umnstind  fantastic  advertisements  com 
mendeti  it  to  pojtular  favor,  ami  ])rove(l 
a  source  of  great  profit.  It  has  since 
greatly  varied  its  prices  ;  but  by  dint  ol 
stupendous,  if  peculiar,  enterprise,  it  has  grown  into  enormous  circulation, 
and  become  a  ]>roperty  worth  millions.  In  bS41,  Horace  (ireeley  started 
"The  New  York  Tribuiu'."  at  tirst  as  a  penny  paper,  though  on  an  elevated 
plane,  it  soon  gi'ew  iuto  popular  favor,  and  with  its  weekly  and  semi-weekly 
edititins  for  country  circulation  becanu'  oiu'  of  the  most  withdy  circulateil 
and  influential  ionrnals  in  the  couutrv.  "The  New  ^'ork  Times"  also  began 
as  a  penny  paper  in  isrd.  under  the  control  of  Henry  .1.  l\aynu)nd. 

Winle  the  era  of  a  distinctive  and   popular  penny  jn-ess  was  short-lived. 
\t  witnessed  one  of  the  nu)st  notable  advances  of  the  century  in  jcmrnalisiu- 
li  stimulated  newspaper  enteri»rise  throughout  the  entire  country,  and  join- 
nals  multiplied  euiuuiously.     The  era  ])ractically  ended  with  the  outbrc;ii< 
of  the  Civil  War  in    iNdl.  which  event'eaused  a  rise  in  the  price  of  i)apci, 
a  demand    foi'  expensive  correspondence,  ttdegraph  news  ami  battle  scenes, 
and  a   conse(pient  necessity   for  eidarged  au'i  (piadrupled  sheets.      .Many  ol 
the  penny  ]iapers   went    uji  to  a   live-cent    price  under  the  stinndus  of  \\;ii 
excitement,  the  inquoved  system  of  collecting  news,  and  the  added  expend 
of  ]iul)licatiou.     This  cua  of  phenomenal  nev.si)aper  expansion  exti'iuled  e\eii 
to  the  end  of    the  century.       It   has  witnessed  the  wonderful   evolution   i  : 
the  ncwspajier  in  all  ds  modern   phases.  —  the  advent  of  the  Sunday  new 
]iaper;  the  growth  id   the  daily  sheet  to  mammoth   propiutions ;  the  incei 
poration    of    the   Associated    I'ress,  with    its  thousands  ot    agents    in  evei 
part  of  the  country  gathering  and  sending  the  ndnutost  events  (tt  the  da; 


.losKi'u  .MKnri.i, 

"<'liit'iit;ii  riibiini'.' 


;civciilii 

tious. 

in  \^'Mk 
with  h\> 
'd  II  fiiil- 
•I'  wt't'Us. 
m."  Seji- 
,)v  "  writ 
(lotVl.y 
voiuaiiu'il 
,e  and  at 
It  was  \v 
liavU's   A. 
ioni;li  tlir 

it  bi'i'auic 
•  most  ]»>- 

;()rs  of  till' 

Illation  111 
In    -May. 
t  t'ollowfil 
'The  Mfw 
\f  news  rol- 
mentsconi- 
n\d  i)rov(Hl 
has  sinci' 
l)y  (lint  ot 
irciihitioii. 
ley   started 
n  elevated 
mi-weekly 
circnlated 
also  began 

Ihort-lived. 
mirnalisin. 
I,  and  jinu- 
!■  outbreak 
of  i)aiie.. 
{\i>  scene-. 
Many  <'\ 
lus  of  \\.ii 
Id  exi)eii-' 
Inded  ev'i; 
lutioii   I  ! 
Idtiy  i>e\\ 
Ithe  inei'' 
in  oviM 
the  da.\ 


ItKeUItU   llLlLlJUNti,    IMlll.Ahl.l.l'lllA. 


I  I 


it 

i 


% 


"f 


MP  1 


11 

lis 

11^; 

/g^'l 

ill 
\y4 

1 

ll 

'  ''v^^ml 

,  4ffl 

'IfP 

II 

11 

:mt 

"'  ''Pit 

iffif 

1                     '1 

i2& 

1    : 

'228 


TUIUMI'HS   A\l>    noMJ/CRS   OF    I  HE   XIX'"  CENTURY 


I'i     I'  ' 


i! 


(•(irn'S|Hiii(lt'mM'  IrDiii  cvcrv  (iiiitrtfr  nT  the  .uIoIm'.  ami  (mivci'iiih  cvi'iy  lu'M 
of  iiotivitv  ;  ii  lii,u:lily  iiiipnivcd  iiml  mort'  inilciifinlciil.  ('(lilorsliip  ;  ii  {;iciit  l\ 
eiiliii',i;t'(i.  more  active,  iiml  lumc  consciciitKHis  r('|i(iitiiiial  stall';  the  (•iiniiiii,' 
of  tlu'  interviewer,  at  liist  an  iiiipertiiienl  lies).  li\it  ikiw  reeognizeil  as  a 
valuable  jonrnalistie  aiijiinet  in  relleetint;  opininns  and  sentiments  not  (illier- 
wise  ()litainal)le ;  tlie  eniplovnient  nf  the  tlionsand  and  one  new  appliances 
for  printini;.  such  as  stereotypin;;.  elect  roty  pin  ii;,  improved  ty|ies,  typi'settiiiLf 
macliiiics,  rapid  presses,  i'oldin.u  niaeliines.  etc. 

Hy  1SS."»  a  reaction  eanie  on  in  the  prices  (d'  leadiny;  jonrnals.  and  they 
were  forced  to  rednce  them  by  reason  of  the  stroii;,;- comitetit'  n  otTercd  by 
the  nuniiTons  and  powerful  Iwo-cenI  Jonrnals  which  had  come  into  licinj; 
and  had  ]>roven  to  be  valuable  properties.  Indeed,  this  reaction  did  not 
leave  the  two-cent  journals  untoncheil.  for  it  brou,t,dit  many  of  that  (dass 
to  a  one-cent  basis,  with  the  (daim  that  a  constMpiently  increased  circula- 
tion would  «'nliance  the  |irolits  from  advertising;.  This  claim  is  a  <hd)ataljle 
one.  and  it  may  be  salely  said  that  most  of  Ih'-  newspapers  established  neai' 
the  end  of  the  century  have  adopted  a  tw  .it  basis  as  a  golden  mean 
between  the  tuie-ccnt  and  three-cent  jonrnals. 

I'roportionally  speakinir,  the  growth  id'  the  press  in  the  Tnited  Stales 
has  been  as  even  as  it  has  been  rapid.  No  leadinsj;  citv  is  without  press 
establishments    and    prominent    journals,   .some  of    them  conducted  on    tli 


li 


irgest    scales  of   expenditur* 


the  West    wing  with    the    Kast,  an<l    the 


South  with  the  North,  in  lil)erality  and  enterprise.  The  newspaper  otfice 
«d'  th<!  early  part  of  the  ceidury  was  generally  dingy  and  eram|ied.  The 
abode  of  many,  espeeially  in  the  larger  cities,  has  lieconu-  a  handsome  |iiie, 
conspicuous  in  andiiteetural  etfects,  capacious  and  (deanly, -— Htting  hive  lor 
tiie  myriad  of  W(U'kers  that  toil  at  midday  and  midnight  in  pursuit  of  the 
"art  pre.servative."  The  auinial  oxitenditure  of  a  single  newspa]»er  operated 
on  a  large  scale  has  been  tiius  compntt'd:  Kditorial  and  literary  matter. 
!Ji<l.'L'().(tO(>;  local  news,  .1i('_".U>.0(»0 ;  illustrations.  .f!l,S(M»<t(l ;  c<irrespon(ience. 
.•JIL'A.OOO;  telegraph,  .f(;.'..(>0(» ;  cable.  fL'T.OdO;  mechanical.  . It!  I  lO.r.Od  ;  paper. 
I«i()l7.(>00  ;  business  office.  .5 -M «>.(»(»(»;  a  total  of  *'_'.! .'>.".. r.Ott. 

Nearly  every  town  in  the  I'nitefl  States  id'  1,\(>(K)  population  lias  come  by 
tho  end  of  the  century  to  hav(>  its  daily  newspaiier.  aiid  few  of  even  l(MK»  po]i- 
ulation,  especially  if  a  county-seat,  are  withcuit  their  weekly  news|»apers. 
It  has  bcconu-  possible  to  comluct  a  rural  weekly  (d'  fail'  proportions  and  with 
(juite  readable  matter  upon  a  very  economic  basis,  by  means  of  a  central  otfici' 
in  S(nne  large  city.  This  ollice  prints  and  sup])lies  to  the  rural  offices,  id' 
which  it  may  have  hundreds  on  its  list,  the  two  outside  pages  of  a  weekly, 
leaving  to  the  local  oHiee  only  tin;  duty  of  sujiplying  and  printing  on  the 
inside  pages  its  domestic  news. 

In  tlie  number  of  its  newspajiers  and  periodicals  the  I'nited  States  easily 
leads  the  world.  Only  a])proximate  ligures  for  the  close  of  the  century  arc 
at  hand;  but  these.  Un-  the  Tnited  States,  gravitate  around  a  total  of  L'lt.OdU 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  while  those  for  other  countries  wliicdi  report  arc 
as  fcdlows:  (Jreat  Uiitain.  IL'L".*;  France.  Il(t(t;  (Jermany.  r»r>0();  Austria 
Hungary.  .TjOO:  Italy.  IKU);  Spam.  IL'OO;  Uussia.  SOO;  Switzerland.  b-.n ; 
Belgium.  :\m:  Holland.  ."iOO;  Canada.  Sni'.  In  the  report  (d  IS'.ll  lor  ruitd 
States  newspapers  and  ju'riodicals.  the  fidlowiiig  subdivision  appears:  Dailies, 


\  ; 


/•///•;   ( 7;  A'  TUJl  Y'S   LIT  lilt. {  TUliE 


22« 


IS.V!;  t  ri-wrcklii's.  L".l;   srini-wrcUiK's 


Uli 


M'klics,  11.077;  Iti-wccklios,  CiL' : 


^rl 


iii-iiioiitliiit's.    L".l():    iiHiiitlilit-s,   !'.">( H  ;    lii-iimntlilic 


l|ll!ll 


U'llit 


HIT 


rill'  Stiitos  ill  wliicli  (ivrr  nut'  tlmiisiiiiil  iii'\vs|pii|ii'rs  iiiid  |M'iiiMliriilH  arc  |(riiitcil 


;ili'.    New   \'nrk,  witli    'JdOl  ;    lllilinis.    witll     I.')!'*!;    IV'Illlsvlvillliil,    witli 


K>H 


()liiii.  witll  IKiS,    'i'lif  Stiitt's  next  in  nniiT,  niiii  with  a  iiiiiiiiM'r  of  iii'ws|iii|iri's 
1   iii'rioilicals  lictwct'ii  odd  aiid   Iddd,  an'.    Iowa,   with  '.(7.H ;    Missdiiri.  with 


iiiii 
'.107 


iKliaiia.  with  7r».'! ;    Kansas,  with  7.">L' ;    Mirliij^'aii.  with  7L'7 


Mi 


issachii- 


si'tts,  with  (1(11;  Texas,  with  (>.'")(1;  Nchraska.  with  (l.M»;  ( 'alilornia.  with  (i;!7  ; 
Wisi'Kiisiii,  with  r»r>l  ;  Miiiiit'snta.  with  .Vll>. 

Tin'  ct'iitiirv's  in'ws|)a|M'r  litcratiin'  in  thr  I'liilrcj  Stiitcs  has  liccn  riiithfr 
chiirai'tt'ri/nl  Ity  the  introilin'linii  di' thr  niinic  IVatiiri-.    The  (^luiiift  iicws|ia|M'r 

I'liiiic  iiitii  liciiii;-  ahmit.  thi'  iiiiili'li-  u\  tin iitiirv.  Imt  iliil  not  strike  a  piael  leal 

niiiided  people  with  lavcir.  It.  was  nut  until  the  eeiitnrv  was  well  rounded 
ipiit,  that  l.lie  cartoonist's  and  joker's  ait  came  into  sntlicient  dennind  to  make 
,1  eoiuie  iiewspa.|ier  a  eouiineieial  siieeess.  I'^veii  now  their  nniiihei'  is  jiinit.t'd 
lo  a  very  lew  (hat.  can  hnast  of  peniiaiient.  success. 

The  daily  newspapers  of.  the  latter  part  of  the  century  have  not  heen  dis- 
suaded iiy  earlier  attempts  to  make  illustrations  acoiis]iiciions  featnre.  ( ►n 
I  he  contrary,  newspaper  illustration  has  jriown  to  the  projiortions  of  a  special 
.lit.  iiiid  all  of  the  larj^er  and  lietter  eipiipped  dailies  have  orfja.nized  dejiart- 
iiients  into  which  iire  gathered  phot.oj,'raphs  and  eii<^ra,viiij^s  reaily  for  r<'pro- 
liiictioii  as  events  demand.  So  the  (uirrespoiident  mid  I'cporter  have  added  to 
kni!.;hthood  of  the  pen  that  of  the  camera,  and  the  scenic  view  has  liccome  an 
essential  ]iart  of  serious  correspoiideni'c  and  spi'ij^htly  reportinj^. 


.\i 


I    iiuiiieii.se,   imposing',   and 


iMLdll 


v  useful    current    of    literature    flows 


lliiou<.;li  the  m!i},'a/,iues.  which  have,  liy  their  numlier.  heauty.  and  adaptation, 
collie  to  lie  a  distjntiuisliiii;^  leatiire  of  the  ninelecnth  centurv.     'I'liis  (dass  of 


literature  is  iisuallv  called  "  I'erioilici 


and  it  emliraces  the  iiiaf,Mzines  and 


reviews  devoted  to  t,'('neral  literjitnre  and  science,  the  class  iiiai,M/ines  devoted 
to  particular  hraiielies  id'  science,  art.  or  industry,  iiiid  the  piihlications  of 
schools  an<l  soc'ieties.     Most,  yieriodicals  piihlished  in  the   l''ai^dish   laii},'iia^'e 


lie   monthlies. 


The   same    is   true  of   those  piililished   on   the   continent   id 


l'!uro|i 
iiffecti 


ive   that   there    the 


>ld 


-liisliioiied    tpiai 


terb 


stvle    is    sti 


11 


niiicii 


ri'riodieal   literature    found   a   lie'Mnniii''    in    l''raiici 


irlv  as    1(1(1 


111 


what  is  still  the  (ut,'an  of  the  I'leindi  .\cadeiny.  The  lirst  Kii},disli  pcM'iodieal 
was  puhlished  in  KlSd.  and  was  hardly  more  than  ;i  I'ataloi^iie  of  hooks.  'I'he 
;,'rowtli  of  the  periodical  or  inaijiizine  jiroved  to  he  very  slow.  I'li  to  1800,  not 
more  than  eij;lity  had  found  meiitionahle  existence  iis  scientitic  anil  technical 
periodicals,  and  only  three  as  stri(!tly  literary  periodicals.  The  advent  of  "The 
I'ldinhiiru;]!  Iteview."  in  ISO'J.  <j;ave  fr|'(i;it  im|ietiis  to  jieriodical  literatiiro  in 
(Ireat  i'ritain,  and  the  period  from  j.SK)  to  IS.lO  was  one  u'i  special  develoji- 
meiit.  liiit  to  he  surpassed  l»y  that  of  iSdO  to  |S70.  when  the  shilling,'  ma<,'azine 
I'lime  into  voi,nie.  This  class  id'  literature  also  developed  very  rapidly  in 
I'' ranee  diirini^  the  century.  Paris  haviiiL;  l.'lSl  iieriodicals  of  all  kinds  hy  1SJ»0. 
There  was  an  ecpially  rapid  devidopmeiit  in  (ieriiiiiny,  Austria,  and  throuf,'h' 
oiit  the  continent. 

The  I'ji^rlisli  ma^Jizine  fountl  several  imitators  in  the  I'liiteil  States  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  eightetMith  century,  most  of  which  had  brief  existf!nce.s. 


I 


>-l 


ti 


230 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE   MX'"  CENTURY 


Siicli  was  the  fatality  ovtu'liaiiKiii}^  tliis  olass  of  ciitt'iprisc.  tliiit  until  ISIO 
but  twenty-seven  jteriddicals  could  be  counted  in  the  I'nited  States.  While 
the  next  ftnty'yeais  were  marked  by  several  nia},'a/ine  successes,  such  as  the 
"Knickerbocker."  •■  (ii-ihani's  Magazine,"  and  "Putnam's  Monthly,"  they 
were,  nevertheless,  strewn  with  long  liiu's  of  melancholy  wreckage.  ImhK'd, 
it  was  not  until  tlu-  middle  of  the  <'eiitury  that  tiie  demand  for  maga/.ino  liter- 
ature becanu'  sulHcienlly  intcn.se  to  make  invest ment  in  it  i)rotitable  ami  jier- 
luanent.  Since  then  the  dovelopuient  has  lu'cn  iilnu)st  iihi'iiomeuid,  keeping 
even  pace  with  tliat  of  the  tu'wspaper.  At  the  end  (d'  tlu'  century  tiu'  nund)er 
of  monthlies  ]ud)lished  in  the  United  States  iipproxinuilcs  L'SOd;  and  there 
are  over  .')(>(>  fortnightlies.  ">(»  bi-monthlies,  and  l'.t2  »piarlerlies.  Tiiese  cover 
the  vast  domains  of  genenil  literature,  religion,  science,  art.  ;»nd  industry,  and 
in  nuiny  resiiects  vie  with  the  lu'wspaiier  in  i>oiiularity  iind  iuHnence.  lyiiiny 
of  them  liave  developed  into  magnificent  juoperties.  whose  vjilue  would  a])iiear 
incomprcluMisible  to  our  gniudfathers.  They  employ  excellent  talent  when 
spcci;il  tojtics  are  treated,  and  rise  to  occasions  of  war  or  other  exciitcnuuit 
Ihrough  graphically  written  and  highly  illustrated  articles.  Indeed,  one  of 
their  most  imi)rcssivc  features  is  the  high  degree  to  which  they  luive  carried 
the  art  of  illustration.  Toward  the  close  of  the  century,  periodical  literature 
lias  been  greatly  expanded  and  po])ularized  by  the  introduction  of  the  cheap 
magazine.  The  older  aiul  more  diguilied  perioilicals  had  not  tluuight  of  per- 
manent and  prolitable  existence  at  a  price  less  tlian  twenty-tivc  to  fifty  cents 
a  copy  ;  but  tliost'  of  the  younger  and  fen-cent  class,  by  dint  of  what  seems  to 
be  a  newly  discovered  enterprise,  luive  fouud  ciieapness  no  barrier  to  commtir- 
eial  success.  Witliiu  a  (h'cade  they  have  duplicated  |iatroiis  of  magii.:ine  liter- 
ature liy  tin'  million,  ami  jtroven  (juite  as  clearly  as  the  newspapers  iiave  done 
that  we  are  a  nation  of  readers. 

.i.\.Mi;s  r.  r.ovi>. 


mI 


THE   RECORDS   OF  THE   PAST 

riiK  i»i'('sf'iit  ci'iitiirv  Iiiis  so  iiiaiiy  (listiiifjuisliiii",'  IViituws  that  it  is  a  lia/- 
(lous  undcitakiiij^  t(i  siiiiiiiiai'i/.*'  its  acliicvcint'iits.     All  hraiiclies  ol' science 


Phil 


"K.v, 


llist( 


irv 


Miitl 


u'liiatu^s, 


M 


cdiciiif 


Tl 


ICCtlOl' 


«>■' 


aiK 


1  I' 


iilosdphy 


MiK 


>c  i'clt  the  stimulating,'  inHiieiice  of  a.  new  spirit  that  made  its  a|iiit!araiice 
r  th(!  Kreiudi  iJevoUitioii.  New  methods  oi'  iiivestij^atioii  have  not  only 
ltd  to  profound  uujdiHcation  of  views  in  all  departnuMits  of  science,  hut  have 
III! iiii^dit  about  eonsiderahle  additions  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledj^e.  In  the, 
domain  of  natural  science,  the  discovery   of  lU'W   jirincdples  and  of  hitherto 

ikiiown  forces  has  widened  tlie  horizon  of  humanity  and  (treated  new  men- 


III 


t;il  disciplines  ;  but  while  perhaps  less  conspicuous,  because  not  so  directly  con- 
iiicied  with  the  iU'tual  concerns  and  needs  of  the  present,  the  fertility  of  his- 


tdiical  research  durniy  this  (century  is  not  less  remarkabu 


Til 


e  lar;,'er  area 


res 


now  embraced  under  the  cajition  *' history  of  mankiud  "  furnishes  the  best 
priKd'  for  the  success  that  has  sij,'uali/.ed  the  labors  cf  scholars  —  ithilolo<,Msts, 
liistorians.  and  explorers  —  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  past.  Ancient  hist(uy 
11(1  longer  begins  with  the<ireeks  or  the  Hebrews.  Its  rniniii  limits  have 
iiicii  removed  to  as  remote  a  date  as  .'!(•(((>  n.  c,  while  the  anthropologist, 
supl'lementing  the  work  of  tlie  historian,  has  furnished  a  picture  in  detail  of 
till'  life  led  by  man  in  various  (|uarters  (d'  the  glol)e  during  that  indefinite 
jMiiod  which  preceded  the  rise  of  culture  in  the  true  .sense  of  the  word.  This 
extension  of  knowledge  in  the  (h)main  of  human  history  is  primarily  due  to 
the  spade  of  the  explorer,  th(»ugh  it  reipiircMl  the  patience  and  ingenuity  of 
the  jihilologist  and  arcluetdogist  to  interi>ret  the  material  furnished  in  abuii- 
iliuuH!  by  the  soil  that  happily  preserved  the  reco-.ds  of  lost  empires.  Docii- 
iiieiits  in  stone,  (day,  and  pai)yriis  have  been  brought  forth  from  their  long 

ting-places  to  testify  to  the  anti(iuity  and  splendor  of  human  culture.  IJy 
the  side  of  written  records,  monuments  of  early  civilization  have  been  dug 
ii|),  palaces,  forts,  and  temples  tilled  with  works  of  art  and  skill,  to  (rontirm 
liy  their  testimony  the  story  preserved  by  those  who  btdong(!d  to  the  age  of 
which  they  wrote. 

lIi;sKAitciii;s  IX  .MKsoi'orA.Mi.\.  — The  andia-ological  researches  conducted 
ihiiiiig  this  century  liavc^  detinitely  established  the  fact  that  the  earliest 
civilizations  flourished  in  the  Valley  of  the  Euphrates  and  in  the  district 
ei  the  Nile.  I'ntil  the  beginning  of  this  century.  Kgyi»t,  IJabylonia.  and 
.\ssyria  were  little  more  than  names.  The  spirit  of  skepticism  whicdi 
;it'((impani(>s  the  keen  desire  for  investig.ition  led  sdudars  to  (piestion  the 
tides  found  in  classical  writers  of  the  great  achievements  of  the  Habylonians 
iiiiil  Kgyptiaus.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century  scarcidy  a  vestige  remained 
lit  the  cities  of  ancient  .Mesopotamia.  The  site  of  Nineveh  was  unknown,  and 
thiit  of  Uabylon  wa.s  in  disj)ute.  A  profound  sensation  was  created  when,  in 
\X\'2,  V.  K.  Botta,  the  French  Consul  at  Mosul,  discovered  the  remains  of  a 


'«S; 


'I 

11 

■i 


4 


mi 


ij.' . 


.  * 


!;  r 


l:W, 


\\ 

1  :' 

iir 

„:                           !l 

li! 

1 

It 

"' 

1 

232 


TlilUMI'HS   AM)    WONDERS   OF   THE  \IX"'   CENTURY 


palace  beneath  a  iiiomul  at  Khorsahad,  some  miles  to  tlie  iimtli  of  Mosul  oi 
the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  liotta's  diseovery  niaiketl  the  beginning  of  ;r 
activity  and  exploration  in  ^lesopotamia  \vhi(di  continues  to  the  present  (lii\ 

At  first  tlie  excavations  were  confined  to  tli 
mounds  in  the  north,  in  which  the  palaces  oi 
the  great  Assyrian  kings,  Sargon.  ICsarlian 
don,  Sennacdiarib  and  Asurbanibal  (or  Sai 
danapalus  as  lie  was  called  by  (J reek  writers) 
were  unearthed,  as  well  nt  the  great  sacreii 
edifices  that  formed  one  of  the  glories  of  an 
cient  Assyria.  The  buildings  exhumed  aboun''. 
in  long  series  of  sculptured  slabs,  on  wliirli 
are  depicted  incidents  in  the  campaigns  of  tin 
kings  and  in  their  ])rivate  life.  Historicni 
records  on  stone  and  clay  furnished  the  needeil 
details  in  illustration  of  the  scenes,  and  lastl\ . 
literary  remains  in  inofusion  were  fouml. 
which  revealed  the  intellectual  life  and  reli- 
gions asi)irations  of  the  masses  and  of  the  sec- 
ular and  religious  leaders.  To  England  ami 
France  belongs  the  glory  of  these  early  explo- 
rations. Through  liotta  and  Sir  Austen  Henry 
Layard,  the  ancient  cities  of  >«ineveh.  Caiali. 
and  Ashur.  were  rediscovered.  JUit  as  the 
field  of  activity  exteiuled  to  the  nu)unds  in  the 
.south,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Enidirates,  other 
countries,  notably  (Jermany  and  the  Uniti'd 
States,  joined  in  the  work.  The  excavatidii 
of  the  remains  of  the  city  of  Babylon  were 
Hrst  conducted  by  Sir  'lenry  Rawlinscm  in 
1854,  and  much  work  was  afterwaid  done 
by  Hormuzd  Kassam;  but  the  most  uotabli' 
achievements  of  recent  years  are  the  excava- 
tions (Mtnducted  by  DeSarzec,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  French  Government,  at  Telloli. 
from  1.S81  to  IcSttri,  and  those  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  reniisylvania  at  Nipimr.  begun  in 
18H8,  and  which  are  still  going  on. 

Through  these  excavations   the  history  nt 

liabylonia  has  been  carried  back  to  the  fourtli 

milleui'-'M  n.  <■..  and  while  there  are  still  soiiio 

important  gaps  to  be  filled  out,  the  course  nf 

events   \n  ISabylouia   and  Assyria   from   lln^ 

remote  period  down  to  the  year  'tS7  h.  t.,  wli' n 

Cyrus  the  Mede  established  a  new  empire  in 

the  ruinsof  Habyloiiiaand  .\ssyria,  is  tolerabn 

clear.     Hand  in  hand  with  the  excavations  lias  gone  the  decipherment  of  tic 

inscriptions  found  in  such  abundamre  beneath  the  mounds.     On  day,  stnir. 

and  metals,  rulers  inscribed  records  of  their  reigns ;  and  added  to  pictui   il 


TllK    "IM.AtK   OHKl.lSK       OF   SUM, 
M.WKSKK   II.,  KING   OF   ASSVIU A 

n.  ( .  SGO-824. 

(Hi'itish  Museum.) 


Mosul  n, 
ling  of  ;r 
jscnt  tlii,\ 
u'd  to  til 
jKilaces  I'l 
KsiU'liiiii 
I  (or  Sill 
k  \viitci>) 

I'llt    SiUTld 

L'ies  of  nil 
lodalKmii' 

on  wliicli 
igns  of  till' 

llistorifai 

tlu'  llt't'tlcil 

anil  lastly. 
ere    fouiul. 
fe  ami  rcli- 
of  tlie  scc- 
iiglaiul  ami 
3arly  t'xplo- 
isteii  Henry 
>veli.  Calali. 
liut  as  the 
mnds  in  tlic 
rates,  other 
the  Unite,! 
excavation 
,bylon  were 
iwlinson  in 
ward   done 
ost  iiotalile 
ithe  excavii- 
ier  the  inis- 
at  Telloh. 
-he  Univer- 
l)ognn    ill 

history  "1 
|)the  fourili 
still  some 
■  course  "f 
from   tlii^ 
n.  c,  wleii 
I  empire  i  n 
listolerah'iN 
Inont  of  tl.i' 
Iclay,  stoiir. 
Ito  pictui ;  il 


IIIK    •■  >Mt\l!ITK.    STONK."       Anf)t'T    15.    C    >^")0. 

(/'</(•/..■,  MiiMiini  iij'llii    l.iiiirri,) 

MiiiniiiHiit  clcilinitiil  1(1  till'  yiiil  Kcnin^li  liy  Mi'-lia.  kin;;  nf  MomI)  i-_>  Kiiii;>  •!  :4  lY.i.  In  iii  nnl  Iiis 
vittcirv  (PVi'Ttlir  Nriicliio  iii  llii'  ilay>  nl'  Aliali.  aiid  tin-  n'-lnratinii  c,f  litir^  ami  citlicr  wurU-  wliii-h 
lie  iiiiiliTliMik  liy  idiiiuiaiiil  iif  Ills  ;.n"l-  rill'  «liiiii'.  whiili  nira-iiri-  •'!  It.  Ml  in.  X  J  ft.  X  14!  in.,  ami 
ii.iitaiiis  :U  liiii<  iif  iMsirii>liiiii  in  the  xi-inllnl  I'lii'iiiri.iii  cliaiaclcr.  w;i-  fmiiMl  at  Uiliiiii  itlii'  !lil)liral 
liilHiii,  Niiiii.-.'l  Sill;  :|-2  :  :!4.  ric.i,  in  {\tv  l.iml  nf   Mnali,  liy  thr  (icrman.   Urv.  I'.  Kliin.   in  iHtiS. 

rMfiirtnnalcly.  s i  altriw.iril   it  was  hrnkcn   in  piircs  liy  ilir  Aralis,  lint  almnl  Iwn  lliiiil>  cif  the 

frafjini'Mls  well'  ncuMiicI  liy  the  I'icnrliinan,  (  li'riMnnt-lianin'an,  ami  it  i*  |i(is>ilili.  id  i;ivo  u  nearly 
ri.in|ilct(' ti'.xt  iif  the  in»i  riptinn  from  tin'  |iapcr  ini|iri'>>iiin  wliicli  was  taUi'ii  lnf(iri'  tlif  stiine  was 
lirukc'ii. 


3  'im 

•<    'Ml 


iMl 


\\  m 


I 

c 

.\ 

S( 


THE   HECOllltS   OF   THE   PAST 


L'.SIJ 


.llustrations  lUHHUuits  nf  tlu'lr  iicliicvt'iiifiits  in  \v;ir  as  wrll  as  in  the  internal 

iii|>r()vrnHMits  of  tlit'ir  <'iu|iin'S.    Clay,  s(i  readily  lurnislit'd  l»y  the  soil,  iu'canie 

lit!  ordinary  writing  material  both  in  I>al)ylonia  and  in  Assyria,  and  in  the 

•ourseot'  time  an  extensive  lil)rary,  embraeiny  hymns  and  prayers,  omens  and 

luirtents.  epics,  myths,  h-j^ends,  and  creation  stories,  arose.      In  every  impor- 

iint  centre  there  },'ather»!d  around  the  temples  bodies  of  priests  devoted  to  the 

.ireservation  and  the  e.xtension  of  this  literature.     Assyrian  culture  Ixmuj,'  but 

m  offshoot  of  the  civilization  in  the  south,  .Vssyria  reaped  the  bentdit  of 

I  lie  lit(!rary  work  accomplished  by  the  scrib(!S  of  ISabylonia.  and  the  most 

.xtensive  colhictiou  of  the  literary  remains  of  liabylonia  has  come  to  us  from 

,1  library  colhuitiid  through    the  exertions  of  Asurbanibal,  and  discovered  in 

!S4*.)  by  Layard  in  the  ruins  of  that  king's  palace  at  Nin«'veh. 

The  basis  for  the  decijiherment  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  as  they  are 
I  illcd  from  the  wedge-shaped  characters,  was  laid  by  George  K.  (Jrotefend 
early  in  this  century,  whose  system  was  further  worked  out  with  great 
ingenuity  by  Kdward  ilincks,  .IiUes  Oppert,  and  Sir  Henry  llawlins(»n.  Thest; 
pioneers  have  been  succeeded  by  a  larg(!  coterie  of  scholars  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  who  are  still  busy  studying  the  large  amount  of  material  now  forth- 
(liming  for  the  elucidation  of  the  past.  Not  merely  have  we  learned  mu(di  of 
the  public  and  ottieial  events  uiid  religious  idi^as  and  customs  during  the 
period  covered  by  the  IJabylonian  and  Assyrian  Km]»ires,  but  thnmgh 
thousands  of  little  (day  tablets  that  formed  the  legal  and  commercial  andiives 
deposited  for  safe  keeping  in  the  temples,  an  insight  into  the  life  of  the 
people  has  been  obtained,  of  their  occupation,  of  their  business  enterprise  and 
runimereial  methods,  and  of  many  phases  of  social  life,  such  as  th(!  positicm 
ni  women  and  slaves,  of  the  manner  in  which  marriages  were  (Hjutracted  and 
wills  drawn  up.  lVrhai)S  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  remarkable 
civilization  that  arose  in  the  Valley  of  the  Euphrates  is  the  domination  of  the 
priesthood  over  all  exce|)t  the  purely  political  interests  of  the  people.  Thus 
the  priests,  iis  scribes,  as  judges,  as  astronomers,  as  physicians,  brought  that 
civilization  to  its  higii  degree  of  exeelhiuce,  while  under  their  guidanc, 
likewise,  the  rtdigion  of  tlu!  country  developiid  from  a  (irude  nature  worship 
to  an  approach  to  a  monotheistic  conception  of  the  universe.  The  heir  of 
the  Habyh)no-Assyrian  em[iire  was  Persia,  which,  from  the  days  of  Cyrus  till 
the  advent  of  Alexanch-r,  swayed  the  fortunes  of  the  ancient  world.  In  all 
that  pertains  to  art  aiul  arehiteeture,  Persia  remained  largely  dependent  uj)on 
r>al»ylonia.  Kxtensive  excavations  (!ondu(rte<l  at  Susa  by  Dieulafoy,  about  ten 
years  ago,  and  (piite  rec^'utly  continued  by  M.  de  .Morgan,  have  jnoved  most 
successful  in  revealing  the  general  nature  and  interior  dcc^oration  of  the 
j,'n'at  royal  jtalace  at  that  ]>hice.  In  brilliant  coloring  of  the  brick  tiles  which. 
as  in  Babylonia,  formed  the  common  building  nuiterial,  the  1'ersians  ]iassed 
licyond  the  Uabylonians  and  Assyrians.  One  of  the  most  interesting  rooms 
ill  tlm  liouvre  at  Taris  is  that  devoted  to  the  exhibition  of  the  colored  wall 
decorations  from  the  palace  at  Susa,  representing  such  various  designs  as  a 
|ii'(icession  of  andiers  and  a  series  of  lions.  The  columns  still  standing  at 
l'iMse])olis  havti  long  been  famous  ;  and  it  is  here  likewise  that  the  first 
rmieiform  insctriptions  were  found  which, /;ouched  in  Persian,  ^Fedian,  and 
Assyrian,  formed  the  point  of  dei)arture  for  the  decipherment  of  cuneiform 
scripts. 


I; 


m 


: 


■t.    .ulf 

'*  ft" 
1 1 ' 


•M 


TiurMi'iis  wh  \\(>.\i)i:i!s  or  the  xl\"'  cKxri'ity 


III 


m] 


KfiVi-n.VN     i;i;si;.\i;i  iii,>.  —  'I'lic  civili/.iitidii  ol    IXL,'y|it.    liviils    in    n'^r  :im<I 
;^'i'!iiHltMir  tli;il   of   Uiilivliiiii;!  iiiiil  .Vssyii;!.      I  Icrc.  wit iicsscs  to    tin-    |i;ist    tli;it 


s\irvivc(l  III  llic  s 


Imp 


.f 


ilsUs  ;iii(l  iivriiliutls  j,'iivi'  .srliul;iis  in  tills  <M'ntni\ 


a  ^'(lod  start  in  tin-  woiU  oi'  iinravclini;  llic  lascinatiiiK  narralivc  ul'  l';f,'y|it.iaii 
history.  Nut  wit  listaiidini;' tliis.  our  incst'iit  kiiowlcd;;!)  of  llic  history  is  dnr 
larf,'cly  to  tiit-  rcniarkahh'  scries  id'  excavations  wliicli  liave  been  coiKhietcd 
ill  riipcr  and  Lower  Ixu'ypt  since  tlie  early  decades  (>[  this  century,  and 
which  eontiime  with  iiiiahated  activity  at  the  |ireseii',   time.     The  stiniiiliis  U' 


l\i,'y|itian  resear(di  was  ;^MVcn  iiy  Na|toleon  in  I7'.t'\  who,  when  setting  oui 
upon  his  l\^ry|itiiiM  expedition,  added  to  his  stall'  a  hand  of  scholars  entrusted 
with   the  tasU  td'  stiidyiii,^'  and    preparin.i;    lor  piililicatioii    the    remains   ol 

moiiiinieiital  work  that  h)rnis  the  loundation  ol 

le    expedition 


niKpiity. 


I" 


le  result  was 


modern    l'.i;yiptolo<,'icai    studies. 


.\notl 


ler  direct   outcome 


.f    tl 


was  the  discovery  id  the  lanioiis  Itosetta  stone,  in  \~W,  which,  eontainin.i,' 
a  liieioj^iypliic  inscription  accompanied  by  a  (Ireek  translation,  served  a> 
the  basis  for  a  trustworthy  system  (d'  deei]iiieriiient  of  the  ancient  lan.i^iia,y;c 
of  the  Nile.  The  Kreiudimaii,  .lean  l*'raii(;ois  ("hampoUiiui,  and  the  Kie^dish 
man.  Dr.  'I'homas  \°oun;^',  share  the  honor  of  having'  found  the  key  that 
iiiilo(d\ed  the  mystery  id'  the  liiero,L,dy|diic  scrijtt.  .\s  in  the  case  ol 
l>abyloniaii  archa'olo,i,'y.  so  liei'c,  excavations  and  deciphei'nient  went  liaiid  in 
Jiaiid.  A  b'W  years  after  the  advent  of  Uotta  at  .Mosul,  Marictte  inaU!,Mirated 
ill  l''i,fypt  a  series  of  brilliant  excavations  under  the  auspices  cd'  the  l''rencli 
.U'overniiieiit.  .\boiit  the  same  time  tiie  (iermaii  government  sent  Hichard 
Lepsius  on  an  expedition  to  lxi.;ypt.  wliieii  resulted  in  the  ♦•stablishment  of  a 
lai'i^c  I\t;yptian  Museum  at  IJerlin.  In  ISS.".  iMinlaiid  entered  the  Held  throi|i,di 
the  formation  (d'  the  lxi,'yptian  l''.x]iloration  l''iind,  and  since  that  time  a  lari^jc 
number  (deities  in  l,ower  I^Lfypt.  in  the  i''ayum  district,  and  in  I'pper  Kj,'yiit 
have  been  iinc'irt lied.  Year  after  year  \V.  I'Minders  I'etrie,  Kdoiiard  Navillc, 
!•'.  I-.  (JriHith.  and  others  have   i^diie  to  l'',L,'ypt  and   returned  richly  laden  witli 


iiid   its   wa\  to  the   .Museum   at   (Jhiy.(di,  to  the   ISrit 


ISll 


material  that  has  foi 
.Museum,  to  I'loston.  to  New  \'(Mk.  and  to  the  Miiseiiiii  <d'  the  I'niversity  ol 
I'eiinsylvania.  The  activity  of  the  Kreiieh  was  continued  after  the  deatii 
(d  .Marictte.  throiiiih  (iaston  Maspero.  K.  (Irebaiit.  .1.  DeMiU-Lfan  and  V.. 
.Viiielineau.  so  tliat  tiie  massed'  material  at  present  available  for  l\iiyptolo!.;ist> 
is  exeeediiiijly  lar,y;e. 

'I'he  cities  (d'  Memphis  and  TJudics  have  naturally  come  in  for  a  lari^e  share 
<d' these  excavations.  TliidU.!j:li  the  texts  discovered  within  the  pyramids  at 
Tliebes  and  the  siirrouiiiliiiL;  district,  the  liistory  (d  the  early  dynasties  wa- 
I'or  the  lirst  lime  revealed.  .\t  I»alas  ami  Na.i,'adah.  a  short  distance  to  tin 
north  of  .Memphis,  the  excavations  have  brou,t,dit  us  face  to  face  with  tic 
iiKlij^eiious  po])iilati(Ui  of  the  Nile  that  maintained  its  priiiiiti\'e  customs  lonu 
after  those  who  founded  the  real  I\i,'yptiaii  Empire  had  established  themselves 


in   tl 


le  countrv.      In  the  district   of   the   Kaviim.  notahlv  around    Arsinoe.  a! 


Hawara.   lllahun.  and  (Jiirob,  traces  of  earlv  forei<rii  iiiHiienci 


iieiilciaii 


aiK 


1  <  ireek  —  were  di 


iscovered.  while  in  Lower  L.Ljypt  the  towns 


-ri 

>f  Naukrati 


and  Tanis   represent  extensive   (ireek   settlements  made  in    Ki,'ypt  asearlx, 
at  least,  as  the  seventh  century  n.  <.     ThidUi^h   tiie  ma,i,'niticeiit    illustration 
ill  the  t«imhs  of   !»eiii-IIassaii.  which  have  recently  been  cand'ully  copied  h\ 
Knglish  artists,  almost  all  jihases  of  ancient  Kgyptian  life  have  been  revealeii 


^1 


i.villr. 
Willi 
iritisli 
^ity  ol 
death 
iiu.l  V. 
)l(ii;is1> 

shall' 
in'uls  al 
cs  wa- 
.  t(i  tin 
itli   111' 


lUSI'lVi- 

Mini',  a" 

■uii'iai 

lUiali 

,  *'avl\ 

Iriit  it'll 

liit'd   Iv 

Ivcalfi 


AV  ■ 


% 


•^'1    ;i,->. 

i;.'lji 


'_':v; 


iniu^ti'us  AM)  woyniJits  or  the  a7A"'  (EStuiiy 


!  '    ' 


«   ; 


ir 


;Hlf 


Tln)ii>,'li  <liitiii<,'  troiii  tlitM'lt'vcntli  iiiul  twclttli  dviiastit's.  the  pictiirc  tliiit  1 1  'v 
iirt'tird  iipiilics  to  (MilitT  iuid  lutt-r  |ii'riiiils  iis  well.  Tliiis,  tlirouj,'!!  tlir  u  ik 
(liiiif  ill  .ill  parts  III  i\w  unciriit  ciiipirc,  the  links  iinitiii^'  tht-  t>ariicst  \w\  .| 
to  tlic  sway  of  the  I'toloiait's  and  tint  invasion  of  tlic  Ikoiuans  liavr  In 
di'trrniincd.  Wondcifiil  cliaptcrs,  rcplfff  witii  intcrfst,  liavc  Itccn  addcn  in 
the  history  of  mankind,  and  tlioii}{li  niiadi  icniains  to  lie  doni>,  wt-  an'  inii.li 
nt'ui't'r  to  a  solution  tliaucvor  bffori;  of  that  most  important  proltlrni  as  to  iln' 
ori>,'in  of  tho  mysterious  K^yptian  cMlturc.  We  know  for  a  crrtainty  ilint 
when  the  Kj,'yptians  camt!  to  tho  rcj^ion  of  tho  Nile,  tht-y  found  a  fciiilc 
district  populatiMl  by  a  pt'oplc,  or  hy  ^'roups  of  pt'oplc.  that  had  aln-ady  iii;ii|i> 
some  pro},'rfss  on  tho  road  to  civilization,  thou^di  not  yet  knowinir  tin-  um- 
of  mt'tals.  The  Asiatic;  orijji'n  of  the  Kji;yptians  is  n-^'ardt'd  as  (dt;arly  csiiil). 
lishcd  l»y  so  eminent  an  archa'olojrist  as  M.  l)»'.Morf,'an,  thouj,di  it  is  iikily 
that  his  views  will  be  somewhat  modified  by  further  reseandi.  The  inlu- 
sion  of  (Jreek  ideas,  we  now  know,  be^^ins  at  a  much  earlier  at^e  than  w,l^ 
formerly  supposed,  so  that  it  becomes  less  of  a  suri)rise  to  find,  even  ipclnn. 
the  advent  of  Alexander,  considerable  portions  of  KK'ypt  absorbed  by  fon  i;^'ii 
settlers. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  arclueoloj^ioal  work  in  Egypt  during  the  iia>t 
decade  has  been  the  discovery  of  a  vast  amount  of  pa|>yri  (•(uitaining  Imii; 
lost  portions  of  (ireek  literature.  The  famous  work  (d'  .Vristotle  on  tlic 
Constitution  of  Athens  and  the  poems  of  Hacchylides  may  be  mentioned  a--  lin' 
most  notable  among  these  discoveries,  and  the  .sources  from  whence  iIum. 
treasures  have  come  seem  still  far  from  being  exhausted. 

CriiKKK  KriNs.  —  The  mention  of  (Jreek  literature  leads  one  naturally  to 
speak  of  the  work  done  in  this  century  in  that  land  which  stands  so  nuich 
nearer  to  us  and  to  modern  culture  in  general  than  either  liabylonia  or  KLiypt. 
While,  thanks  to  the  activity  and  indiistry  of  (Jreek  and  Ivonum  historiaiw. 
the  records  of  the  inspiring  history  of  the  Greek  states  during  tiieir  iimvt 
glorious  epoch  are  well  preserved,  the  earlier  periods  were  envelojied  in  ddulit 
and  obscurity,  while  of  the  remains  of  (Jreece,  of  her  beautiful  temples  iiml 
her  famous  works  of  art,  comparatively  few  vestiges  remained  above  the  mi! 

The  mo.st  notable  of  tlie.se  were  the  Parthenon  and  the  Erechtheiiiu.  with 
their  works  of  art,  that  stood  on  the  Acropolis,  and  it  is  precisely  here  iluil 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  andueological  discoveries  of  the  century  vm  iv 
made.  The  Parthenon  dates  from  that  glorious  period  in  the  historv  nt 
Athens  which  follows  in  the  wake  of  disasters  in  the  fifth  century.  wIumi 
the  Persians  entered  the  city  and  laid  waste  its  beauties.  The  earlier  .Vtlinis, 
which  reached  its  zenith  in  the  days  of  Pisistratus,  has  been  brought  to  li.rlit 
through  the  excavations  conducted  by  the  (Jreeks  them.selves.  In  iSM'  a 
systematic  excavation  of  the  Acroi»olis,  under  the  anspices  of  the  (lutk 
Arclueological  Society,  was  begun.  The  foundations  of  the  aiiri.  nt  Tciiii'li'  dl 
Athena  that  stood  close  to  the  modern  Partiienon  v  w  m  ■  iveveit.  nul 
numerous  works  of  art,  statues,  fragments,  pedini'  '     >es  and  v.ises.  (hi'iii,' 

from  the  earlier  jteriod,    by  means  of   which  iMial)led   t('    tiaii    \\w 

deveh>pinent  of  Athenian  sculpture  from  t  ,ough  beginni  .s  to  iIm' 
])erfectioii  that  it  reacdied  in  the  days  of  Phidia  The  s'\leof  these  em  iiiT 
works  differs  totally  from  that  which  we  had  liitlnrto  lieen  accustonir  i  to 
regard  as  the  type  of  Athenian  art,  and  yet  even  the  rudest  of  the  ci  liiT 


riiK  iiKcoRDs  or  Tin-:  r.isr 


887 


«  iiu'H  pdssc.sH  iili't'ivly  soiiif  ut'  tliiit  I'liiirm  wliidi  is  sn  st.r(Hi;,'ly  Irll  in  tin- 
\  I  ks  III' till' liitfi'  pfiind.  Must  rciiiarkiililr,  |iri'liii|is,  aiiioii^' tin-  ii'iiiiiiiis  uf 
I  cailiiT  \tlii'iiiiiMs  art'  a  lai>;i'  sciii's  ul  li^iiri's  t  lial.  apiirar  to  lia\  c  lircii  srt 
I,  III  row  ,  within  tliti  'rcmiili-  nf  Atliriia.  It  is  tlnoii^'li  tlicsn  tij,Miri's,  datiiij^ 
li  III  various  piTioils,  tliat  \vc  an-  Ix'st  aiilr  to  tran'  tlir  cvolntioii  of  (irn-k 
III  'I'll*'}'  arc  iiinpii'stioiialily  votivf  ot'tVriiii;s,  tiif  ^'ift,  of  faitliful  followers 
(.1  Atlii'iia,  ami.  while  iiitemleil  jmihahly  as  represeiitatioiis  of  the  f^oildess 
Ih  i^t'lf,  Imt  little  rare  was  taken  to  j,'ive  the  i^'oildess  those  aeeoiii|iaiiiiiieiits 
ill  Iress  and  ornanieiit  wliieh  are  never  ahsent  in  the  Itest  siieeiineiis  of  the 
liii'  r  |ieriod.  As  u  residt  of  tiiese  exeuvations  on  the  Aeropolis.  aided  In  the 
iii"Stij,'atioiis  of  nnuierons  scholars,  among  whom  lOriist  Ciirtins  and  William 
lin.'i'pfeld  merit  special  mention,  the  entire  |ilaii  of  the  little  sacred  city  that 
sti  lid  on  the  Acropolis  (tan  now  he  traced  in  detail.  'I'lic  coiistrnctioii  of  the 
iiiiiiitifnl  I'roiiyla-a  hy  Mnesiidps,  of  which  remains  are  still  to  he  seen,  has 
lir(  II  determined,    and    various    temples    to    Athena,     woi'shiped    under    tlio 


(lltlCl 


cut  ,!;nises  that  she  assumed,   have  Iteen  discovered.     The   pli 


ice  where 


till  i^reat  bronz<'  statue  of  Athena,  one  of  the  muster  works  of  I'liidias,  stood, 
lia--  lieen  fixed,  and  through  the  inscriptions  found  on  the  .Acropolis,  numerous 
|irnlilems  of  (Ireek  histor}'  have  heen  solved.      Kverv  one  knows  the  storv  of 

:igi 


till'  hlgin  marines  that  once  formed  the  decoratnni  of  the  friezus  ot  the 
l';iitlienon,  and  which  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  wert!  Itronght  to 
i,iiiiilon  hy  Lord  Elgin.  That  act,  though  freipiently  denounced  as  a  piece  of 
vandalism,  has  probably  done  more  to  anui.sean  interest  in  (Jreek  arolueology 
rliiouglioiit  Europe  than  anything  cdse.  Kven  the  indignation  which  Lord 
Klein's  act  [irovoked  has  served  a  good  imrpose.  not  only  in  leading  (Jreece  to 
take  iictter  care  of  her  great  treasure.-,,  but  in  inducing  scholars  of  England, 
I'laiice,  (Jermany,  and  the  L'nited  .State.s  to  establish,  in  Athens,  architectural 
.sijinols  where  young  arelneologists  may  be  trained,  and  where  expeditions 
ran  he  orgainzed  for  the  .systematic  investigation  of  the  niunerous  cities  of 
ancient  (rreece  and  the  surrounding  islands.  The  most  important  work  done 
rluniigh  these  schools  is  the  excavation  of  Olympia  by  the  (lermans,  ami  of 
Dclds  and  of  Delphi  by  the  French,  while  only  sonu' degrees  less  noticeable  is 
the  work  done  by  a  zealous  (ireek,  M.  Car}ninos,  at  Dodona,  by  the  Greek 
Sdcicty  at  Elensis,  Ejiidaurus,  and  Tanagra,  ami  by  the  .\merican  Schiud  at 
Krctria  and  at  .\rgos.  At  Olympia  the  discovery  of  the  great  Temple  to 
Zi'us.  the  grand  theatre  in  which  the  famous  games  took  place,  the  numeroiis 
sluiiies  erected  in  honor  of  various  deities  that  belong  to  the  court  of  Zens, 
and  of  hundreds  of  votive  inscrijitions  comnn'movating  the  victors  in  the 
;,'anics,  have  enabled  scholars  to  restore  for  us  the  ancient  glories  of  the 
lilace.  and  to  trace  the  history  of  the  sacred  city  through  its  period  of  glory 
til  its  decline  and  fall.  The  master  work  of  antiiiiiity.  the  golden  statue  of 
/.i'ii>  made  by  IMiidias,  is,  alas  I  forever  lost,  but  it  was  at  Olympia  that 
the  (lermans  found  the  wonderful  statue  of  Hermes  by  Praxiteles,  a  find  that 
in  itself  was  worth  the  million  marks  spent  by  the  (lerman  governmert  as  a 
triliiite  to  ancient  (ireece.  At  Delos  and  Delphi,  the  careful  work  done  by 
the  {'"rencli  has  added  to  our  material  for  tracing  the  course  of  (rreek  religion. 
Next  to  Olympia  there  is,  perha]is,  no  place  in  ancient  Greece  which  had  such 
a  stiaiige  hold  upon  the  ])eople  as  the  seat  of  the  great  orucle  at  the  foot  id" 
Mount  I'arnassu.s.     The  work  at  Del[ihi  is  still  [irogressing,  but  enough  has 


11! 


!> 


9 

1 

5^ 

\\m 

"j 

1 

1 

1  n 

M 

E 

,i 

i\ 


L';58 


TliHrMPIlS   A XI)    WOSnEliS   OF   THE  MX'"  ('KXTVliY 


l! 


!  I  t 


i^i! 


II  : 


I  1  ;! 


Ih'cu  I'luuul  to  justify  tlic  Ljn'at  r.t'iuitiition  of  tliis  r«'li<,'ioiis  ci'iitrf  iti  iiiicii', 
tiiin's.      We   can   wow    triivt'rst'    uiict'   aj^aiii   tlic    sacred    way    leadim,'   |i;i 
numerous  buildings  totlie  >,M'eat  sliri..e  of  Apollo,  and  to  the  cave  Ironi  wlii.  u 
tlie   I'ytliian  priestess  obtained  her  inspiration.      l'\'\ver  works  (d'  art  \\\\\<- 
been  discovered  here  than  in  Olynipia,  thou{j;h  perhaps  the  st)il  still   harlm^ 
treasures  Avhi(di  the  coniini,'  years  may  reveal. 

The  worship  (d'  Dcmeter  and  the  nature  id'  the  Kleusinian  mysteries  wv,- 
much  clearer  since  the  successful  excavations  that  were  conducteil  at  Kleii.M,. 
'i'ana,t;ra  is  of  interest  because  of  the  (day  tij,Mirint's.  the  manufacture  ..| 
which  was  one  (d'  the  specialties  of  ancient  Itn-otia.  Those  tigures,  prepaiv.l 
partly  from  reli.ijions  motives,  partly  as  a  triidite  to  the  dead,  are  valuabh'  .i> 
illustrations  of  jiopidar  customs,  (ireat  credit  is  du«'  to  the  .Vmerican  scIumi! 
for  the  thorou,t;h  manner  in  whi(di  excavations  have  been  conducted  by  it,  iiihI 
while  the  results  are  not  as  striking,'  as  in  some  otlcr  places,  .so  fundamcni;i! 
a  problem  as  the  arrangement  of  the  (Jreek  theatre.  whi<di  has  been  engagin,' 
the  attention  of  arciia'ologist^  for  the  past  decade,  has  been  brougiit  neariT  to 
its  solution  through  excavations  at  Kretria.  At  .\rgos  a  head  of  Hera  \\,is 
discovered,  which  is  now  famous  as  one  of  the  best  specinu'iis  of  ili.' 
l*oly(dctan  s(du)ol. 

No  sketch  of  (ireek  artdia'ology.  however  briid',  would  lie  complete  witlinin 
mention  (d'  a  man  who  exhibited  singular  devoticui  and  rare  enthusiasm  Ini 
the  study  of  the  past.  Ileinrich  Siddiemann,  by  dint  of  individual  (dfort.  I.iiil 
bare  the  remains  of  pre-<ir«'cian  civilization  at  .Mycena-  and  Tiryns,  and. 
prompted  by  a  theory  which  for  a  long  time  j)rovoked  naught  but  ridicule, 
devoted  many  y(>ars  and  a  large  fortune  to  excavations  at  llissarlik,  on  tin' 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  whiidi.  he  believed,  was  the  scene  of  the  I'rojan  War. 
At  the  latter  place  no  less  than  niiu'  cities,  erected  one  above  the  ruins  id  I  lie 
other,  have  been  found,  but  the  theory  of  Siddiemann  whi(h  ideiditicil  liir 
second  layer  with  ancient  Troy,  afterward  known  to  the  (Jreeks  as  Ilium.  Ii;i> 
liecn  shown  to  bi'  false.  It  is  the  sixth  layer  that  represents  the  ruins  nl 
Ilonu'r's  Troy.  At  the  sanu'  tinu'.  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  Homeric 
poeiMs.  while  based  upon  historic  events,  are  not  history,  and  the  attempt  to 
test  tiu'ir  sup])osed  historical  ac<'uracy  by  the  results  of  excavations  is  imu 
regarded  by  (Jretdc  stuih-nts  as  futile  and  unscientific.  Ibit  this  view  in  no 
way  dindnishes  the  credit  due  to  Scldiemann,  who  not  oidy  did  more  to  >tii 
up  po])ular  interest  in  anidcnt  (ireect;  than  any  other  num  living,  but  has  illu- 
nunated  the  early  chapters  of  (ii-etdv  history  whicdi  were  almost  unknowii  in 
the  s(diol;'irs  of  this  century.  It  now  appears  that  IMuenician  traders,  settliiii; 
on  the  coast  (d'  .\sia  .Minor  and  in  districts  adjacent  to  the  islands  of  the 
.Kgcan  sea  ami  harbors,  which  fiindshcd  a,  refuge  \oy  their  ships,  gave  I  lie 
first  impulse  to  (ireek  art.  and.  although  they  were  outdistanced  by  their  int 
pupils,  the  traces  of  I'lacniciau  inthicncc  remain  in  <  ireek  architecture.  :iii4 
more  particularly  in  (ircck  cidts.  down  to  the  latest  times.  Apart  from  I'le 
rlircct  bearings  of  the  excavations  conducted  in  various  parts  of  (ireccc  u|'"ii 
the  devclojiinent  of  (Jreck  art,  the  most  impiu'tant  results  of  the  work  con-  -I 
in  the  vast  increase  of  material  for  (Ireek  history.  whi(di  is  now  bene; 
rewritten  on  the  basis  of  the  many  thousands  of  inscriptions  that  have  h- n 
found  ill  the  great  centres  of  ancient  (ireece.  ,\s  (he  woi'k  of  excavai.  'H 
conliniies,  each  year  l>rings   its  (piota  of  new   facts,  ami   it  is  safe  to  prcilMl 


iiiii,'   I'^i 
(»m  will'  I 
art  h;i  •■ 
11  Uiirlii"^ 

stt'vit'S  ;iiv 
at,  Kli'iiM-. 
I'aciiHV  "I 
s,  pvt'pan  '1 
vahiiilili'  1^ 
icaii  sell'"'! 
I  l>y  it.  ;inii 
[iiulaiiK'iii.i! 
Ml  ciii,';!!,''"-; 

lit    lUMlvr  tn 

I'    lli'Vii  N\a- 

UMIS     »>t'     'li'' 

It'ti'  wit  111 'lit 
;lmsiasui  Im 
il  fffovt.  l;iiil 
riryus.   ami. 
but  vitliciilr. 
irlik,  on  tlif 
Trojan  \V;n 
ruins  ot  tl"' 
U'utitii'il  'li'' 
s  lliun\.  li;i> 
tlu'  ruins  ol 
ho  llonirru' 
'  attomi't  'ii 
iut\s  is  now 
s  view  in  H" 
Uiort'  tn  slil 
luit  lias  illii- 
unkniiwii  to 
Icrs.  si'ttlui- 
ands  (il   III'' 
l>s,  !4'avi'  ill'' 
liy  thi'iv  .ii't 
tccturi',  ;iii'i 
irt  t'rnni  i'"' 
I;,.,.,.,.,.  \i|.i.ii 

Ivork  I'l'ii  -' 

now  111  - 

|l  have  !•  " 

cxcaviii  'II 

,'  to  lll'l'"  '  ' 


THE  itKvonm  OF  Till-:  past 


li.'V.t 


lilt  tho  rocovory  of  anrit'ut  (Jrct'w  will  ln>  noted  in  tnturc  a^cs  as  oiio  ol'  tiic 
lost  notable  ai'liievcnu'iits  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

riKKNiciAX  lii'iNs.  — With  Kirypt,  IJabylonia,  andCireece  we  are  still  far 
Min  haviiifi;  exhausted  the  held  eovered  by  archa'oloj^y  in  this  eentury.  At 
\|)rus  niueh  lias  been  done  by  liiihr,  Cesnola.  and  ( •iinefalseh-lkieliter.     The 


a.     . 

y.    "■ 


'  itics  of  Cyiiriis  are  iiiterestiuL,' as  lorniin;^  a  nieriiip^-Lrrnuud  for  such  varioii- 
1  i\  ilizations  as  I'hieniciau.  Kiiyjitiiiii.  rmio-drccian,  and  in  a  limili'il  cMciit 
r>:il»ylono-.\s.syrian.  Tlic  rcsidt  is  a  c\irioiis  mixtmc  ot  ait  and  ol  e(|uail\ 
siiaiiof  syncretism  in  religions  rites.  It  is  one  ol  tiic  disaii|ioiiitiiicnts  ol 
^1  liolars  that,  we  as  yet  know  so  little  ot  the  riin'iiiciaiis  who  |ila\ed  such  an 
iiitliortant  role    in    liistory.     'I"hc    tra<'cs    of   this    iK-opIc   ol    wanderers    and 


,1 8ir 


if^y 


.      :(11 


1*; 


.l-:;l^ 


'J40 


TlilUMPHS   AM)    WOSDEltS   OF   TIIK   XI\"'   VENTUHY 


iiicntliiUits  have  1 ii   t'uiinil  in  toiulis  and  votivt-   inscriitlioiis  tliniii<,'lunit  tin 

lauds  iHirdrriii^- (111  tin-  .Mt'ditcrraiwaii.  in  Xortlicrn  Africa,  in  Soutlicni  Spaii,. 
in  Sicily,  Malta.  Asia  Minur,  Cypitis,  Crt'tt-.  Italy,  and  even  Suutiii-rn  l-'ramc; 
hilt  in  I'liM'nicia  itself  hut  few  inseriiitioiis  luive  been  uneiiitlied,  and  onl\ 
scanty  remains  (d  the  iniiKirtant  cities  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  -whioli  one. 
flourished  on  tiie  coast  of  the  .Mediterranean.  The  fate  of  these  cities, 
suhjected  in  tiie  course  of  centuries  to  so  many  iliffereut  powers,  is  a  saii 
one.  Almost  everything  that  belonged  to  a  high  anti(iuity  has  disapix'arcil. 
and  such  scanty  excavations  as  have  been  undertaken,  tiie  most  notable  i.i 
which  is  that  of  I'm-el-Awaiiiid  by  the  late  Kriiest  IJeiian,  in  iSCd.  have  Immh 
of  little  value.  Tombs  liave  been  discovered,  but  only  few  of  them  belong  tn 
the  I'ho'uician  peritid  in  the  iiroper  sense.  The  Sarcophagus  of  Kshmuua/ar. 
king  of  Sidon.  with  a  long  lMi(enician  inscription,  is  however  a  most  notable 
monument  and  of  great  historicalimportanee.  lUit  the  most  remarkable  Hud 
within  the  limits  (d'  ancient  I'lio'iiicia  was  made  a  few  years  ago  by  llamdi 
J>ey  under  the  ausi)i(!es  of  the  Turkish  government.  In  the  neeroiiolis  m 
Sidon  a  series  (d'  sarcophagi  were  uneartlu'd  wliicdi,  belonging  to  the  (Iieik 
period,  are  valuabh- as  furnishing  a  sjieeimen  of  the  art  of  (ir«'ece  transplantcil 
ill  foreign  soil. 

l{Ksi:Aii(iii:s  IN  I'Ai.KsrixK.  —  .Viieient  Palestine,  likewise,  so  full  of  saciid 
leccdleiitions  for  millions,  has  been  (diary  of  yielding   up  the  treasures  wliiiii 
there  is  every  reason  to  btdieve  still  lie  somewhere  beneath  the  soil.      In  1S7<'. 
a  stone  was  found  in  the  land  of  .Moab  wlii(di  conuuemoratcd  the  victory  d 
King  Meslia  over  Israel,  about  .S."»(»  ii.  <  ..  and  forms   one  <d'  the  most  valuaiilr 
moiiiiiiients  for  tracing  the  history  of  i\w  IMucniciaii   alphabet,  of  wliicdi  the 
one  we  use  is  a  direct  successor.     At  .lerii.sah'iii  a  single  inscriiition.  Ixdongiii^' 
])r(ibalily  to  the  age  of  Ilezekiah.  was  found  by  accident  at  the  |io(d  id  Siloaiii. 
This  paucity  of  andueological  returns  is  not  due  to  any  lack  (d'  interest   in 
recovering  the  monuments  id'  ancient   Palestine.      In  (iermaiiy  and  lOiiglainl, 
societies  for  the  exploration  of   Palestine  have  been  in  existence   for  the  p;i>i 
twenty  years,   and  iiiindi  important  work  has  been  done  by  them  in  iiiakin.; 
careful  siirv(\vs  (d'  the  country,  in   identifying  ancient  sites,  and  in  addiii;; 
material  to  our  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  tlie  country.     The  comltiiicii 
opjiosition  of  fanatical  Turks,    .\rabs.  Christians,  and  .lews  lias  picventiil. 
until  recently,  the  undertaking  id'  excavations  in  the  important  centres  of  tlir 
country,  siudi  as  .lerusaleiii.   Samaria,    liethhdiem.   Hebron,  and  the  like.     A 
few  years  ago  the  mound  T(d-(d-IIesy.  covering  the  site(d'  the  ancient  city  ct 
Lachish.  was  thoroughly  ex|dored  by  V.  .1.  IMiss.  and  no  less  than  ten  layci- 
(d'  cities  identified  by   him:   but  the  results,  except  for  some  ]iotterv  and    i 
most    im|)ortant  discovery   of   a  iMineiform  tablet  wliiidi  bcdongs  to  the  Kl 
Amariia  series  and  dates   from  the  fifteenth  century  n.  c,  have  been  ratli' ' 
disappointing.      IJecently  Mr.  lUiss  has  succeeded  in  olitaiiiingiieriuis.sion  i 
undertake  excavations  at  derusalciii.      lie  has    begun    his    work   by   tr.-niii 
carid'iiUy  the  walls  of  the  ancient  city,  but  until  this  work  is  jiushed  to  tl 
extent  (d'  iictiially  digging  down  some  forty  feet  bidow  the  level  of  the  ]iri'-i    ■ 
dcrusalem.  it  is  not  likidy  that  significant  discoveries  will  be  made.     Tli' 
are  good  reasons  for  hoping  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  systemiii 
work,  such  as  has  iieen  done   in    I''gypt.  Pabyloiiia.  and  (ireece.  will  also 
undertaken   in    i'alestiiie.     When  that  lime  does  come,  we  may  expect  tl, 


:iii      ... 


•'himt  tin 
■ni  Sjiaiii. 
11  1m"iiiit  : 
,  iiml  t»iil> 
hicli  Olio 
est'  fitio. 
s,  is  u  siic! 
isupix-iiifl. 
iiotiiMt'  111 
,  luivf  Im'1'11 
n  bi'loiiK  til 
sliniuua/.ar. 
ost  notalili' 
irkiiblf  tiiiil 
I)  h\  llaiiiili 
fi;n>polis  a! 
,()  tli»'  (^l■|'<■l^ 
trausi»lautril 


77/ A'   RECOHltS   OF   Till-:   I'AST 


241 


1  .any  of  tlio  inobloms  ht'scttiiii,'  sludcuts  ot  tlit-  Old  and   Nfw  Tfstamcuts 
V  ill  lind  tln'ir  stiliitimi. 

IliTTiTK  IvKMAiNs. — Avcliii'ology  dot's  luit  <»iily  Sdlvf  iiiolilcius.  but 
!;i(|iu,'iitly  raises  new  ones.  Such  a  new  [iioblem  is  that  of  the  llittites. 
I  lining  the  past  tifteeii  years,  a  large  series  of  nionuinents,  many  of  them 
-.  ulptured  on  roeks,  have  been  foiiiul  in  various  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  from 
I  ,,e  distriet  of  Lake  Van  almost  to  the   Mediterranean  coast,  and  iiotablv  at 


Hi 


I 


FitoNI'    ViKVV. 


HiAK    \'lK\V. 

nsiaKoitM   I.I  TTKii  I'ltoM  i.\(iiiMi,   p  A  i.i>tim:.     Aiiorr  ii.  c.   14<HJ. 

.Iiii|>i'rial  Oiloiiiuii  Mu!>i'iilii,  roiistaiitiilu|)lLM 
Hi 


i 

m 

fll 

^M 

Eli 

-'^ 

^h 

M 

242         riilUMPHS  AND    WOXDKliS   oF  THE  A/A'"   CKSTURY 

llamalli.  mi  the  Oroiites.     Tlu'yall  lictray  the  sanit!  art,  and  arc  acc()iii|)aii'h 
liv  iiisfii|itit>iis  ill  cliaratttcrs  to  w  liidi  tlif  iianit'  llittitf  lias  licfii  ^'ivcii.      It 
to  lit'  iHiriic  ill  iiiiiul  that  this  tiTiii    llittitc  is  to  a  larij;i'  cxtt'iit  a  coiivciitidii: 
one.  ('(ivtMiii!^  a  scries  ol'  |ic()|)lcs  that  may  have  l)cl((ii;jfc([  to  tlil't'crcut.  rari 
\Vc  hear  ul'  these  ilittites  in  the  Asiatit;  eaiiipaigus  of    Ki,'yi)tiaii  Uiiii^'s  tidi 
the  seventeenth  century  r..  i  .  down  to  14tM>  n.  c.     Establishing  an  eni|)irei>  ■ 
the  ( h-ontes,  they  gave  the   Assyrians  a  groat  deal  of  trouble,  and  it  was  11..1 
until  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  that  they  were  finally  <'(ni(iuered.     Thoii,  1 


.;.  % 


.1  i 


m 


AU<  n  OK  rrn  s,   komk. 


!  '       illi 


we  know  a  good  deal  of  the  history  of  these  Ilittites  from  the  record^  -1 
Kgyptians,  I'>abylniiiaiis.  and  Assyrians,  their  (uigin  remains  \vra]i|)ed  m 
oiiseurity.  'I'lic  llittitc  characters  have  not  yet  been  deciphered,  altlionji 
various  attempts  of  interpreters  have  been  made.  The  last  of  tlicsc  is  llui 
of  Professor  i'eter  .lenscn,  of  the  I'niversity  of  Marburg.wliobelievesili.il 
tile  llittitc  language  is  a,  prototype  of  the  modern  Armenian.  .Vlthougli  :i 
number  of  prominrnt  scholars  have  acknowledged  their  acceptance  of  tin' 
.lenscn  systcm.it  cannot  be  said  as  yet  to  lii.ve  been  dctinitely  establiNlp  i. 
imr  is  it  likely  that  a  satisfactory  key  will  be  found  until  a  large  biliiij.  il 
inscription   containing   a   reconl    in   llittitc  charaelcrs   with  11   translati' n. 


le  vt'CuriN 


IIITTITI'.    1NS( KII'IION    KIIOM    .WM  \    is. 


1 

1 

■-■  if;    ipall 

i 

M 

Hi 


rniUMl'US  AND    WOMtEHS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


l)t'rliai)S,  in  Assyriiiii  or  Ai;iiii;iii',  shall  have  been  iomid.  Sneh  a  tiiul  may  1)1- 
expocttMl  at  any  mttnicnt.  Meanwhile,  it  may  l)e  said  that  I'mm  im 
ethnolo^'ieal  point  of  view,  it  seems  more  plausible  to  regard  the  llittites  as  ,i 
part  of  the  Turanian  stoek  rather  than  belonging  to  the  Aryan  or  Semitir 
raees.  The  exploration  of  India,  China,  and  .Ja|ian  ean  seareely  be  said  to 
have  more  than  begun.  The  notable  series  of  inscri[)tions  that  recall  tli. 
]>eriod  of  Indian  history  conneeted  with  Acoka  may  be  reganh'd  as  ,i 
specimen  of  what  we  may  expect  when  once  those  distant  lands  are  jis 
thoroughly  explored  as  tin  countries  situated  around  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
HoMAN  Hi- INS.  —  ( 'oming  to  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  empires  of  anti(piit\. 
l»(tme,  a  word  should  be  said  about  the  activity  that  has  chaiacterized  Jlir 
excavations  at  Ilerculaneum  and  rompeii,  and  recently  in  the  city  of  Jfoiui'. 
which  are  carried  on  so  successfully  by  Ikudolfo  Lauciani.  AVhile  our  knowlcd-i 
of  Iioman  history  has  always  been  much  more  complete  than  that  of  (ireecc, 
still  many  (piestions  of  detail  have  oidy  recently  biH'u  .settled  through  these 
excavations.  An  insight  has  lieen  afforded  into  the  jndtlic  and  private  life  nl 
the  Komans  which  supidenu'uts  that  which  was  to  be  gained  from  the  study 
of  the  classical  writers.  Europe  and  America  have  also  been  .seized  with  llic 
archa'ological  fever.  In  (Jernuiny,  Austria.  France.  Sweden,  ])enmarl<. 
Holland.  Switzerland,  North  Anu'riea.  and  Soiith  America,  the  knowledge  nt 
the  ])ast  has  been  extended  through  exidoration  and  excavation.  So  large  is 
the  field  of  archa'ology  at  present,  that  it  is  im])ossible  for  one  person  In 
make  himself  familiar  with  more  than  a  small  section:  but,  on  the  otlin 
hand,  so  clo.se  is  the  sympathy  between  the  various  branches  of  mankiiul 
scattered  throughout  the  world  that  there  is  no  work  carried  on  in  (nic 
division  of  arclueology  which  has  not  its  bearings  upon  many  others.  What 
(Joethn  said  of  human  life  may  be  said  of  archa'ology  :  "Wo  ilir's  |»ackt.  da 
isfs  interessant." 

^Mounis  Jasxkow,  .Ik. 


jM: 


M   \.\ 


PROGRESS   IN   DAIRY    FARMING 


Nkaki.y  all  intliistrics  liavc  tlu-ir  bnuu-lu'S  or  s|u'cialti»'.s.  Kanuinj,' is  no 
cN.  c'ptioii,  and  one  of  tin-  most  intt'ivstin^'.  highly  (U'vcIoiumI,  and  ivinunora- 
ti^^  of  its  l)ran('lR's  is  dairyinij;.  To  be  sucwssful,  dairying  rtMiiiircs  good 
jii.l.rnu'nt,  knowledge  of  the  rchitions  of  modern  scitMici'  to  agricnltnral  pro- 
(lu>iion,  constant  stndy,  system,  and  close  attention  to  details.  Ilenee  it  is 
re:; mh'd  as  among  the  highest  forms  of  farming.  Tin;  oecnpation  is  itself 
so  >limnlating  and  the  rewards  are  so  snhstantial.  when  brains  and  brawn  are 
aiii'lied  to  it  in  jndieious  combination,  that  ihiirying  districfts  are  commonl\ 
(MJiispicnous  as  the  most  enterprising,  ju-ospenms,  and  contented  of  the  rural 
cuiiniuinities  of  their  section  of  country. 

In  all  lines  of  farming  at  least  one  "money  crop''  seems  to  be  the  aim, 
altliongh  this  term  may  include  animals  and  animal  products.  A  great  dis- 
;i(iv;intage  in  certain  kinds  of  farming  is  that  the  returns  come  at  long  inter- 
viils.  ]ierhaps  but  once  a  year,  while  the  expenses  are  continuous  for  twelve 
iiiniiths.  Dairying,  as  conducted  by  modern  methods,  distributes  the  farm 
iiiciiiiie  through  the  year;  the  cash  returns  are  monthly,  or  oftener,  the 
|ifrnicious  credit  systi'm  disapjiears,  nu)ney  cir(!ulates,  aiul  at  all  seasons  a 
licalthy  business  activity  prevails  in  the  whole  community. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  that  during  periods  of  agricultural  de])ression 
cx|iiMienced  in  the  United  States  iluring  the  nineteenth  century,  the  producits 
of  the  dairy  have  maintained  relativt^  values  abovt*  all  other  farm  ])rodiu!ts, 
and  dairy  districts  seem  to  liave  passed  through  these  periods  with  less 
distress  than  nu)st  others. 

The  greater  part  of  this  country,  geogra])hically,  being  well  adapted  to 
dairying,  this  branch  of  agriculture  has  always  been  j)romineut  in  America, 
and  its  extension  has  kept  pace  with  the  o))ening  and  settlement  of  new 
territory.  For  many  years  a  Ixdief  existed  that  successful  dairying  in  the 
United  States  must  be  restricted  to  narrow  geographical  limits,  constituting 
a  '-dairy  belt''  lying  between  the  f(.»rtieth  and  forty-Hfth  degrees  of  latitinle, 
and  extending  from  tin;  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Missoiiri  River;  iind  the  true 
dairying  districts  were  felt  to  be  in  sejiarated  sections  occupying  not  more 
than  one  third  of  the  area  of  this  belt.  These  ideas  have  been  exploded.  It 
has  been  shown  that  good  butter  and  cheese  can,  by  projter  management,  be 
iiiaile  in  almost  all  parts  of  North  America.  (Jenerally  speaking,  good  butter 
can  be  proHtably  jiroduced  wherever  good  beef  can.  Decided  advantages 
umiuesticmably  exist,  in  the  climate,  soil,  water,  .and  herbage  of  certain  se(!- 
tinns ;  but  these  influences  are  largely  under  control,  :ind  what  is  lacking  in 
natural  conditions  can  be  supplied  by  tact  and  skill.  So  that,  while  dairying 
is  intensified  and  constitutes  the  leading  agricultural  industry  over  wide 
iucas,  including  wlude  Stat»'s.  where  the  natural  advantages  are  greatest,  the 
industry  is  found  well  established  in  spots  in  abnost  all  parts  of  the  country, 


hi 


m 


I, 


m 


!■"; 


Ii4(> 


rnirMPiis  axi>  woxdi-:us  of  the  xix'"  cextuuy 


'4- 


:iM(l  is  (lcV('lii]iiii,L;-  in  iiMcxiiccti'd  places,  and  uudcr  wliat  iiiij,dit  hi'  ('uii.iidi-i'  i 
as  \('iv  uiil'avnialilc  roiidilioiis. 

l>airviiit,'  existed   in  enlmiial   tiiaes  in  AiMerica,  and  Imtter  and  clieese  ,i, 
iMeiiliimed  annm.n'  the  early  exiKirts  ffdui  tiie  settlements  ahmj;  the  Atlaii' 
(Miast.     I'>Mt  this  in'iidiu'tion  was  only  incident  to  general  tiinninj;.      Dairyii    . 
as  a  s|ieeialty  in  the  I'nited  States,  did  not  a|i|iear  to  any  extent  nntil 
jihm^'  in  t  he  nineteenth  centnry.     The   history  of  this  industry  in   this  f<i 
try  is  thereiore  identi<'al  with   its   |)ro;^n'ess   in  that  century.     'I'his  [hol;! 
lias    been   trulv    remarkable.     The    wide   territorial    extension,   the   in 


w  1 


inieii 


investnu'iit  in  lands.  liuildiiij,'s,  animals,  and  e(|ui|inient,  the  j,'reat  imiiin\, 
lucnt  in  dairy  cattle,  the  aciiuisition  and  ditTusion  of  knowicdfjc  as  to  econoin'. 
of  iiroduction.  the  revolution  in  methods  and  systems  of  manufacture,  ih, 
,y;eneral  advance  in  (luality  of  products,  the  wonderful  increa.se  in  (luantin. 
and  the  industrial  and  commercial  importance  of  the  industry,  have  kept  ]i;iri 
with  the  s^encral  material  progress  of  the  nation  and  constitute  one  of  is 
leading;-  features. 


Duriiij:;  the  early  part  of  the  centui'y.  the  keepin,Lj  of  cows  on  Ai 


farms  was  incident  to  the  general  work,  the   care  of  milk  and  the  mal 


neriiaii 


kill ,' 


if  tiutter  and  cli 


eese  w 


ere  in   the  hands  of  the  women  of  the  household. 


inethtids  and  utensils  were  crude,  tiie  averaj^e  (piality  of  the  jirudncts  wa^ 
inferitir.  and  the  supply  <il'  our  domestic  markets  was  unorjj;aniz»'d  and  irre-i|. 
lar.  'I'he  milch  cows  in  use  ludonLicd  to  the  mixed  and  imlescrilialile  herd  "{ 
'•native"  cattle,  with  really  _i,'ood  dairy  animals  ap|icarin.i,'  sinjj;ly.  almost  li\ 
accident,  or,  at  the  best,  in  a  family  d«'veloped  by  some  uncommonly  disciimi- 
iiati  11,1,' yet  unscicntitic  breeder.  The  cows  calved  almost  universally  in  tljc 
sju'lng.  and  were  j^enerally  allowed  to  ,i;o  dry  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter. 
AVinter  dairyini,'  was  practically  unknown.  .\s  a  rule,  exceptin*,'  the  pasture 
season,  catth;  were  insutliciently.  and  therefore  iini>rotital>ly.  fed  and  pomly 
housed.  In  tlio  Kastern  and  Northern  States,  the  milk  was  usually  set  in 
small  shallow  earthen  vcssids  or  tin  jians.  for  the  cream  to  rise.  Little  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  cooling,'  the  air  in  whiidi  it  stood  in  summer,  or  to  moderatin,' 
it  in  winter,  so  loiii,''  as  free/in^;  \\as  prevented.  The  pans  of  milk  ticnn 
stooil  in  pantries  and  cellais  than  in  milk  rooms  specially  constructed  nr  pu- 
pa red 


In    i'eiinsvlvania  and  the  States   farther  south,  where  spriii,i;-li( 


MI-M-. 


\veie  ill  vo!.,'ue.  milk  received  better  care,  and  settiii!,'  it  in  earthen  crock>  it 
])ots,  standiiii.',-  in  cool,  tlowin.n'  water,  was  a  usual  and  excellent  practice. 
Churniiii;'  the  entire  milk  was  very  common.  Kxceptiug  the  comparati\.  !\ 
few  instances  where  families  were  supplied  with  butter  weekly,  and  m.  a- 
sionally  a  cheese,  direct  from  the  jirodiieers.  the  farm  practice  was  to  ■•  parl\  " 
the  butter  in  tirkins.  half-lirkins.  tubs,  and  jars,  and  let  the  cheese  acciimiii.iti' 
on  ihe  farms,  takiu;;'  these  products  to  market  only  once  or  twice  a  \.  ii 
Not  only  were  there  as  many  diifereiit  lots  and  kinds  of  butter  and  clir.  -r 
as  there  were  producing'  farms,  but  the  product  of  a  sin,i;le  farm  varied  ;n 
character  and  (|iiality.  aecordini;'  to  season  and  other  circumstances,      \'.\''\ 

])a<'ka,L;e  had  to  I xainiiied.  <.;rade(l.  and  sold  upon  its  merits.      I'rices  «■  ir 

low. 

These  conditions  continued,  without   material   cliaiiL;!'.  nj)  to  the  niiddi     'i 
the  century.     Some   improvement   was    noticealile   in   cattle   and  apjiliai 
and  in  some  sections  dairy  farmiii;^-  became  a  specialty.     With  the  urow 


Iflil  uU 


('('SI'  in  ■ 
Alliiiii 
)iiiniii;. 
Htil  well 
liis  fdii'i- 
(iroL;-!'  •  - 
iumicii-' 

illlltl'dV'  ■ 

('CdlllMll'. 

•tiirc.  til.' 
(liiaiitii  V. 
k(']it  ]i:uf 
IIR'  (it   i'^ 

AiiicviiMii 
ic  iiiiikiii,' 

clK.ld.   thr 

idiicts  \\;i- 
11(1  iin':^n 
lie  held  nt 
almost  l'\ 
y  discriiiu- 
lUy  ill  llir 
•ly  wilili'V. 
llic  pastuiv 
111(1    liniilly 

ally  set  ill 
little  attrii- 
^lodrraliii.; 

th'lirl 

Iti'd  nr  I'lc- 
liiiij;-liiMi-r-- 
|i  crnck^  I'l 
jmirl  I'''- 
irati\'  'i\ 


and  I'l 


(I  ••  jiaiK 
|('i'iii\iul;ili' 

.'(.'  a  }'•  ■'•■ 

ind  I'll'    ■' 

varii''!    '•! 


Iriccs  u 


llllMH. 
Pliliii' 


tn     6 


iii-f' 


HMIS 


Mi 


•-MH 


TiiUiMPiis  AM)  \io\i>/:iis  or  rill-:  a/.y'"  (Kstuhy 


towns  uiul  citirs,  th«>  Itiisiiu-ss  nt   milk   siipplv  ini-n-asrd  :iinl  licllcr  inflliml 
))n>v:iil('*i.      I'liittcr-iiiiikiii,^'  I'm-  liniiu'  use  ami  local   Irailr,  in  a  small  was.  \\,i 
t'ommon  wlicrcvci'  cows  wcic  kcjil.  ami   in  some   places  llicrc  was  a  sni|ilu 
snllicicnl.  (o  Itc  scnl    to  tlic  V.w^i'  markets.      N'crmonI   ami    New  \'oik   iiccam. 
known  as  Imtter  pioilncini,'  Stales.     ••  h'ranklin  Count v  Imlter,"  I'nmi  coiinli. 
of  this  name  in  New  ^'o^k,  N'ernionl,  ami  Massachusetts,  was  known  throML;li 
out.  New  I'aij^lanti.  and  the  lame  oi'  ••()ranj.;e  County"  ami   "Cioshen"  liullci 
from  New  N'oik.  was  still   more  extensive.      New  ^'o|•k,  Ohio,  ami    Noithcin 
TennsN  Ivania   |iro<luce(l  lar}^«!  (|nanlities  of  cheese;  ami  the  total  sn|i|ily  ua- 
s(»  niut'li  in  i-xcess  of  iloniestic  demaml.  that,  cheese  expoits  liom  the  I'niteil 
States,  maiidy  to  <ircaf>  ISritain,  hecanie  estaililished,  and  ran^'cd   from  time 
t(»  seveideen  million  |iounds  a  year. 

The  twenty-live  years  followint;  IS,"»(>  was  a  |ieriod  of  remarkalili' ai-t  ivil  \ 
and  |ni)},'ress  in  the  daily  intcfests  of  the  eonnti'v.  .\t.  liist.  the  aj^riculfural 
exhil)itions  or  "cattle  shows."  and  the  eiderprise  of  importiTS.  turned  attcn 
tion  towards  the  improvement  <d'  farm  animals,  and  breeds  of  catth'  specially 
noted  for  dairy  ipialitics  were  introduced  and  l)e^,'an  to  win  the  favor  nt 
dairymen.  Then  the  early  clforts  at.  coiiperafive  dairyiui;  were  recoi,'ni/cil 
as  successful,  and  wei'c  copied  until  the  clif-cse  factory  hecaini'  an  est.ahlislnil 
institution,  t  ►nee  fairly  started,  in  the  huart  (d'  the  threat  cheese-making'  dis- 
trict of  New  N'lU'k,  the  factory  system  spread  with  much  rapidity.  Tli. 
"  war  period  "  lent  ailditioual  impetus  to  the  forward  luovcnKMifc.  Tlu- f()rcij,'ii 
demaml  for  cheese  ijrew  fast,  and  the  price,  which  was  ten  conts  per  poinnj 
and  less  in  iNtltt.  rose  to  lifteen  cents  in  1S(!.'>,  and  to  twenty  ceids  and  ovei 
in  IS(!.">.  There  were  two  cheese  factories  in  Oneida  County  in  IS.">|,  and 
twenty-live  in  ISCiL'.  The  system  spread  to  Herkimer  and  adjoining  eouiilies. 
ami  in  IS(t.'!  there  were  ItMt  factories  in  New  VorU,  liesides  .soiiio  in  Ohio  and 
other  States,  'i'he  innnher  increased  to  .S(ll)  in  the  whole  country  in  iSll.'i. 
t(>  (■><•(»  in  two  years  more,  and  to  over  KMKI  in  ISr»',>.  Kroni  that  time  the 
coiipcrative  oy  factory  systiun  practically  superseded  the  manufacture  nl 
cheese  on  farms.  Kstablishments  for  the  makini,'  <d'  Itutter  in  (piautity.  from 
the  milk  or  cream  collected  from  inimerons  farms,  soon  lollowed  the  chcc>c 
factories.  Such  are  properly  butter  fat^tories,  but  the  nanu'  of  "creamery" 
has  come  into  p'ucral  use  for  an  establishment  of  this  kind,  and  seciM> 
unlikidy  to  chan,<,'e.  IMacinj,'  the  real  be<,'inniu^  of  cheese  factories  as  a.  sys 
teni  of  dairying'  in  iStJl  or  IS(>L',  the  lirst  creamery  was  started  in  IStil.  in 
Oran<j;e  County,  New  V(trk.  In  Illinois,  th(^  tirst  cheese  factory  was  built  in 
lS(».'i,  and  the  tirst  creamery  in  I.S(>7;  in  Iowa,  the  res|)ective  dates  were  iSCiii 
and  1S71. 

The  (dTcct  of  theso  industrial  establishments,  coinparativtdy  new  in  kind, 
is  to  transfer  the  niakin;^'  of  butter  and  idieesc  from  the  farm  to  the  factory 
Ori^'inatiiij,'  in  this  country,  althonj^h  now  extensively  adopted  in  others,  tin 
geiu'ral  plan  may  be  called  the  .\im>ri(^an  system  of  associated  dairyini;.  Tin 
early  (dieese-factories  and  creameries  were  purely  cooperative  com^erns.  and 
it  is  ill  this  form  that  the  system  has  usually  extend(Ml  into  new  territory, 
whether  for  the  production  of  butter  or  (dicese.  The  cow  ownors  ami  \\\v 
(lucers  of  milk  cooperate  ami  share,  upon  any  aj^reed  basis,  in  orjjanizin 
bnildint^  (perhaps),  ecpiippinij,  and  nianaf,'in,t,'  the  factory  .and  disposin<.j  (d'  u 
products.     Another  [iliiu  is  for  the  plant  to  bo  owihhI  by  a  joint-stock  con 


i'ii<)t,i;i:ss  L\  hMi!)    iMiMist; 


WW 


let  liDil 
IV.  ^^.l 
siirplii 
lii't'aiiK 
iMinl  i<' 

llin\l;4li 

liillln 

(Ullirrn 

lily  w;i 

III   tlnr( 

arliviiN 
ic\iM.iir;i'i 

m1    llltt'll 

<|i(M'iiill\ 
I'iivor  nl 
(•iii,Mii/i'il 
,al')lislir,| 
kiiij,'  ili> 
ty.     'I'll' 
(•  i'orcii^ii 
cr  ixmiiil 
mill  tivii 
sr»l,  ami 
(•(imilii's. 
)liio  ami 
in  ISC.:., 
t.iiiu'  tin' 
('tun'  III 
litv.  I'miii 

IC    clll't'M' 

•aiucry ' 
(1   s('fm> 
us  a.  sys- 
]Si;i.  in 
Imilt  ill 

,.,•,.  isf.r, 

liii  kind. 

ractoiv 
liens,  tin 
L'.    Til.' 
]rns,  ami 

Tritiiiy, 
liiid  inn 
l;ani/.iiiu- 

||<r  (if  ii 

Ick  I'liii. 


iiy.  (M>ni|t(isi'il  lai'^i'lv.  il  m.t.  wlmlly,  ol  raiiiirrs.  ami  milk  nr  ncaiii  is 
•civi'tl  Iroiii  any  sal  islaclury  |ii(M|iicfr;  t,|ii>  laclnry  may  i>f  allnwcil  a.  err- 
.11  latu  i>r  iiitcn-.s!  nn  tlif  invrsliiiciil,  nr  may  rliaii,'r  a  liscd  |irirr  per  |.<)iiml 
•  I'  iiiakiiii;  imttfr  or  clirc-.c.  anil  iIh'Ii  diviilr  I  he  icmainiii!,'  |iriM'fi'(|,s  /wo  ruin 
'•nnliii;.;  t.ii  llic  raw  iiialri  1(1  sii|i|ilic(i  l.y  its  "|ialrnns."  'I'lir  |ini|.iii'lai\\ 
.(II  is  also  n.mnii.n.  In'iii';  iiiaiiaL,'('il  iiim'li  likr  any  ullirr  l.ii'lnry,  llic  |ii'ii- 
,1  iflor  III' r(.iii|.aii\   Imi\iii^'  the   milk  <.r  (ream    hum    the  |>iii(|iieers,  at  pnees 

iHiiliially  a;^'!' I   ii|Min    liinii  I. line   t(.  time.      And   ail    tlioe   |ilans   lia\e  tlieir 

<  iriat  inns  and  mndilieatiiuis  in  |ii'aetiee. 

riie  third  i|ii.irter  nl   a   cenliiry  wa.s  al.so  a    peiiod   (.1  nn|.reeedeiit,ed    |irii- 


.MODiatN    I  III'.AMiatY    AM)   (  IIKKSK    KA(   roUV.    Willi    l(  i:  llorsK.    KIC. 

f^ri'.ss  ill  tlic  a|)]ilie:iti()ii  of  incchjuiics  In  tlie  dairy.  'I'lie  faetories  and 
I'liMiiieries  re(|iiirod  new  eiiiiipiiient,  adapted  tn  maniifaetnre  ii|inn  an  eii- 
iart,'e(l  scale,  and  e(|nal  attention  was  jiaid  to  tlie  iiii|in)Vemeiit nf  applianees 
lor  farm  diiirifis.  'I'lie  system  for  setting  milk  for  ereamiiit,'  in  deep  cans 
ui  I'old  water  —  preferalily  ice-water — was  introduced  from  Sweden,  al- 
tlioiij,di  tiie  same  principles  liad  iieeii  in  prattice  for  t,'eiieratioiis  in  tin- 
spriiif^-lumses  of  tlie  South.  Niimeions  creaminjj  appliances,  or  ereaniers. 
were  iiivcMited,  liased  upon  this  system.  Shall' >w  pans  were  chan,i,'ed  in  size 
and  shape,  and  then  almost  disappeared.  I'.iitter  workers  of  various  models 
tiiok  the  place  of  howl  ami  ladle  and  the  use  of  the  hare  hand.  <'hiiriis  aj. 
IM'ared,  of  all  sliajies,  sizes,  iind  kinds,  the  Ljciieral  niovement  iieiii},'  towards 
tile  abolition  of  dashers  and  the  snlistitntioii  of  aj^itation  of  cream  foi 
violent  heating.     About  this  time  the  wiihi    made  a  .search  of  the  Inited 


ill 


4  i 


2S0 


THir.MPus  A\j}  woxn/^ns  or  tun  a/.v"  ckmcuv 


m 


Stiitos  riitt'iil  ( ItHn-  rt'conls,  wliidi  rcvfiilcd  tlic  liK-t  lliiil  luitv  <)!■  tiltv  ihm 
or  iiii|)i'uv«Ml  rliuni.s  wt-r**  cliiiiiUMl  iiiiiiuully,  :iiiil  attrr  it'jt'ctiii;^'  almnt  on 
Iniirtli.  the  iiiitt'iits  iictiiuU.v  issiii'd  inovidfil  ;i  new  rlnini  cvi'iy  liftcfii  (1;(\ 


lor  limit'  tli;iii  scvciilv   Vfiirs, 


Tliis  illiistnitfs  tlif  activitv  of  invent im 


I   II 


tliis  liii*'.  It  was  iidiiiitttMl  \\\  all  tliat  at  this  pfrioil  tlir  I'liitt'd  States  \\;i 
111!'  ill  advance  of  any  nther  cniiiiti'y  in  tlie  variety  and  exeelleiiec  ol  \\ 
nii'clianieal  aids  to  daii'vin^'. 

'I'lie  same  |M  ridd  witnessed  tiie  (irj,'ani/.ation  u[  dairyiueii  in  voluiitais 
assiieiat  ions  i'or  iimtnal  lienelit  in  several  States,  the  ronnatinii  of  elnil^ 
ami  soeieties  (d'  Itieeders  of  piire-hred  cattle,  and  tli  •  aiijiearance  of  tin 
first  American  dairy  literature  of  coiiseciueiice  in  liooK    fonn.     The  A 


men 


can   Dairvmen's   Association   was    oi'<'aiii/ed    in    tSCt.' 


Its  field  of  uctivit\ 


was  east  of  Indiana,  and  aceonlin^dy  the  Northwestern  I>airymeii's  Asso- 
ciation was  formed  in  1S(')7.  Iloth  of  these  continiied  in  existence,  he|i| 
jieriodical  meetiiij,'s,  and  |iiililished  their  proeeediiif^s  for  twtdve  or  liftcin 
years.  Then  the  formation  <d'  State  dairy  associations  in  Veriiiont  (lS7<h. 
lY'iiiiKylviinia  (llSVl),  New  ^'ork  (1S77).  Wisconsin  (1S71.').  Illinois  {lS7li. 
Iowa  (lS7r»),  and  other  States  took  the  place  of  the  pioneer  societies  whiili 
coven-d  wider  territory. 

The  Short-horn  hreed  kid  in  the  introduction  of  inijiroved  cattle  to  thf 
United  States,  ami  for  a  loiijj  time  the  representatives  of  this  race,  imported 
from  Kn^'land,  emliraced  tine  dairy  animals.  Sliort-horn  ^'rades  formed  tlir 
foundation,  and  a  very  <,'o()n  one.  u|ioii  which  many  dairy  herds  were  built  ii|> 
during  tlie  second  and  third  ((uartt^rs  of  the  eentnry,  and  much  of  this  hlood  iv 
still  found  in  prosperous  dairyinj,'  districts.  This  was  the  period  of  j^reatot 
activitv  in  importing'  improved  cattle  from  ahroad.  Uiit  Short-horns  havr 
lieeii  so  <,'eiierally  bred  for  Iteef  (pialities  that  the  demand  for  them  is  aliiinsi 
exclusively  on  that  Hue,  and  they  are  no  lou<,'er  classed  as  dairy  cattlr. 
Ayrshires  fnuii  Scotland.  llolstein-Kriesiaus  from  Morth  llolhind,  and  .In 
seys  uiuKiiiernseys  from  the  Channel  Islands,  are  the  breeds  recogni/.ed  as  \<\ 
dairy  excellence,  and  upon  which  the  industry  mainly  depends  for  iiujirovr 
lueiit  of  its  mihdi  cows.  The  lirst  two  named  are  noted  for  givinj,'  lar^'e  (|u;iii 
titles  of  milk  (d'  medium  (piality  ;  the  other  two  breeds,  both  often  miscalltii 
'•  .Mderin'V,''   j,dve   milk   of  exceeding'  riclmess.   and  are  the  favorites  wiili 


butter  makers.     There  are  also  the  Urown  Swiss  and  Simmenthal  cattle  f 


rmii 


Sw 


it/erland,  the  Normandv  bn-ed   from    France,  and   l{ed  Polled  cattle  frnn 


the  south  of  Knj,dand,  which  have  (hurv  merit,  but  belong  rather  to  what 
called  the  "general  piirjiose  "  class.  .Vssociations  of  jiersons  interested 
maintaining  the  jmrity  of  all  the  dilTereiil  breeds  named  have  been  for 
since  llS.'itt,  and  tiiey  all  record  pedigrees  and  publish  registers  or  herd-b( 


nil' 


rure-bred  herds  of  some  of  these  different  breeds  are  o 


iwned  III   iicailx  :iii 


f  the  countrv.  and  half-breeds  or  hi'^her  grades  are   found  whei 


parts  o 

cows  are  kept  lor  dairy  purjioscs.     The  (piality  and  production  of  the  av( 

dairy  cow  in  .\merica  are  thus  being  steadily  advanced. 

The  development  of  dairying  in  the  I'liited  States  during  the  (dosin. 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  been  niiinterrupted.  and  marked  I  > 
events  of  the  greatest  consecpience  in  the  entire  history.  The  imp<ut;iii  ■ 
of  two  inventions  during  this  ))erioil  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  first  ■ 
the  application  of  centrifugal  force  to  the  separation  of  cream  from  up  '> 


riioaiiijss  Lx  h.nnv  j'.inM/xa 


iol 


lis   is  liiisnl  MiKiii  III 


•I'itir  I'liivilv  ol   tin-  iii 


'I'liMi  or  siviiii  milk,  and 


I'l  wliatcviT  iiii|iiiii'  malliT  may  liavc  ciiicnMl  tin'  milU.  such  j,navity  lu'iii!:,' 
icattT  than  that  nl  the  tatty  |i(irti(iii  nr  cnMiii.  'I'ln'  dairy  rfiiliiiiiiji'.  or 
.icam  sc|iiirat<ir.  maiili's  the  crfamiiig  or  •■  sUimmiir^"  tn  he  ilmir  immt'ili- 
,,icly  after  iiiilkiii.y;.  |irfrt'ral)ly  while  thf  milk  is  still  warm.  Thi'  nram  ran 
i.i'  at  unci'  chiinicil.  whilf  sweet  ;  Init  a  hetter  |praeticr  is  to  euic  or  •■  ri|icii  " 
i;  till'  i'hiiniiii<^ :  this  can  lie  ilmic  at  a  ciim|iai'al  i\  cl\  hii^'li  tem|ii'ratiii'e,  ills- 
|ii'iisiii|^  with  tiie  necessity  nl  sd  mncli  ice  or  cold  waicr.  The  skim  milk  is 
,ivail;il)le  for  use  while  still  warm.  i|uite  sweet,  and  in  its  licst  condition  for 
li'cdin},'  to  yonu!,' animals.  'I'liis  mechanical  meihod  is  more  ctlicicnt.  scciir- 
111^'  more  perfect  cream  separation  tlian  the  ctld  ^Mavily  system,  and  the  dairy 


ii 


A    TYriCAI.    D.MItY    COW 


AYIISMIKi;, 


lalior  is  very  lar<,'ely  reduced.  The  handlini,'  and  caring  for  the  milk  may  l>e 
I liiis  wholly  removed  from  the  duties  of  tlic  honsehold.  A  iisuid  plan  is  lo 
I 


lavc  a  "skimmiu!.?  station."  to  which  the  milk  is  hauled  at  least  daily  from  the 
|ii(iducing  farms  in  the  vicinity,  and  where  one  oi'  more  separators  are  oper- 
aled  liy  power.  Separators  arc  also  made  of  sizes  and  ]iattcrns  suited  to  farm 
iiM'.  where  they  nuiy  he  opera  ted  by  hand  or  hy  light  power.  — (dcetricit\ ,  steam, 
water,  a  horse,  a  hull,  a  shec|i  ".r  a  ilog.  Iicsides  its  economy  and  its  eflect 
:ipiin  lahor.  this  machine  almost  eliminates  the  factor  id'  idimate  in  a  large 
part  of  dairv  management,  and  allogetlier  has  worked  a  revidution  in  the   in- 


lustrv. 


Til 


e  centrif\igal  separator  is  stu 


marvel  to  tho: 


sc  wUo  see 


It    Wi 


ug  hir  the  iirst  time ;  the  whole  milk.  warm,  flows  into  the  centre  lA'  a  strong 
-teel  howl,  ludd  in  an  iron  frame  ;  the  howl  revolves  at  a  rate  of  l.")OU  to  L'.">.iHl(> 


limes  ]ier  minute,  and  from  two  projecting  tubes  cream  and  skim  milk  How  m 


dski 


ilk  H( 


ontnuious  streams  to  sc]iarate  receptacle 


r 


le  machines  can  lie  regulated 


I   i 


252 


TlilUMI'HS   AW    noyVEJiS  OF   THE  Xiy"   CESTURY 


i  )• 


^\ 


\    ;i* 


■'*'   X  ; 


l,f  ' 


I :  . 


1, 


to  idoiliicc  ciciini  n  '  iiiiv  tk'siivd  tliickiu'ss  or  (luality.  'I'lu-sc  st'iuinitoi'.s,  oi 
dit'fV'ii'iit  sizi'N.  an-  r.qiiiljlc  of  tluis  skiinniiiii;- or  sopiinitiiii,'.  or  mure  proiK-iiv . 
ri'ciiiniiii;'.  t'luiii  l.">  to  .'idO  <^all(iiis  of  iiii'.k  |ii'r  liour.  A  iiiacliiiit'  of  staiulaii, 
factory  size  lias  a  spt'cd  of  (!0(M»  t.(i  7<H)(I  rt'voltitioiis  a  inimilf,  and  u  capacil- 
for  separating,'  '-'."id  Ljalloiis  of  milk  an  hour.  'V\\v  world  is  indfbt.t'd  to  Kniop, 
for  this  invention,  at  least  as  a  dairy  appliance,  ^'et  i n vest! j,'at ions  were  in 
pronress  eonteniporaneonsly  in  this  ednntry  aloni,'  the  same  line,  and  many  ol 
the  material  improvements  in  the  I'ream  se[iarator  and  several  entirely  new 
patterns  have  sinee  heeii  inventi'd  here.  Tlie  first  separators  were  pnt  ini" 
prai'tital  nse  in  this  eoniitry  and  (ireat  Britain  in  the  year  1S7!(.  Tin' 
centnry  closes  witii  .">."i.ttoo  to  l(»,(t(l()  of  thest'  machines  in  operation  in  tin 
I'inted  States. 

'riie  second  ;;re:it  dairy  invention  of  tin-  |>eriod  is  the  fat-test  for  milk. — 
bc'in<,'  a  <piii  k  and  easy  sidistitute  for  chemical  analysis,  'i'ids  is  one  (d  tin 
pnhlic  liemd'actions  of  the  .Vi^ricidtnral  Kxperinn-nt  Stations  which,  undci 
State  and  national  endowment,  have  lieen  established  duriiijr  the  last  part  ol 
the  centurv,  so  that  there  is  now  at  least  one  in  every  State.  .\  nundter  nf 
these  have  done  mnch  creditahle  work  in  dairy  investii^ation.  and  from  thein 
have  come  several  clever  methods  for  testini^  the  fat  content  (d'  milk.  Tin 
meihod  which  has  lieen  ;j;enerally  appntsed  and  is  now  almost  nniversalh 
ailopted  in  tliis  and  other  laiids  is  nanii'd  for  its  orij^inator.  Dr.  S.  M.  Iiahcoik. 
the  able  chemist  and  dairy  investii,':d-or,  lirst  (d'  the  New  Vork  Station  :ii 
(ieneva  aiul  since  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  at  Madison.  'I'his  tester  comliim-- 
the  principle  of  centrifugal  force  with  simple  chenucal  action  The  machine, 
on  the  Uabcock  phin,  hi'.s  been  mach'  in  a  great  variety  of  pattt  riis,  sin>ple  ami 
inexpensive  for  home  \is  •,  more  elaliorate  and  substantial  b>r  factories.  \\\ 
tlu-ni  from  two  to  forty  samples  of  milk  may  be  tested  at  once  in  a  few  inn 
meiits;  and  by  slight  moditications  in  the  a|)j»liaiices.  the  fat  may  be  dctei 
mined  in  samples  of  milk,  cream,  skim-milk,  or  butter-milk.  'I'his  fat  test  ni 
milk  has  wide  application,  and  is  seeoml  only  to  the  separator  in  advancin.; 
the  economies  of  dairying.  'I'lic  percentage  of  fat  being  accejited  as  the  nci 
.sure  of  value  for  milk  for  nearly  all  purposes,  the  Itaiicock  test  may  be  tin 
basLs  ioY  city  milk  inspectitm,  for  fixing  tiie  price  of  milk  dt  Hvered  to  cit\ 
dealers,  to  cheese  factories  and  creameries,  .and  for  commerciai  setllenientv 
between  jiatrons  in  ci  ^crativt^  dairying  of  any  kind.  l>y  tiiis  test.  alsn. 
the  dairyman  may  prove  the  (piality  of  milk  from  Ids  different  cows,  ainl 
(with  (piantity  (d'  milk-yiidd  r«'(!orded)  may  fix  their  res])ective  value  ;i- 
dairy  animals.  With  perfect  apjiaratus  in  careful  hands,  the  accuracy  cd'  tlit 
testis  uinpiestioned.  and  it  is  of  the  liighest  scicntilic  value.  It  should  I" 
noted  that  although  idearly  patentable,  and  offering  an  independence  tlirouL;li 
a  very  small  royally,  this  priceless  invention  and  boon  to  dairung  was  fieei\ 
given  to  the  |)ublic  by  Dr.  Iiabcock. 

The  adveid,  of  the  tucntieth  ceiitiiry  finds  the  dairy  imlustry  of  the  I'liili'ii 
States  estal'lislied  upon  a  plane  far  above  the  simple  ami  crude  domestic  an 
«.d' three  or  four  generations  ago.  The  milch  cow  itself,  upon  whicii  tin-  wlml. 
business  rests,  is  more  of  a  machine  thai\  a  natural  product.  The  animal  \\.\ 
been  so  bred  and  developed  to  a  special  purpose,  that  instead  of  the  fornif: 
short  milking  period,  almost,  limited  to  the  pasture  season,  it  yields  a  compa: 
atively  even  How  of  nulk  during  ten  or  eleven  months  in  every  twelve;  and  ' 


(ll'S.   t>l 

)pi'rl\ . 
iindiun 
i|);n'it\ 

k-crt'  ill 
i;iiiy  III 
■ly  iif\\ 
ut  ill'" 
.  'riu- 
in  till' 

i.ilU.- 

■   (if     lllr 
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k.  Tin- 
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uiiioliii'.f. 
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•irs.  I'.N 
tVw  111" 

tC    (ll'tiM 
t,  tvst   nl 

|lv;iiifin:4 

Itllf   Ill'M- 

lir  lli<- 
|l  to  iMt\ 
Itlt'iiii'iil-' 

■(t.  als". 
Jiws,  ami 
Ivaliu'  ■I- 

IV   nf  ill' 


iKlll 


Ithroii'^li 


I'liitcii 
,'stic  ;iii 
ii'  wln'l' 
liiial  li'i 

tol'llll'i 

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am 


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•J.->4         Tlill/Ml'US   AMJ    \\()M>I:JIS   Ol'   THE   A/A'"   rilsmiY 
ilfsiicd.  tlu'  lu'iil  |iro(liiccs  as  iiiiu'li  in  wiiittT  as  in  suiiiiiicr.     Il  is  iinl  umisii. 


Inr  cdws  to  tiivr  ten  nr  twclvt'  Hint's  tlicir  nwii  w 


t'i'j'lit  of  luilk  iliiriii''  a 


\(' 


And  tlic  i|iialit V  lias  Immmi  so 


iiiiinovcd  that  1  111' iiiilU  «d  niaiiy  a  Linnd  dairv 


will  iiripdut'i'  as  iiuicli  liuttiT  in  a  week  as  I'niild  lir  iiiadi'  I'lnin  tlircc  or  loiiiaM 
a-r  cdWs  ut  the  dldrii  liiiic.  I iistcad  ol  a  tew  liuiin'lx  and  iiicnii vi-nit'iit  iiiiji 
iiii'iits  lor  use  ill  llic  lalioiioiis  dutio  of  tiic  dairv.  ,:;cni'iail.\  drvolviii^-  ii|i< 
tlif  wdiiicn  ol  the  laiiii.  |M'rici'ti'd  aiipliaiircs  sUillliill.v  dcvix'd  to  aci'oiu|i|i 
tlirir  olijt'ct  and  lii^iilcn  lalioi- arc  |irovid('d  all  aloiij;- 1  he  wav.  'I'ln'  lacti. 
s\st('iii  ol  I'oujii'raliv  ('  or  concciii  rated  inaiiiitai'tiirc  lias  so  lar  takrii  the  |ila 
ol  lioiiic  <iairviii;^'.  that  in  ciitirf  States  the  ehcese  vat  or  [press  is  as  rare 
the  haiiddooni.  ami  in  nianv  coiiiities  it  is  as  hard  to  lind  a  lariii  elmrn  a- 
s|iiiiniii<i;-\viieel.      I.oii'^'  rows  ol'  shiiiiii'^  tin  pans  are  no  Ioniser  seen  adorni 


;  »t    ;(  If: 


I!. 


"a 


MII.K     IKMI.Ii    lOI'KN). 


'■m 


'i  tr 


rural  door\  ards.  as  one  drivi's  alon;^  country  mads;  Imt  in  their  |ilacc  in,. 
l)e  I'onnd  the  lui'^ht  laces  of  "the  wonien-lojks."  wlio  rejoice  o\er  the  icmh 
tioii  of  modern  dairviic^. 

Here  is  an  e,\aiii|ile  (d'  this  radical  cliaii'j;e  in  the  system  of  niakiic^  i'litb 
Noiilcrn  X'eniiont  has  always  iiecn  a  I'c^Moii  id    lari^^e  Imtier  |irodiiction.     >' 
AUians.  in  l''raiiklin  County,  is  the  nataral  hiisiiiess  centre,      hiiriii'^-  the  nr.l 
die  ol  I  he  century  the  count  ry -made  Imt  tcr  came  lo  this  town  to  market  cmi 
Tuesday  from  miles  aioiiiid.     The  averairi'  weekly  snpjily  was  .'!(»  to  jn  \<<\ 
'I'liis  w.is  very  varied  in  i|iiality,  was  saniplcd  and  classilieil  with  iiinch  Id" 
and  i'X|iense.  |ilaceil  in  three  !,'r:ides — |prime.  fair,  and  poor  —  and  forwaiii 
to  the  lioston  market,  two  hnndred  miies  distant.      Diiriic.,'  t'vcntv  li\e  \e.,' 


em 


liii'j  in  IS7.">.  ( ;.■>.( KM t.t  1(H)  ll,s..  \  allied  at  .S !.'<».<»( it ».(l()(». 


M'lhhi'oinrii  this  Ini, 


town.      All   of  this  was  dairy  luitter  made  upon  a  thoiisand  or  two  diffen 
fainis.  in   as   manv  chnriis.      In    ISSI,  the   lirst   cieaiiiervwas   hnilt    in   (I 


n 

m 

1 

i 

^h 

wnI 

iSifli 

mm 

Hffi 

m 

mm 

Iw 

m%\ 

nw 

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\ 

m 

11 

1 

t?1 


'■M 

1 

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1 

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'»:.ki\ 


'  I 


'■1  m 


II 


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10  xd 


MM         TRIUMPHS   A.\D    \VO\UERS    01'  TIUC   A7A'"   CESTLItY 


\  I 


1'  i 


*\  ' 


!l  1 


(■(tiMitv.    N(i\v.  till'  l''riiiikliii  ('Diiiily  Cn'iiiiit'n  ('oiii|);iii,v.  Inriitt'il  ut  St.  AIIkih 
1'.      ''Itv-(iilil  skiiiiiniii^  stiitimis  distriliiitril  tliniiij,'li  tliis  ami  adjoiiiiii;,' cimui 
tics.    'I'o  tlit'iii  is  carrii'il  tliciiiilk  I'loiii  .">(•,(•()(>  ruw,- or  iiiurr,  ami  tlic  si-paiali  I 
cream  is  sent    hy  rail   to  the  cciitial  lai'ioiy.   where  troiu  ten  to  twelve  tdi, 
of  butter  are  maile  everyday.     A  single  eliiiriiiii;^'  room  lor  tlie  whole  count  \  ' 
All  <>!'  this  butter  is  uT  stanihtrd  *iuality,  and  sold  on  its  reputation  upon  ordei 
ironi   distant  jxiints  rec^eived  in   advance  id'   its   manuract\ire.     '|"he  price   ■ 
leiatively  hit,dier  than  the  averaifc  lor  the  product   of  the  same  J'arm>  till 
years  ai;o. 

In  one  res]>ect  dairy  labor  is  the,'«ame  as  a  hundred  years  a},'o.  C'ows  slill 
lia\e  to  be  milked  by  hand.  .\lthoui,di  numerous  atteni|its  have  been  niacl>  . 
anil  patent  alter  patent  issued,  no  mechanical  contrivance  has  yet  been  i 
|iiactic,il  succe>s  as  a  subsliliile  i'or  the  human  band  in  niilkin^.  Tliereroii  . 
twice  a  day.  every  day  in  the  year,  the  dairy  cows  must  be  nulked.  This  is 
one  of  the  main  items  of  labor  in  the  dairy,  as  well  as  a  most  delicate  aiiii 
important  duty.  Allow  iie,^  ten  cows  per  hour  to  a  milker.  —  which  is  pieti  \ 
lively  work.  —  it  re(|uires  the  eoiifiiiuous  laiior  of  an  army  id'  .'tOd.OdO  nieii. 
workiie^-  ten  or  twelve  hours  a  day  throughout  the  year,  to  milk  the  cows  nj 
the  Iniled  Stales. 

'I'lie  industry  is  becoming:  thoroie^hly  organized,  llesides  local  clubs,  .-.oci 
ties,  and  unions,  there  are  dairy  associations  in  thirty  States,  most  id  them 
incorporated  and  reccivins,' linaucial  aid  under  State  laws,  in  some  Stm. -, 
the  butter  makers  and  (dieese  makers  are  S('|iarat(dy  organized,  .sixteen  Stati  . 
provide  by  law  bir  ottieials  known  as  Dairy  ('oiumissioners  or  Dairy  and  l''oo,| 
<  oinmissious.  'I'hese  otliccrs  have  a  national  associat  ion.  and  tlinr  are  aUi> 
twonational  orgiinizations  of  ciairynien.  .\t  various  large  markets  and  ceiii  n 
of  activity  in  the  commerce  of  the  dairy,  there  are  special  iMianis  id  tiau<\ 
The  I'nited  States  Deiiartmeiit  of  .\gricultuie  has  a  Dair\  !>ivision.  iiiteiiniMl 
to  watidi  over  ami  promote  the  dairy  interests  id'  the  country  at  l.irgc  I)air\ 
schools  are  nuiintained  in  several  States,  offering  special  •■■uises  of  ])ractic.i! 
and  seiriditie  instruction  in  all  braucdies  id'  the  business.  Tiuse  schools  and 
the  agrii'tiltural  experiment  >talions.  with  which  most  id  iliein  are  ciosilv 
connected,  are  doing  niiudi  original  research  and  adding  to  the  store  (d'usel;,; 
inforniation  as  to  the  apiilications  of  modern  science  to  the  impioMMiieiit  it 
dairy  methods  and  results.  Weekly  am!  monthly  journals,  in  the  iuteiesi  i.: 
dairy  proilui-tion  and  tr.nle.  are  published  in  various  parts  of  the  coimtn 
.\nd  during  the  last  decade  or  two  a  number  of  notewoithy  books  on  differrhi 
aspects  of  dairying  have  been  published,  so  that  the  student  of  this  siiiiji  i  i 
may  till  a  good-sized  case  with  suiistantial  volumes,  technical  ami  practical  lu 
liiaractei'. 

The  liiisinesN  of  producing  milk  bir  town  and  city  supply,  with  ilie  acccm 
panying  agencies  lor  transportation  and  distribution,  has  grown  to  imnieiii 
proportions.  In  many  p.laces  the  milk  trade  is  regulated  and  supervised  l.\ 
excellent  municipal  ordinances,  which  have  done  much  to  prevent  adiilteralHii 

and  improve  the  average  quality  of  the  stipply.      Fidl  as  much  is  being  d 

by  |iri\ate  enterprise,  through  large  milk  coiu]ianies.  well  organi/ed  ;r  ; 
eipiipped.  and  establishments  which  make  a  specialty  of  serving  milk  ai'i 
cream  of  tixed  ipiality  and  exceptional  purity.  This  branch  id  dairying  ^ 
advancing  very  fast,  and  upon  the  substantial  basis  id  rare,  cleanliness,  a  •! 
improved  sanitary  conditions. 


,  AlUai. 

Il;,'  cnlll; 
.('iPiirilli 
•Ivc    tnl: 
;'  (■(Hint  \    ' 

(III  ordf; 
'   price   I- 
riiiN  till 

,"n\\s  si  111 
'('11  liiiuli  . 
't  bci'ii  1 
riicrt'lnii . 
Tliis  IS 

liciltc  Mini 
I  is  pi  I'll  \ 
.000  nil':  . 

It'   (MIWS     I't 

•lulls.  MH'l- 
;t  di'  tlii'lll 
lUf  St:it>'>, 
llTll  Sliiti  •> 

\  and  l''iMi.| 
i-f  ai'i'  iil>'i 
niil  ('t'ntii> 
(if  triiii'-. 
iuti'iiui'il 
i'4i'.  l);iir\ 
t  lnarliiMl 
'liiidls  au<l 

|-c  (•ln>i'l\ 
('  lit'  iisi'tul 
M'lUI'llI  I't 
iutiTi'St  1'! 
'     Cllllllt  I  \  . 

1  ililtcl-rlil 

is  suiijii'l 
ractii';it  m 

llic  ai'i'iiiii 

I   iuuni'ii-i' 

[■rxisi'ii  1') 

iiltcrali'  !i 

|M'in'4  il"i  •' 

liii/.cil  ai"l 

milk  ;ii"l 

lairvinu  ^ 


lllicss.  ;r 


.1 


PliOaiiESS  IN   DMllY  FARMING  'jr.? 

('lieese-makiiij;  lius  bicii  traiislcrrcd  luKlily  from  tiui  realm  of  tlomestie  arts 

tiiat  of  maiiiitactiires.      Karm-iiKule  cheeses  are  hard  to  find  aiiywiiere.  are 

.■d  only  locally,  and  make  no  iiiipressioii  upon  the  markets.      In  the  middle 

till-  century  alioiit  l(l(l.( »(»(>,(""*  pounds  of  (dieese  were  made  yearly  in  the 

nited  States,  all   of  it  on    farms.      .\t  the  close  of  the  century  the  annual 

idiiclion  of  the  (U/untry  is  aliout  .■{(>(»,( H M >,((( It »  jiounds.  and  '.»(>  or  \)~  per  cent 

this  is  made  in  factories.     Of  these  estalilishmeiits  tiiere  are  some  .'itKHi. 

iviiiM    ni'Mtly    in   caiiacity.      New  ^drk  and  Wisconsin  eacli    have  over  a 

.iiisaii(l ;  the  former  State  makes  nearly  twict*  as  much  (dieese  as  the  latter, 

id  tlif  two  to;.,n'th('r  produce  tliree  fourths  of  the  entire  output  of  this  coun- 

\.     'I'iie  other  (dieese-makiii!.^  States,  in  the  order  of  ipiantity  produced,  are 

hill.  Illinois,  ^lichi,i,'an,  and  I'ennsylvania  ;   Imt  all  are  comparatively  unim- 


liiriLl:   \l  VKIM.  —   I  IIK    M;W    WAV 

imrraiit.  More  than  nine  tenths  of  all  laade  is  of  t]i(>  familiar  standard  vari- 
ety cnpicd  after  tlie  ICn;.,'lish  < 'hciidar.  Imt  new  kinds  and  imitations  ol  forei;.;ii 
varieties  are  increasini,'.  The  idieese  niude  in  the  country,  with  tiie  small 
iiiipnrtations  added,  trives  an  all<  waiice  of  i«-ss  than  lour  poiMids  a  year  to 
every  ]ierson;  but  as  thirty  to  titty  million  iiounds  are  still  annually  exiiorted. 
till'  per  capita  consuniptioa  of  elii'e-.e  in  tlie  I'lnted  St:ites  does  not  exceed 
tliree  and  a  half  pounds.  This  is  ;i  \ery  low  rate,  much  less  tlian  in  most 
I'jiropean  countries. 

tireat  as  has  lieeii  the  u'rowtli  of  tiie  tactory  system  of  Imtter-makins,'.  and 
fust  as  eroameries  are  multiplyiiii^-.  especially  in  the  newer  and  i;rowin}»  ii^i'i- 
iiiltural  States,  siu-li  as  Minnesota.  Neliraska.  Kansas,  and  South  l)akota.  there 
is  >iill  nnudi  more  Imttci'  made  mi  tarms  in  tlie  rnited  States  than  in  creani- 
t'lii's.     Creaiiierv   huti'-r   cuntmls   all  the    lai-^e   markets,    the   il;;irv   product 

n 


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f  i,  l|| 


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TlilUMI'IlS   ASD    WoMUCliS   UF    I  HE   XIX'"   CESTUUY 


miikiii,;,'  (■(iiii|iiii;itivcly  little  iiii|prt'ssi<iii  on  tlir  trtidt'.  Iliit  lioiuc  coiisiiinipti' 
iiiiil  tilt'  sii|i|ily  n(  siiijill  fU.stf)iiit'is  iiiiil  local  luaikt'ts  iiiiikt!  iiii  imiufiisi'  ;h;l;i 
i,'at,(',  bfiMjf  liiliy  twii  thirds  (if  all.  lOstimatiiij;  the  annual  i)iittcr  iimdnrt  .i 
tlif  comitry  at  1.  l(Mi.(i(>(t.(i(i(i  |»iiii'd.s.  in>t  uiucli  ovt-r  K>(l.(in(»,(lti(»  (d'  tins  i, 
made  in  the  S(MK>  or  IKKXl  cicaiiu'rics  now  in  niicfation.  Inwa  is  the  j^icatr  ,i 
linttcr  |iindufin.Li;  State,  ami  tiie  one  in  which  the  i^ieatest  proiiDrtioii  is  man  ' 
on  the  t'actniy  plan.  This  State  lias  .S.^iu  cicameries.  oidy  three  comilies  lien,  ; 
without  thi'in;  about  two  tilths  aic  cip(i|ieialive.  in  tiiese  cfeamei-ics  aimui 
•.)(».( Mi(».u(i(»  pounds  of  butter  are  made  annually  from  7.">IKtnl(»  cows.  It  is  e>ii. 
mated  that  in  t  he  same  ."^tale  ,"»0,0( H ».( K M »  pounds  of  butter  in  adilit  ion  are  m;iii. 
in  farm  dailies.  'I'lie  total  butter  product,  of  the  State  is  then  oiie  one  tcnili 
of  all  made  in  the  linon.  Iowa  semis  over  S( >.( »( M ).(>(  1( I  pounds  of  butter  evci ', 
year  to  other  States.  New  ^'ol■k  is  m-xt  in  imiMU'tance  as  a  butter-makiii- 
State,  and  then  come  I'eiuisylvania.  Illinois.  Wisconsin.  ( Miio,  Miniic^oii. 
and  Kansas.  Vet  all  the>e  coiubined  make  but  little  more  than  lialf  of  tin' 
animal  liutter  crop  of  the  I'ldted  States,  and  in  \w  «)ne  <d'  them,  e.vcept  low.i. 
is  half  of  the  butler  produced  mach-  in  creameries.  'I'he  avera.Lje  ipiality 
of  liutter  in  .Viuerica  has  materially  imjiroved  since  the  introduction  of  tlie 
creamery  system  and  the  use  of  modern  appliances.  No  butter  is  imported, 
and  the  ipiantity  cxjiorted  is  as  yet  insi.i,'inlicaid.  ConseiimMitly  the  himn' 
consumption  must  lie  at  the  yearly  rate  of  twenty  pounds  tlm  iierson,  or 
about  one  hundred  lbs.  annually  to  the  family  of  avera},'e  size.  If  approxi 
matidy  correct,  this  shows  .\mericaiis  to  be  the  <,'reiitest  butter-eatinj^  people 
of  the  world. 

.\nd  the  people  of  this  country  also  consume  millions  of  ]iouiids  every  M'ar 
of  butter  substitutes  and  imitaticuis,  known  as  oleomariiarim;,  butterine,  etc 
.Most  of  this  is  believed  to  be  butter  by  those  who  use  it.  and  the  State  Mairv 
Commissittiiers  uieidioned  are  lar<,'ely  occui)ied  in  tiie  exe<'iition  of  laws  in- 
tended to  protect  cousuim'rs  from  these  butter  frauds. 

The  cows  in  the  I'ldted  States  were  not  counted  until  IS40,  but  they  ha\r 
been  enumerated  for  every  deceniual  census  since.  It  lias  re(|uired  from  "_'.'; 
to  1'"  cows  to  tivery  100  of  the  inhaiiitants  to  kee|»  the  country  sup])lied  witli 
milk,  butt<'r,  and  eliee.se,  and  provide  for  the  exi>ort  of  dairy  jtroduets.  The 
exp(ut  trade  has  tluctuati'd  mu(di,  but  has  never excei'ded  the  product  of  hall 
;i  million  cows.  With  the  elosiii!.:  years  of  the  century,  it  is  estimated  that 
there  is  one  milch  cow  in  the  Tnited  States  to  every  four  persons.  This 
makes  the  total  number  of  cows  jibout  17..'>00.(K)0.  Tliey  are  (piite  unevenly 
distributed  over  the  country,  beiiii,'  lar,i,'eiy  concentrated  in  the  •,'reat  dairy 
States.  Thus  Iowa  leads  with  a  million  and  a  half  cows,  followed  by  Mcu 
^'ork  with  almost  as  many,  and  then  Illinois  and  Pennsylvania  with  about  ;i 
milli(ui  each.  The  States  havinir  over  half  a  million  each  are  Wisconsin, 
(tliio,  Kansas,  Missouri.  .Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Indiana.  Texas  is  ereditiJ 
witli  700.000,  but  very  few  of  them  are  dairy  animals.  In  tlu>  ^liddle  anl 
ICastern  States  the  milk  product  ijoes  \ery  larj,'ely  to  the  siip|)ly  <d'  tlu'  nuim  ; 
ous  cities  and  lari;e  towns.  In  the  Central  West  and  Northwest  butter  is  I; 
prinei))al  dairy  jtroduct.  It  is  estimated  that  the  dairy  aninuils  of  the  Unit'  ! 
States  include  nearly  half  a  million  which  are  ]inre  hred.  ami  that  this  bio.  I 
has  beiMi  so  generally  diffused  that  more  than  one  fourili  of  the  cattle  a 
irriides. 


M  1 


TlIK    UAIUY    MAIU. 


ifcl 


in 


'!i« 


i  . 

lilliii 

'^vU 

ii 

"'P^HI 

■'i"'SII 

1 1 


ill 


! 


1 1 


M) 


TIllVMI'US   AS  It    WOShEliS   OF   THK  MX'"   f7iA'77A'l' 


Tlic  I'lilldwin^'  tiililc  n'lyvs  !i|iitr(ixiiii!it('ly  an  cxhiliit  ol'  the  (luaiitity  anl 
vuliiooi'  llif  dairy  imulurts  <il  tlic  I'liitt'il  StaU's  in  llio  yi'ur  1*J((0;  — 


(   liW- 


Mil 


It 
1 
ft  I  2 


I'rmliu't. 


KlltttT 

(lll'OC 

Milk 


Klllr  I'f 

I'nidiK'l. 


'I'lital  rroiliK't. 


Ifllti'  of 
Vlllllc. 


i:i(i  ll». 
:ioi)  lli>. 


1,4:|(),(IIH),(HHI  Ills. 

:i(N),*MI(l,0(HI  Ills. 

J,()IM),(HH),(M)0  liiiU 


IS  (Vlits 
H  rents 
8  cclits 


'I'lilal  Valiii 
Diillars. 


'257,400.1111(1 
24,000.011(1 
1117,^00,00(1 


St 


Tliis  ^'ivi's  the  ,i;iun(l  tdtal  ol'  the  dairy  prodncts  of  \]n'  conntry  a  viiliic  ui 
!i!i41S.(;o(»,(l(l(».  11  to  this  itt'  added  the  .skim  milk,  hnttcniiiik.  and  wlicy,  ;it 
tht'ir  iiropc'r  i'et'din^'  vahu'.  and  tiic  calves  <lro)i|i(«d  yearly,  the  annual  a!,'t;n - 
gate  value  of  the  produee  of  the  dairy  eows  e.xceeds  $r)()(),ll()(M)(N).  This  ni;iv 
l)e  aeeepted  as  a  conservative  estimate. 

In  a  elassiiieation  of  the  various  annual  farm  jiroduets  of  the  country  li\ 
values,  meats  and  elo.sely  related  products  stand  lirst  in  order,  tlie  corn  eidii 
■cond.  dairy  pi'oduets  and  the  hay  crop  alternate  in.  the  third  and  fourth 
]»laces.  and  wheat  occupies  the  lifth.  Hay  and  corn  are  so  lars^ely  ami 
directly  triinitary  lo  the  dairy  as  raw  materials  for  its  support,  that  it  is  lair 
to  ])lace  tiie  products  of  the  dairy  as  second  only  to  nu'at  |trodncts  in  the  },'en- 
«'ral  list.  The  cotton  crop  ui  the  country  is  considered  one  of  great  inipdrt 
ance,  Init  dtirinu;  recent  years  it  rarely  tMpials  the  liutter  crop  in  value.  Tin- 
dairy  aggregate  e.xceeds  all  the  mining  products  of  the  United  States  otiier 
than  coal,  oil,  and  gas.  There  never  has  lieen  a  year  when  the  entire  goM 
and  silver  proiluct  of  the  world  was  enough  to  buy  the  annual  dairy  products 
of  this  country  at  the  j)re.sent  time.  These  comparisons  show  the  commercial 
importance  which  the  dairying  of  .\n»erica  has  assumed.  It  is  a  hranch  dl 
farming  of  such  magnitude  as  to  command  attontiou  and  justify  all  reasonalilc 
provisions  to  guard  its  interests. 

Hkxky  E.  A),vo|{i>. 


iri7,4(M»,iKKi 

'24, 1 H  10,1  II II I 
liiT, 2*111,111111 


THE  CENTIJIIY'S   MORAL   PROGRESS 

In  dt'iiliii},' with  :i  siiltjcct so  iiidt'tinitt!  in  il.s  limits  ;i.s  tlir  ])r(»^'r<'.s,s  of  morals 
the  iiim'ltH'Utli  (U'litiiry,  it,   may  he  well  tu  cstalilish  liy  a  Iniff  siiivcv  ol' 


■vimi.s  liu'ts  sitmc  solid 


Itasi 


s  upon  wliicli  to  rest  the  distrnssion 


Tilt'  notion  (d'  l>nty  or  <d'  moral  ol)ligation  —  i.  e.,  of  wrll-doinj;  viewed  in 
\hf  al)stiaet  and  outside  ol'exiiedieiiey  — does  not,  a|>|iear  to  have  Iteen  liroii^lit; 
ti'iwaid  liy  the  (ireek  |ihiioso|iliers,  to  whom  is  mainly  dne  the  orij,Mn  <d'  our 
nun  eon('e]itions  with  re^^anl  to  morality. 

liven  Plato,  who  dealt  with  nearly  all  duties,  while  insistint;  especially  upon 
the  nt'i^'ativo  duty  of  eomndttin.u;  no  injustice  or  evil,  even  ai^'ainst  one's  foes, 
imwhere  systematically  treats  of  Duty.  Imleed.  the  (ireek  etpiivalent  for  the 
nurd  did  not  exist  in  his  time,  and  the  notion  was  conveyed  hy  a  periphrase. 

That  morals  have  a  lieariut;-  upon  the  welfare  and  character  not  (udy  of  the 
iiiilividual  and  of  the  family,  hut  of  the  whole  Imdy  p(ditic,  was  however 
i;irly  recoj,MU/ed.  Theojjjnis,  for  instance,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century 
w.  I-.,  stigmatized  in  the  most  enerii,'etic  terms  the  evil  iiiHiieuce  exercised 
ii|iiiii  the  destiny  of  nations  hy  the  immorality  <d'  the  upper  das.ses. 

In  the  earlier  schemes  of  civili/atiou,  where  worship  played  a.  dominant 


null 


tical  role,  morals  were  re,i,nirded  as  under  the  protection  of  the  sailed  1; 


iw, 


Worship  anil  law  Wi'w  closely  united   in  the  j,'overnnient.  and  morals   wcro 
included  in  these  and  j^overned  hy  motives  oi  expediency. 

Man's  ohli},Mtion  to  the  Deity  was  then  mainly  contineil  to  material  offcr- 
iii;,fs  ;ind  propitiatory  rites,  whilst  the  law  dealt  with  conduct  in  so  far  as 
(nder  must  he  enforced,  authority  respected,  and  certain  mutual  rij^hts  recog- 
iii/cd,  if  the  welfare  of  the  nation  was  to  lie  maintained. 


That  the  moral  standards  of  these  earlv 


•ieties    were   hi'di    iMUnot   he 


(jouhted.  Those  which  prevailed  in  ancient  I''.;.,'ypt.  as  preserved  to  us  in  the 
maxims  of  sai,'es,  as  well  as  in  certain  chapters  (d'  the  .sacred  '.took  ;.  prove 
liiat  the  rule  of  conduct  which  was  to  insure  to  the  suhjeots  (d'  ilie  i'liaiaohs 
respect  and  popularity  in  this  world  and  happini'ss  in  the  woi  id  to  come  was 
ill  no  way  inferior  to  our  own.  Tho  nu;n  who  tauj,dit  their  contemporaries 
••  Do  not  save  thy  life  at  the  cost  of  another"  had  little  to  learn  from  the 
iii'.,di-l)reil  Parisians  who  recently  escaped  unhurt  from  the  hiirniiii;- walls  of 
tlie  l''reiich  Charity  Uazaar. 

For  the  (ireek  thinkers,  however,  who  first  systematically  dealt  with  the 
sulijcct,  Kthics  was  a  hraiich  of  rolitics,  i.e.,  the  Science  (d'  ( iovernineiit, 
Aristotle,  like  Socrates  and  I'lato,  took  tor  the  starting;  puint  <d'  his  ar'.,ninient 
the  sovereijrii  j^ood.  or  the  idea  of  ahsolute  wcll-lteiiii^.  .Ml  that  man  under- 
takes has  an  aim  which,  under  analysis,  is  found  to  he  the  j^'reatest  advanta!j;o 
111  him  who  is  acting;.  .Vccordin;j;ly  all  knowledi,'e  tends  to  this  end  :  and  as 
all  its  eleniouts  are  more  or  less  connected,  there  must  he  one,  the  final  end  of 
wiiich  is  essential  ;  this  is  the  political  science  which  aims  at  the  liii,'liest 
wcll-heiiif^  not  only  of  each  nuiii,  hut  of  man  collectively,  i.  e.,  of  society. 


,!''■■' 


sr.'j 


Tiur.Mriis  AM>  \V(>M>i:i:s  or  the  xix'"  chisTvnv 


TIic   tiiitiirt'   dl'    tliis    Iiit,'li»'.st 


\vt 


11-1 


M'lllg, 


W 


lii<-l 


I    is   >,'('ii('ijillv  tcniii' 


li 


liiippiiii'ss."  ;4i(V('  rise  iiiiioii;,'  (ircck   iiliilosoplu'is  to  iliscussioiis  wliicli  Inn 
iffii  iTvivcil  \)\  iikkUtm  thiiiUfis. 
it   may  tlicit'lori'  In*  stattMl  tliiit   in  aiitit'iit  tliou^'lit,  ut  louHt  until  tht>  t 


Mil' 

tii'  tin-  Stitits.  iiiorals  ami  virtue  wi-rc  stiidird,  w  lirllu'r  in  mnncctinii   wiii 
ii'li^iuM  or  wilii  |Militirs.  iimtrr  tlic  li^lit  ol  t'X|H'ilicni'y  ratlifi-  than  nndcr  tlm' 
(»t'  iil)stiui't  iij,'lit,  and  that.  "  llu'y  wcil'  discnsscd  as  Innctidiis  ludic  than  4 
mural  nlili^'ations." 

'I'hc  tuUncss  of  sij^nilifancf  which  at  jjresfnt  is  cnnvcvt'd  in  the  whm 
'•  l>uty"  is  mainly  dne  tn  the  j^'iadnal  iUid  couiplcx  di'vchiiimi'nt  <d'  it'li^idii 
l(*};al,  and  ))hiliisii|ihical  nindcs  ot  thnii^dit,  in  which  t-citain  luiman  arts  ai> 
ri'yanlcd  as  «'njoim'(l  and  others  as  Imhidden  hy  a  hij,'hei'  iiower,  and  in  whieli 
conseieiice  enters  as  an  important  and  ever  iiiereasinii;  I'aetor.  A  sense  nl 
duty  is  the  le^'itimate  prodiiel  of  human  nature  nndei'  cidtivat  ion.  Hut 
althonis'h  we  should  look  in  vain  amon^'  the  aneients  lor  the  alistraet  notion^ 
which  the  words  ••Conscience.  Duty,  ami  liii,'hl  "  evoke  in  the  modern  mind, 
we  find  in  j,'ropin.i,' our  way  up  the  stream  of  time  that  ^jerms  of  these  eon 
cepts  had  loni,'  lain  concealed  in  the  |iri'cepts  of  ancient  moralists.  The  fail 
of  virtue  existed  lonjr  lieforc  it  was  made  the  suhject  of  theoretical  system^, 
and  if  with  the  devclopnu-nt  of  the  reason  in;,' faculty  our  moral  code  has  hr.  u 
('lai»>rated  and  our  ethical  terminolo,t;y  enriched.  liroa<lly  speakini^.  the  ruK  - 
of  conduct  laid  down  by  civilized  men  in  the  remote  past  and  those  whirh 
govern  us  to-day  are.  in  kiiul,  virtually  the  .sanu'.  Thou  shalt  not  kill ;  Thou 
shalt  not  steal;  Thou  shalt  m>t  covet  thv  neij,'hl>or's  wife;  Thou  shalt  not 


hear  fiilse  witne 


iire  coevjil   with  the  heiMnniiufs  of  communitie 


It   is  Hi 


the  scope  ami  dej,'rce  of  their  ;ipplication  —  not  in  their  niit\ire —  that  maiid\ 
lies  the  dilTereiice  existiiij,'  in  this  resjiect  between  the  past  and  the  present. 

In  the  hiichest  staj,'e  of  our  moral  developnu-nt  the  unscltishness  whicli 
seeks  Lcnititication  in  the  wcUare  of  others  and  in  iluty  accomplished,  al  tiir 
cost  of  self.  ni;iy  in  linal  ;inalysis  he  redue<'tl  to  a  refined  ej,'oism.  The  moti\r 
held  \ip  to  luiin  by  most  nnualists  is  still  expediency.  The  reward,  whether 
it  is  promised  on  this  earth  or  in  the  world  to  (rume,  is  still  >i  reward,  and  t<> 
the  ••  |:i;reatest  ;Hlvantiij;e  of  him  who  is  acting?.'' 

Moreover.  m<u';il  stiimliirds  to-diiy,  ;is  in  the  past,  liave  a  strong  bearini,' upon 
]»olitical  1,'overnment.  iind  it  is  in  studyinj,'  the  development  of  democriilic 
ideas  that  we  m;iy  best  follow  the  evoluti<in  of  modern  ethics  as  characteristic 
of  our  epoch;  for  to  this  develo|>nn'nt  is  due  a  hif^her  sense  of  justice,  tic 
recognition  id  the  rii^hts  of  men  and  id'  the  unimportance  of  the  e^o  as  coin 
pared   with  the  race,  all  of  which   form  distinctive  features  of  the   modem 

(;r 1   for  which  the  words  ''altruism"  and  "  humanitarianism ''  have  been 

coined.  It  may  also  be  said,  to  the  hotmr  of  the  present  centtiry.  that  their 
exists  a  },'rowin},'  tendency  to  a<'cej't  abstract  truth  and  rij,'ht  outside  <il 
expediency  ;is  standards  (d'  conduct,  ami  to  a[»ply  the.se  rejjardless  of  sc\. 
class,  or  persons  accordiiij;  to  the  intlcxible  Iof,'ic  of  a  trained  rca.son. 

Two  thousand  ye;us  aj,'o  ( 'hristiiinity  established  itself  upon  the  wr<'ck  i>i 
ancient  civiliy.;itions,  preservinjj  that  which  in  them  was  immortal,  (iraftm 
\ipon  the  Ikoman  world.  thej,'ospel  of  democracy  which  it  preached  could  1" 
accepted  as  the  ot1ici;il  relij,'ioti  (d'  the  Kn\pire  only  at  the  cost  of  its  ow  ■ 
purity.     How  could  (Jod  ami  Mammon  rule  together?     How  couUl  !i  ('m 


THE  ('Hsruuv's  MuitM  ruoniuiss 


383 


.iiiliiH'  list'  tti  an  iiiiilcrslaiKliiii,'  of  llic  'rcachrr  wlm  saitl :  .•'  \'r  know  that 
;  cy  wliifli  aif  ai'ciiiMitfd  to  rnlf  iivi-r  tlic  (irnlilfs  cxi'icihc  l(ir(lslii|i  ovt'r 
;  ,('in,  Jintl  tlicir  ^jrciit  niics  rxcrcist'  aiitliuiity  ••vt'i-  tlifui,  .  .  .  I>iit  so  shall  it 
i  )t  \w  amonj,'  you  ;  Imt  whosoever  will  lie  ^neat  anioiii;  yon  shall  be  your 
I  mister;  ami  whosoever  of  yon  will  Ite  the  ehii-lest  shall  he  servant  of  all.'* 
I  I,  Mark  x.  4L'— it.)  Christ  had  estahlisheil  reli^Mou  iinion^'  iiis  followers 
;  ilistinet  IroiM  worshiji.  'I'lie  people  soon  relapsed  into  worship,  wliilsl  loi 
t    .•  elei},'y  lheolo,i,'y  took  the  plaee  ol  relii,'ion. 

With  the  allianee  t'orined  between  Chiireh  and  State  in  the  Christian  eon>- 
ii  iinity,  nuiehcd'  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  lu-eessarily  lorj,'otl(  n  ;  many 
II'  the  paridtles  in  which  the  Teaeher  emliodied  his  doctrine  of  justice,  id' 
ti  li  raiu'e,  cd'  love  and  humility,  were  t<i  lose  their  living'  fiu'ce.      I'nder  the 


liner  of  faith,  conduct   sank  to  the  secoml  rank. 


'11 


le  (Irv   sii 


htlet 


les   O 


:^<  Imlasticism  litdped  to  crush  morality  lieneath  the  words  and  formulie  of  a 
li  .iriicd  <lialecti( .  Althon;^di  for  centuries  the  spirit  id'  Christ  continued  to 
]ihitcct  tin'  weak  and  the  lowly,  althou^di  from  the  very  liody  of  the  Church, 
tlirii  ever  ready  in  its  arro^MUce  to  cast  its  anathemas  upon  every  effort  of 
III. Ill  to  assert  his  freedom,  sprang;  reformers  who  eiideavoicd  to  restore  to  tlu- 
i,'iKpel  some  of  its  early  sij,'niticanee,  the  Church  strayed  ever  farther  from 
it>  founder.  Was  this  liecause.  as  Michdet  saiil.  the  reformers  themselves 
iirriled  reforming''.'  Once  more  man  found  himself  crushed  under  the  law 
h  Christ  had  declared  was  made  for  him.  until,  at  last,  in  the  lorcihle 
Is  of  Mr.  Darmesteti-r,  of  all  the  Teacher's  lessons  Chiistian  Itoiiie  seemed 


w  llll 

won 


tn  rciiicinher  only  one 


{eturn  unto  Ca-sar  that  which  is  Ca-sars. 


How- 


ever liercely  monaridiy  mij,'ht  struj,'j,'le  a;.,'aiiist  the  temporal  eiicroaidiments 
n|  the  Church,  it  joined  with  it  to  repress  the  people.  '•  .\utliority  rested 
iiliuii  a  mystery,  its  rij,'ht  came  from  above.  I'ower  was  divine.  Obedience 
til  it  was  a  sacred  duty  and  impiiry  becanu)  a  blasphemy." 

Tlicn  from  the  ^'reat  .schools  and  universities  the  developing,'  intellect  of 
I'liiiopc  awakened  to  a  sense  id'  its  ri,i;lits.  Suddenly  there  came  impiiries 
iiiiu  the  reality  of  this  spiritual  jiower  over  human  souls  and  over  tiie  huniaii 
understanding'  which  IJome  claimed  to  be  derived  from  Heaven.  in  its 
revolt  ai^ainst  doi^ma.  from  Abt'dard  and  .Vrnold  di  Ibescia  to  lluss  and 
Wickliff,  from  I.uther  and  Pascal  to  N'oltaire  and  Kousseaii.  the  liiunau 
tiiniijrht  struj,';j;led  for  freedom  under  the  iianner  of  learning,'  and  of  reason, 
iind  fiiuj,dit  for  the  rii,'hts  of  the  jieople  a<,'ainst  the  privilcj^'cd  few.  "  1  will 
not  speak  of  tolerance."  crii'd  Mirabeau,  in  his  plea  for  the  emancipation  of 
the  .lews  in  tlie  National  Convention  (IT'.M)  ;  "the  freedom  of  con.siuenc*!  is  a 
ri,i,dit  so  sacred  that  even  the  name  of  toler.'ince  involves  a  sjiccies  of  tyranny."' 

At  the  (dosti  of  the  last  century,  freedom  at  last  jdaiited  its  standard  in 
Kiiiope  above  the  ruins  of  despotism.  In  the  fiery  torrent  which  swept  away 
the  ancient  traditions  of  the  Church,  as  well  as  those  of  the  State,  it  seemed 
lor  a  time  as  tliou<,di  ?'elif^ion  as  well  as  the  church.  ri.i,dit  as  well  as  mij^ht, 
must  disappear  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  that,  in  the  smoke  of 
liiittles  and  the  revelry  of  reason,  truth  and  morals  must  perish  and  anarchy 
prevail.  Ibit  a  moral  rule  is  indispensable  to  society,  and  "  l!tdi<^ion  is  afti.-r 
;ill  but  the  hi{j;hi'st  expression  of  human  science  and  of  human  conscit'iice." 


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WEBSTER,  NY.  14580 

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Till  UM  PUS  AND    way  Dims    OF   Tllh:   XIX I II   CEMURY 


W'l 


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To  the  iiionil  cliaos  tliut  for  a  hiict'  spiii-t'  t'ollownd  tlu'  overthrow  of  the  oln 
order  of  tliinj^s  siK-eeech-d.  lu  the  heniii'iiiii;  of  this  century,  a  jieriod  of  read 
justiuent,  and  now,  in  the  words  of  a  poet  wliose  own  mental  ]>ro('esses  ai' 
a  typt'  of  those  (jf  his  time.  "Of  a  liopeU'ss  (-[loeh  is  born  a  fearh'ss  a^e." 

After  the  absohite  ne.nations  of  tlie  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  centurv. 
after  the  violent  controversies  not  only  of  arrogant  sidenee  and  of  prejudiced 
faith,  but  of  scientific  and  theobtgical  schools  intrr  ne  whi(di  till  the  seridii- 
litei'aturi!  of  tlie  last  generations,  a  riiconciliation  between  faith  and  science  i> 
taking  ])lace,  a  certain  unity  of  thought  is  being  reached  with  regard  to  c(j|i 
duct  and  to  the  rights  of  men.  And  the  century,  at  its  close,  shows  us  lln- 
I'rotestant  churchman  less  tenacious  of  his  tlogma.  the  Homanist  less  eertaii 
of  the  infallibility  of  Konie,  the  scholar  less  convinced  of  the  infallibility  d, 
liis  science,  the  agnostic  less  boastfid  of  his  skepticism,  the  monarchi>i 
awakened  from  his  dreams  of  a  divine  right  of  kings  and  of  a  ])rei)r(hnni 
sui)jcction  of  men,  the  socialist  sobered  of  his  revolutionary  fren/y  a 
rejaidiating  the  extremes  of  anarchy  and  nihilism  born  of  his  earlier  teaiii 
ings.  all  marching  shoulder  to  siioidder  under  the  banner  of  a  broad  toleram  r 
toward  a  common  goal,  in  a  united  etfort  to  lift  the  masses  from  the  dejitiis  nt 
])o\'ertv,  ignorance,  vice,  and  often  crime,  to  which  centui'ies  of  repressimi 
seemed  to  (.'ousign  tlu'Ui,  and  seeking  in  fi'iendly  coiiiieration  to  bring  alimii 
a  better  social  order. 

For  in  our  tinu'  has  taken  i)lace  a  great  broadening  (d'  the  moral  stand]Mmit 
from  whi(di  the  old  rules  of  conduct  are  in  future  to  be  applied.  Toward  tin' 
end  of  the  last  century  the  tMpiality  and  fraternity  of  men  was  jjroclaimed  \'> 
the  European  world  and  received  a  l)aptism(d'  blood.  This  official  declaration 
of  the  rights  <d'  men  iirofessed  to  be  universal;  but,  like  other  dispensation^ 
that  had  precieded  it,  in  its  application  it  fell  short  of  the  democratic  idcd. 
All  nuMi  were  deidared  eipial,  yet  with  sti'iking  inconsistency  those  who  pin- 
elaimed  the  new  creed  held  others  in  bondage,  and  race  discpialitication 
survived. 

The  honor  of  leading  in  the  greatest  moral  reform  which  the  world  li;i> 
seen  is  due  to  the  I'^rench  Kevolutionary  leaders.  ( »n  I'Vbruary  L'.  17'.M,  tin 
("(invention  decreed  the  aliolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  I'remdi  c(donii-, 
and  all  slaves  were  admitted  to  the  rights  of  citi/.enshi|i.  It  was  only  in  iS.'i;; 
that  slavery  was  abolished  in  the  itritish  colonies  i)y  Act  (d'  Parliament,  ain; 
that  co(di(!  labor  was  substituted.  In  ISCd  Knijienu'  .\le.\ander  1 1.,  following 
the  policy  inaugurated  by  his  father,  Nicholas  I.,  tVccd  the  serfs  in  Russia. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  I'nited  States,  which  for  many  reasons  miglii 
have  iieen  expectct^  to  leail  in  the  movenu'ut,  only  followed  in  1N(!.">.  Tli 
terrible  struggle  (d'  the  public  conscience  against  expediency  and  cla-- 
interest.  whi(di  then  tool<  place  upon  this  continent,  must  form  one  of  t!, 
most  important  lessons  which  tliis  century  will  offer  to  posterity. 

IJight  prevailed,  and  with  this  triumph  of  justice  the  human  conscieiK  >  . 
throwing  asid(;  casuistry  and  evasion  for  a  time,  faced  its  problems  honest!; 
and  asserteil  its  own  sovereignty. 

The  consequences  of  th''  mighty  struggle  did  not    stop  here.     Once    1: 
])rineiples  of  abstract  justice  established,  not  only  against  nnght  but  again  ' 
tradition  and  expediency;  once  the  rights  not  oidy  of  men  (as  in  177(!  ami 
IT.SO),  but  (d'  all  nu'U,  recognized  in  a  broader  a])plication  of  the  princii)le-> 


THE   CENTURY'S  MORAL   PROGRESS 


L'05 


fZAR    ALEXANDER   TT.    OP  RUSSIA. 


;  ivne  democraoy,  there  canu>  a  tendency  to  extend  its  application  to  mankind 
:,.  large;  and  Avonien,  who  according  to  their  station  in  life  had  hitherto 
iM'i'n  dealt  with  theoretically  as  either  iisefid  or  ornaineiital  possessions. 
1,  '^un  t(j  find  their  place  as  nuMubers  of  the  conununity.     The  rights  ot  shives 

men  had  been  officially  prochiinu-d. 
!  ic  rights  of  women  as  citizens  !)egan 
!..  he  discussed. 

ill  the  widespread  shifting  of  levels 
\\  iiich  has  taken  place  in  the  last  liiin- 
ilied  years,  affecting  directly  and  indi- 
iictly  the  moral  progress  of  all  chisses 
(M  society,  certain  imiuirtant  elements 
liiivc  entered  which  cannot  lie  over- 
Iddked  in  the  present  discussion,  and 
wliicli  in  future  ages  must  stand  as  pre- 
ii.iiiiently  characteristic  of  the  niiic- 
ticiirh  century  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
;i-r(Midency. 

Tlie  reign  of  machinery  in  the  in- 
dustrial world,  the  advent  of  steam,  of 
rlictricity,  of  compressed  air.  as  mo- 
tors, have  done  away  with  the  Juiiiian 
iii;irliine.  Whether  in  peace  or  in  war 
tlir  skilled  woikman  has  crowded  him 

out.  Lal)or-saving  inventions  have  done  away  with  the  necessity  for  a 
iinilfiplicity  of  hands.  The  need  to-diiy  is  for  trained  heads.  From  evapn- 
i:itrd  fruit  and  canned  meats  to  heat,  light,  and  iiiter-commiiiiiiMtion.  science 
is  liroiight  to  bear  ujion  every  ilctail  of  existence.  .\s  im  immediate  coii- 
sc(|ueuce  of  the  part  necessarily  ])layed  by  learning  in  oiu'  industrial  and 
reiiimercial  life  under  modern  conditions,  pulilii^  education  has  iiccome  tlu^ 
maiiis[)ring  of  national  prosperity.  Freechjm  and  public  education  have  ni;ide 
iiiir  laboring  chisses  the  stdl'-res]iectiiig.  thinking  jieojile  they  are.  The 
liuiiian  automaton  upon  whi(di  formerly  playe(l  the  greed,  the  vice,  the  crjift 
ot  others  now  holds  a  comparatively  small  place  in  the  modern  community, 
imtside  of  r.atin  Europe.  The  -vile  nndtitude.""  as  M.  Thiers  still  slig- 
iii;iti/.ed  it  (liefore  he  turned  re|iublican),  no  longer  exists.  The  world  has 
iiiiiveil.  ami  so  h;i\'e  men. 

"If  the  shuttle  would  weave  of  itself."  said  .\ristotle  in  his  apology  for 
slavery,  '■  there  would  lie  no  need  of  slaves."  The  miracle,  which  seemed 
impossible  to  the  founder  of  science,  has  been  accom|ilislied  with  the  pre- 
dicted result.     'I'he  shuttle  weaves  of  itself  ami  slaveiw  has  disaii]peared. 

Kven  in  Oriental  lamls.  under  .\nglo-Sax<Mi  supremacy  the  carrying;'  out  of 
.L^ivat  ])ublic  works  is  stimulating  a  demand  for  education  among  the  ])eople, 
and  the  sum  total  of  ignorance  and  ]ioveity  is  gradually  decreasing  and 
making  way  for  better  conditions:  tor  only  a  trained  hiind  guided  by  a 
trained  intellect  can  use  the  modern  tools.  This  apidies  to  agriculture  as  well 
as  to  industries. 

In  the  rising  tide  of  intellectual  and  material  jirogress.  woman  has  been 
oaiiicd  along  to  a  great  extent  nnconscioiislv.     Jt  is  a  matler  of  grave  doubt 


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200 


TRIUMPHS   AND    WONDERS   OF  THIC  XIX'"  CENTURY 


■wlictlior  tli(!  earl}'  '' .sul't'nigists  "  ilid  iiiori'  lliaii  be  tho  lirst  to  recognize  aiiii 
herald  the  logieal  drift  oi'  eunteiuporarv  events.  It  is  through  higher  edu 
cation  that  woman  has  ([uietly  forged  her  way  to  the  jdace  sliti  oeeupies  in 
the  modern  eommnnity,  and  thai  siie  is  claiming  her  shan^  (jf  the  common 
heiitage  of  freed(>m  and  independence.  The  jjrophecy  embodied  in  ]>nlwer' 
'*  Coming  Kace  "'  is  being  realized.     I'roia  year  to  year  her  sphere  is  broaih'ii 

ing.  She  is  fast  becoming  self-sn]i|)orl- 
ing.  Ill  education  she  already  hohl; 
a  h'ading  place.  Her  influence  as  :i 
moving  force  is  becoming  patent.  It  is 
otlicially  recogni/cd  to  a  varying  dcgnc 
in  certain  jiarts  of  the  civilized  AvorM, 
—  Kiigland.  New  Zealand,  Ivussia.  and 
twenty -two  of  the  United  States,  whciv 
she  stands  before  the  law  not  only  in 
her  relation  to  man  as  his  mother,  wile, 
or  sister,  but  in  a  direct  relation  to  soci- 
ety, as  a  reasoning  being  and  as  a  citi- 
zen. 

The  increased  s(df-respect  born  in  wo- 
man's mind  of  a  consciousness  of  eiiuiil 
training  and  culture,  the  growing  num- 
ber of  women  whose  ambitions  have 
been  stimulated  to  higher  acliieveincni. 
iind  the  conse(pient  iiuu'easing  intiueiicc 
wielded  by  them  in  the  comnuinily, 
suggest  the  thought  that  in  lime  tiieir  legal  status  will  be  generally  estab- 
lished, as  it  already  is  now  in  several  localities. 

]\rucli  ]ev(diug  has  taken  place  since  the  abolition  of  the  '•  ancient  regime." 
not  only  in  the  relations  of  the  various  classes  composing  society,  but  in  the 
relation  of  men  and  Avoinen.  'I'hc  process  is  still  steadily  going  on.  And  it. 
is  not  unreasonable  to  believe  that,  with  the  gradual  elevation  of  the  ideals 
of  one  half  of  the  population,  —  that  half  which  is  in  control  of  the  ciirly 
training  of  children  of  both  sexes,  —  a  common  standard  of  character  and 
morality  may  in  time  be  acknowU'dged  Avhich  will  admit  of  but  one  rule  hv 
Avhich  the  actions  of  mankind,  without  distinction  of  persons,  class,  or  scn, 
may  be  measured.  The  fact  that  all  distinction  in  favor  of  the  i)rivilegid 
class  has  already  been  removed  in  tlie  eyes  of  modern  jjiiblic  opinion  holds 
out  such  aho])e.  The  casuistry -which  still  discriminates  between  evil-doci.> 
can  but  retard  moral  ])rogress,  and  the  more  earnestly  modern  parents  ur.;'' 
ui)on  their  sons  the  same  observance  of  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  propriety,  'd' 
truth  and  self  respect,  as  they  exact  from  their  daughters,  the  nearer  tu 
true  (civilization  will  society  rt>acli. 

The  world  is  yet  far  from  this  goal.  Xo  legislative  act  has  as  yet  saved 
society  from  the  ravages  of  vice,  sensuality,  and  greed,  and  to-day  every 
degree  of  savagery  and  immorality  still  exists  in  so-called  civilized  count  ri~. 
Education,  taking  the  word  in  its  broadest  sense,  can  alone,  by  its  rcdiiii' .;■ 
inHui'uce.  force  the  savage  to  give  way  iitd'ore  reasoning  man.  And  it  is  !> 
the  constantly   increasing  jiroportion  o[  educated,  .selt'-respe(!ting   men    i  d 


SIH    KDWAItl)    Itll.WKIt. 


i\    '» 


THE   CENTUllYS  MORAL   PJiOGIiESS 


267 


V.  moil  that  the  coarser  instincts  of  the  hiiiiuin  race  are  bein<^  controlled  and 
1  ui^lit  to  yield  to  reason.  Uy  lioldin,!;-  up  the  same  standards  of  conduct  to 
].  iianit}',  the  important  jjlace  occupied  by  casuistry  and  expediency,  in  the 
(I  Mission  of  the  ethical  [U'obh'ms  set  before  the  moralist,  may  be  reduced,  and 
;i  .^ncal  I'aciiif,'  of  the  serious  issues  to  be  met  may  follow.  Such  a  result 
1,  -t  tend  to  strengthen  the  marriaije  tie  and  the  family  relation,  upon  which 
r.    i>  the  whole  moral  structure  of  society. 

\t  present,  modern  casuistry,  if  it  no  lonj^er  seeks  to  justify  falsehood  and 
n  :ic  committed  on  behalf  of  ('hiiieh  or  State,  still  exonerates,  in  the  woi'ld 
(il  ,  flairs,  the  liiLfli  railroad  official  or  the  industrial  magnate  of  an  infraction 
ol  ilie  higher  <!ode  by  which  his  own  jjersonal  integrity  is  judged,  provided 
til,,:  infraction  is  committed  in  the  interest  of  his  constituents.  .Many  a  man 
ol  liigh  staniiing.  whose  personal  honor  is  beyond  suspicion  and  whose  eoii- 
xn  uce  would  not  allow  him  to  take  an  unfair  advantage  of  anotiier,  does  not 
JH-itate  to  transgress  when  (h-aling  with  rival  corjxjrate  bodies  or  with  i)nblic, 
in;,  lests.  Hence  the  corruption  which  ])revails  in  ])ublic  life  to  a  degree 
(l.iiiui'i'oiis  to  the  eommonwealtli,  and  which  is  in  direct  contradiction  with  the 
prnrcssed  standards  of  the  age.  Must  we  then  think  that  living  uj)  to  the 
liiulicst  moral  standard  is  incompatible  with  imsiness  success,  and  agree  with 
31.  .lull's  Lemaitre  that  "the  attaining  to  moral  perfection  is  really  possible 
(iiilv  in  the  solitude  of  literary  or  artistic  jmrsiiits.  in  the  humility  of  manual 
luimr,  or  in  the  dignity  of  such  disinterested  functions  as  tlujse  of  })riest  or 
sdlilier  ■■  '.' 

IJnwever  this  may  be.  new  conditions  have  created  new  problems  which  the 
|i\iiilic  conscience  alone  can  solve  —  as  it  has  already  solved  that  of  slavery 
aiwl  I  if  race  —  with  nuHinching  logic. 

'I'lie  human  mind,  if  less  concerned  than  it  was  in  the  days  of  .Molina  with 
]iiilciiiics  on  the  nature  of  the  human  will.  —  a  (luestion,  in' tlicf  way,  which 
Kniue  after  eleven  years  and  thirty-three  Councils  dared  not  then  settle,  —  or 
with  theological  controversies  regarding  the  value  of  indiilg(Mices.  is  not  yet 
(it  |icace  with  its(!lf.  Indeed,  lor  being  less  immaterial,  the  issues  now  before 
it  Inr  adjustment  are,  owing  to  their  bearing  upon  ju'actical  life,  all  the  more 
vilal  to  the  moral  health  of  the  body  politic. 

'I'd  the  resjiective  rights  and  duties  of  labor  and  capital  our  Ix'st  thinkers 
must  turn  their  ;ittention  before  an  e(piitable  solution  can  be  reached.  That 
sucli  a  solution  must  be  reached  cannot  l)e  doubted,  for  the  interests  at  stake 
lire  fundamental. 

Whilst  individualism  in  thought  and  in  conduct  asserts  itself  at  every  turn, 
never  were  the  priiK.'iples  of  organization  so  actively  carried  out  among  all 
classes  of  society.  To  the  strain  caused  by  the  forming  of  trades  unicms 
and  iif  united  labor  leagues  for  the  protection  of  the  wage-earner  is  iiow 
siii'ceeding  the  dang(>r  produced  by  the  concentration  (,[  capital  in  the  hands 
et  powerful  corpcu'ations  and  the  creation  of  mighty  trust.s,  the  udue 
extension  of  which  in  this  country  seems  to  threaten  the  jmisperity  of  the 
natidii  and  to  ailil  to  its  political  corrui»tion.  .\s  against  these  monopolies. 
]iiiiilic  ownership  and  operation  of  common  utilities  is  being  snceessfnlly  tried, 
niiialily  in  England  and  the  llritish  Colonies,  and  the  honest  nmnicipalizatioa 
III  all  community  service,  carried  on  as  the  ])ost-ottice  is  carried  on  among  ns, 
iv-nlts  in  ])ositive  bemdit   to  the  ]ieo]ile.  that   is.  in  good  wages  and  reduced 


I    '' 


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2C8 


TlilUMI'US  ASD    WOSDEUS   OF  THE  XIX'"  VEXTUHY 


•lli 


itl 


I       t 


!  '  1      i 


taxes.  To  discuss  tlii-si-  important  |)rol)leins  would  encroach  ui)oii  the  donui;u 
of  political  ccononiy  and  social  science  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  pub!.,- 
morality  is  closely  <lepfiidcnt  upon  their  solution. 

Whether  so-called  civilized  nations,  whilst  nigarding  murder  as  a  caiiii,.', 
offense  and  j)unislnn;^  duflinj,'  when  indulged  in  by  individuals,  will  Lh  , 
continue  to  train  their  bt;st  men  at  enormous  expense,  in  order  that  iu  cuiil 
blood  they  may  scicntitii-ally  ilrstroy  the;  greatest  possible  nund)er  of  otli.  r 
trained  and  ('(pially  good  men:  whether.  i)eaeeful  communities  of  practiiil 
tradesmen  will  some  day  i-t-ase  to  emulate  barbarians  in  their  rejoicings  ov^  i 
tiie  slaughter  of  so-called  enemies  whom  they  are  individually  prepared  s. 
befriend  and  whose  jirowess  tliey  are  ready  to  extol,  are  glaring  contradictini.s 
otferetl  by  the  pniblem  of  war  which  must  In;  left  to  future  generations  in 
reconcile.  The  leading  part  whicii  tiie  Anglo-Saxon  race  has  taken  in  urgin,' 
arljitration  as  a  ]iro]ier  means  of  settling  international  differences  [ilaces  it  m 
the  foremost  rank  (tf  civilization;  whilst  the  I'eace  (.'onference  projiosed  liv 
one  of  Europe's  most  powerful  jiotentatc^s,  the  Czar  of  Jvussia,  must  briiiu  ;i 
ray  of  hope  to  the  hearts  o^those  who  hlbor  for  the  advent  of  universal  peiici'. 
Such  are  the  great  nwjral  issues  of  the  i»resent  day ;  and  in  these  many 
minor  ones  are  included.  Kvery where  and  at  all  ])eriods  of  history  thetluMJiy 
of  etliics  has  widely  differed  from  practical  conduct.  The  race  conflict  wliirh 
is  taking  jdace  in  Frauf.-e  as  the  result  of  the  Dreyfus  trial,  more  tlnin  a 
century  after  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews  before  the  law  was  proclainie(l.  i^ 
a  late  illustration  (jf  this  fact.  To  this,  the  corruption  and  failure  of  just  iic 
•which  recent  exposures  have  revealed  in  the  highest  circles  of  republican 
France  add  peculiar  signitieance.  As  already  stated,  the  broad  outlim^ 
established  in  precept  remain  unchanged,  and  it  is  in  their  logical  applicatimi 
that  lie  all  piesent  growth  and  future  hojie. 

To  trace,  even  in  sketchy  outline,  the  debit  and  credit  account  of  mdiliiu 
ideas  uiioM  the  various  sul)jects  involved  in  the  above  mentioned  issues  wmilil 
be  a  serious  undertaking.  A  chapter  nuist  be  devoted  to  each  nation,  for  tin' 
moral  jirogress  of  each  differs  as  does  its  besetting  sin.  Moreover,  every 
shade  of  opinion  mu>t  be  weighed  and  considered.  Inherited  traditional 
views  are,  in  each  modern  mind,  hopelessly  interwoven  with  tlu^  lu'w  artirlts 
of  a  code  of  morals  whieh  public  oi)inion  is  even  now  evolving  from  eontcm- 
porary  conditions.  ••  Kacii  of  us,"  says  Kdmond  Scherer,  ''belongs  to  tun 
civilizations,  that  which  is  coming  and  that  which  is  going:  and  as  wc  arc 
accustomed  to  the  tirst.  we  arc  jioorly  ]ilaced  to  judge  or  enjoy  the  latter." 

There  ncvci'  was  an  ejxich  when  the  struggle  for  existence  was  tiercer  ami 
when  cartlily  jiossi'ssions  were  more  keenly  prized.  Uut  despite  the  many 
survivals  which  still  point  to  a  semi-barbaric  inheritance  of  sellisluM-- 
descended  through  milleinninns.  a  decided  moral  gain  may,  on  the  whole.  !  '• 
l)laced  to  the  credit  of  our  era.  With  the  decrease  of  the  sum  total  I'l 
ignorance,  not  oidy  among  the  lower  but  among  the  upper  classes,  the  >uiii 
total  of  well-doing  and  well.l)cing  has  imnieiisurably  increased. 

The  symiiathy  for  suffering  is  more  widespread  than  it  has  ever  been.  \i> 
middle-aged  person  can  fail  to  note  th(>  rapid  change  which  lias  taken  pi  ne 
in  the  jmblic  miml  with  regard  to  the  general  treatment  not  only  of  child'  n. 
Init  of  animals.  The  present  mode  of  dealing  with  school  children  accorn  ii- 
to  their    individual  capacity,  the  trust  in  their  honor  which  go\erns  tin 


\ 


clouumi 

ill  1..1,- 
:  in  (;uiil 
jt;  olli.r 
[)i"iL'tiiMl 

[)ai'fil  !o 
i(Uctiiii,s 
itions  111 
11  uru'in,' 
ices  it  ui 
ijiosnl  liy 
,t  briii'^  ;i 

iUl    JM'IM  r. 

^si'  many 
he  tliciiv) 
ict  wliicli 
I'f  tliaii  a 
liiimcd.  i< 

of   jlisliic 

vpublitan 

t   outlinrs 

iplitMtidii 

if    lUdlliMll 

IK'S  wmiM 
11.  fur  till' 
cr.  cvny 
niditiiuial 
\v  artirlrs 
1  contriii- 

[rS    t(l     t\\i> 

lUS  \vi'  an' 
att.T." 
t'l'ct'i'  ami 
\v  many 
oltisliiii'-- 
whole.  I'l' 
total  III 
.  tlu'  -uni 


l)eeii. 


\i 


ten  I'l 

irr 

chilib 

'•n. 

acooiii 

Ml'4 

Jl'llS    1 1 

■■•A 

Tin-:  r/.;.v7rA')\v  moual  riuxntiiss 


ii()'.» 


a  ion  to  tilt'  tfai-'ht'T.  tlic  ahscncc  of  any  corporal  iiunisliincnl.  form  a  rt'ci'iit 
Mi'tnuc  in  ('(liicatioii  well  (lalcnlatcil  to  product'  tlic  licsl  moral  results. 
I'lic  improvcnit'iit  of    modern  mctliods    in   relief  work  as   u(dl    as  in   tlui 
.tnieiit  of  vice — now   viewed   mort^ 
!iie  liji;Iit  of  a  patlioloj^'ieal  condition 


tlii> 


(A  I'l' A  IN    Al.KlOvO    DliliVI'TS. 

our  moral  ills  ratiicr  tliaii  t  heir 


t 
i 

ti.  Ill  in  tiiat  of  a  sin  — must  make 
;i  i!ieniorable  epoidi  in  the  etliii-al  liis- 
ii  \  of  liumanitv.  No  Itraucii  of  civili- 
/,,  am  has  undei'i^one  ,i,n'eater  (diaiiijc  in 
iM  ierii  times  botli  in  theory  and  prac- 
ti  than  public  and  private  cliarity. 
!■  day  the  humanitarian  endeavors  to 
lili  up  the  fallen  and  the  needy,  and 
aiiii>t,'iviie.;'  on  the  part  of  tlie  well-to- 
(jii  IS  fast  becomiiii;-  relei,'ated  to  the 
cali'uory  of  a  self-indul;.^ence  \\hi<'li  is 
\\u\  to  be  eiicoura!j;ed.  Tiie  distinction 
lii'i'Aceii  the  old  iiietiio(ls  and  tlie  new 
is  -iveii  in  tlu'  formula  that  ••  lience- 
liiilli  tht>  cliief  test  <if  charity  will  be 
till'  effect  upon  the  I'ecipienr."  Any  re- 
liif  calculated  to  undermine  self-reli- 
anrc  ami  independence  is  discoura^'cil 
liv  those  who  iiave  in  view  the  ])revention  ol 

ivlirf. 

iiuleed.  the  new  school  preaciies  scientitic  charity  as  aiiaiust  emotional 
cliai'ity.  What  it  may  have  lost  in  impulse  it  has  more  than  made  up  in 
I'ltci'tiveness.  'I"he  atteiii])t  to  teach  the  needy  to  help  tliemseUes.  the  work 
iif  rnllen'c  settlements  and  of  the  orj;ani/.ed  elforts  in  the  jiooi'est  and 
iim.-t  neglected  districts  of  larj,^'  cities,  with  a  view  to  fostering,'  by  personal 
cimtact  and  exani])le  habits  of  thrift  and  self-resipcct  where  those  \  irtues  are 
most  hulking,  are  aiiion;j:  the  truest  if  more  homely  iilories  of  the  closiuLj 
I'ciitury. 

Verily,  never  was  a  more  thonL,ditful  effort  made  everywhen!  to  mitigate 
the  cruel  distinctions  of  race  and  sex.  of  wealth  and  poverty,  and  to 
•' liarmoiii/.e  the  social  antagonisms"  of  modern  life.  Xever  was  so  nnudi 
ciinsideratioii  <,dven  to  the  betterment  of  humanity,  nor  was  the  aggregate  of 
eaiuestness  so  great. 

Ill  our  more  robust  intellectual  world  the  tree  is  judged  by  its  fruit,  and 
acts  tell,  not  creed.  The  iiriiiciide  that  well-doing,  unless  it  is  disinterested. 
torleits  its  claim  to  the  liighest  res])eetof  men.  is  growing  in  strength,  whilst 
the  tceling  is  gaining  ground  among  the  thoughtful  that  in  the  development 
nf  |iei'sonality  may  be  found  a  sntficient  motive  for  the  exercise  of  virtue,  and 
that  character,  not  reward,  hfiiifj  not  Imfimj.  are  the  highest  aims. 

if  we  resume  the  moral  ju-ogress  of  the  niiieteentii  century,  allowing  for 
its  inconsistencies,  carefully  weighing  its  negative  and  positive  results,  and 
taking  as  a  balance  what  is  (uiginal  in  its  eoiitribiitioii  to  the  ethical  develop- 

'nt  of  the  huinaii  race,  we  will  find  that  this  coiiti'ibutit)n  mainly  lies  in  the 


lilt 


ilireetioii  of  tolerance  and  of  altruism.     This  altruism  is  distinct  from  the 


"1 


!     :^'''\\ 


'    'X 


. 

I'^n 

.  fffi 

'  ^M 

''P^ 

■  ^iftfi 

■  '^*m 

''^1 

fl. 

/  w 

270 


Tii/fJMri/s  ,\\j>  noNJUciis  of  the  xix'"  century 


cliai'itv  (if  St.  Viiu'i'iit.  wliicli  siicrifict'd  sell'  in  ;i  Inviiiy  iitti'iniit  to  relic  ■ 
individual  distress.  Siieii  imrt'  sncritice.  admiriddc  us  it  is,  is  not  only  iiaiiii 
in  its  sco]i(',  hnt  liccansi'  of  its  a\istt'ritv  must  fail  to  survive  in  ilie  strui^'^i^' 
for  existence.  .Modern  altruism  aims  at  rcmovincf  the  main  cause  nf 
individual  distress,  and  spends  itself  in  educational  efforts,  in  which  the  wrll- 
doer  tinds  hapiiiness  in  the  eonseionsness  of  usefulness.  It  is  also  unlike  tin' 
socialism  oi  Condorcit,  which  ri'uehed  down  in  an  emleavor  to  make  .lil 
institutions  sidiservieiit  to  the  interests  (d'  the  pooi'er  and  most  nume^lM|^ 
classes,  tor  it  aims  at  liftini.;-  these  to  the  hij;hest  possilde  jtlane.  The  mmm- 
tain  summits  are  not  to  he  lowered,  but  the  valleys  are  beini;'  tilled.  'l"o  r,ii>r 
the  people,  to  Imild  u]i.  not  to  tear  down,  is  the  avowed  end  td'  all  niodei  n 
moral  effort,  and  must  ever  stamp  the  humanitarian  stru,y:j,des  of  the  prcMut 
a.iie  as  distinct  from  those  of  the  eii,diteenth  and  preeedini^  centuries. 

With  this  we  may  claim  an  increase  in  individual  freedom,  and  a  |mi- 
ceptihle  temh'uey  to  a  loj^ieal  and  ever l»road«'nint?  eonoeption.  not  only  of  the 
ri^dits.  l)ut  of  the  duties  of  citizenship;  to  a  more  honest  recoi^nition  oi  ilie 
place  assiiiined  by  expediency  to  evil  in  the  socdal  and  business  intercourse  o| 
a  practical  life:  to  a  i,ndwini^  scorn  of  easnistry,  and  to  a  stronj^'er  faith  in 
the  reality  of  ris^ht  and  of  abstract  trntli  as  they  are  revealed  in  evciy 
thinkinj,'  man's  heart,  and  the  uniformity  of  which  is  reflected  in  the  pulilir- 
conscience. 

SSak.v  Y.  Stkven.son,  Sc.  1>. 


Hr\ 


:     i'- 


PROGRESS   OF   SANITARY   SCIKNX^E 

SiNCK  l)lt'.ssiii;j;s  hrinjlitfii  us  tlicy  tak"  tln'ir  lli,i;lil,  it  may  he  iliHifult  to 
r  ,ilize  how  imidi  of  our  iircscut  liappiiicss  and  cniiit'ort,  tU'iit'iid  ii|i(iu  llio 
d  itstaiitly  al)i(liiit;  hi'iicraclinns  hroii;;!!!,  aliniil.  by  lln'  in'dgrcss  (tf  Sanitary 
,^i  iiMici)  ill  tlu!  |irt'St'iit  fyclc.  Tlu;  i)i(i|it'r  care  of  tlic  liody  and  tlic  prc- 
vi  iitiou  ol'  (liscasf,  ratlicf  than  its  ciiic,  liiUc  ncciiiiifd  tlic  minds  (d'  men 
liiiMi  tilt*  (lawn  ((!'  liistory.  Mnscs  is  the  aiitlior  oi'  a  wtdl-diircsti'd  code  of 
li\  u;iiMit',  and  crnditi!  sidiolars  can  lind  hints  of  tlic  inojicr  conservation  (d' 
Ik  ilth  ill  the  l\!,'y](tian  pa|)yri.  llii)i)ociatcs  wrote  about  the  ineventiou  as 
\\r\\  as  the  cure  of  disease*;  iiuh-ed.  all  iilonj;  the  course  ol'  time  the  mastor 
minds  of  medicine  attempted  the  sidution  ol'  many  (d  the  |irobleins  ot  Sanitary 
Sriciiee  as  eajj;erly  as  they  soic^ht  tor  the  i/i.n'r  ri/ir  or  i'or  the  universal 
solvent.  Notwithstandint,'  all  tiiis.  one  can  truthtully  say  that  sanitation 
ciiiiid  not  1»'  fairly  termed  Sanitary  S(denc(i  until  its  rules  of  |iidccdure  be,i;au 
to  lie  formulated  with  more  or  less  exactness  iqioii  cand'ul  exiicriment  and 
accurately  recorded  observation.  Sanitary  s(deiice.  as  sncli,  could  not  bet^iu 
to  lie  until  patlndogy  (a  knowlc(l<;t*  of  the  morbid  jiroccsses  of  disease)  and 
etiology  (a  study  of  the  causation  of  disease)  had  builded  iiiioii  a  scientific 
fdiiiidation.  Defure  this  all  deductions  wore  from  experience,  and  hail  no 
(itlier  reason  than  the  seeming  iHdjjfulness  of  the  jiru(!edure;  after  this,  as 
fiist  ;is  tilt!  fa(;ts  were  demonstrated,  deductions  were  made  that  determined 
a  procedure  which  would  of  a  certainty  accomplish  the  jmrposc.  In  the 
olden  times,  during  an  ejudemie  of  a  contagious  disease,  tar  barnds  were 
burned  in  the  streets,  —  and  not  without  some  benefit.  At  the  present,  the 
ruoiii,  with  its  contents,  can  be  disinfected  with  a  certainty  of  destroying 
every  atom  of  co?itagion. 

'I'liis  difference  must  be  kept  in  mind  when  com])aring  the  (dd  with  the 
new,  and  the  true  reason  of  tlie  great  advance  be  recognized  as  due  to  the 
spirit  of  scientific  investigation,  whitdi  began  in  tlie  latter  ])art  of  the  last 
century  with  the  enqdoynient  of  instruments  of  jirecision  in  research,  and 
wliiidi  has  developed  so  wonderfully  u]>  to  the  ])resent  that  the  cxperinKuital 
psyidiologist  measures  the  minute  portion  of  time  it  takes  to  form  a  thought. 
At  the  same  time,  it  ninst  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  sciences  which  furnish 
sanitary  science  much  of  its  material  are  jji'ogressing  and,  because  ])rogress- 
iiig.  changing;  that  the  conditions  desired  to  be  removed  are  prevailing,  and 
the  necessity  of  overcoming  them  urgent.  Not  in  every  ease  has  the  sanita- 
rian fully  demonstrated  and  laid  down  scientifically  accnrate  data  on  wlii(di 
to  base  his  method  of  procedure.  Hence  it  hai»pens  that  even  now  sanitary 
empiricism  must  needs  be  mingled  with  sanitary  science,  and  the  mingling  is 
sometimes  as  much  of  a  motley  as  the  dress  of  the  court  fool  of  the  Middle 

Ages. 

Since  sanitary  science  had  its  origin  during  the  present  century,  it  will  be 


!      i 

1 

y 

fl'!; 

■ 

iii 

■ 

'  j 

! 

:i    1 

,:  i' 

M 

\>    -;■ 


■v'  ;. 


iffc.i:-  j:; 


;     >!!=;, 'fit- 


ihj-h-,. 


I        S 


•J7'J       riiiLMi'iis  AS  I)  \\(>M>i:i!s  or  riih:  xix'"  cEMiitv 

lifl]it'iil  til  iissii,'!!  a  (li'tinitc  iiciintl  Inr  its  liirtli.  Ncit  tliiit  aiiv  tuir  wnuld  Imv, 
t  lir  temerity  tn  (Idnnialiealiy  asseil  tiiat  the  science  caiiie  iiiti^  lieiii^'  a  I  a  li\i  m 
ilate.  lint  latlier  to  ti\  a  iieriotl  of  time  wlieii  llie  coiiditiniis  worlvini;  tlirmi'.! 
till'  aii'cs  wei'c  sn  siia|ii'il  thai,  pei'l'orce.  the  prDiih-ms  i>l  saiiitatinii  wuiil,, 
t  liereatter  he  treateil  iiioie  in  a  scicii title  ami  less  in  an  emiiirical  iiietlinil  than 
lielnre.  'rhi>  time  is  assueiated  with  the  lie.Liiiiiiint;  of  the  iei<;ii  of  Qiieci; 
N'icturia  of  Knuhiml.  since  the  lirst  Act  of  Parliament  fur  the  i'e,i,'istration  nl 
liirths.  maniaues.  ami  lieatlis  was  piissed  in  IS.'IT.  ami  the  liej,Miinin,i,'  maile  t<\ 
accurately  i^atherin^-  iul'ormatiun  which  is  tn  the  sanitarian  what  .the  pulse  i- 
tnthe  |ihysician.  Willi  his  ti niseis  on  this  tell-tale  of  the  tlow  of  the  heart- 
hlooil  of  the  nation,  he  is  eiialileil  to  detenniiie  whether  disease  is  alio\e  i.r 
lielow  the  normal,  the  character  of  the  ilisease  that  aliiiunds,  ami  its  wheic- 
alioiils.  I\m:win,i;'  w  hcic  to  tiiii!  any  ilisease  in  excess,  he  can  study  the  cini- 
dit  ions  and  surronndiii,i;s.  eompariii^-  them  with  other  |ilaces.  w  liether  allliiir,! 
in  like  manner  or,  more  favored,  liee  from  the  disease.  I>y  means  (d'  iImm' 
vital  siatistics  he  can  comiia re  year  with  year,  and  tell  with  a  ileLjree  of  e\ari- 
uess  heietol'ore  im|iossilile  whelher  any  disease  is  iiiereasiui;'  or  ilecrcasinj; 
he  can  lay  his  returns  by  the  side  of  the  ti'^ures  of  the  meteoroloj,Mst  and  leaiii 
if  the  weather  has  any  intliiencc  on  the  death-rate;  In  can  follow  the  re>iih- 
of  his  elToi'ts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  people  and  vindicate  his  cxpcn- 
diinre  id'  the  piililic  money  liy  |iointini;'  to  the  reduced  mortality  rate,  it  ni;i\ 
M'ciu  to  be  a  "jruesoHic  task  for  every  physician  in  the  land  to  send  to  the  pm- 
per  ollicial  a  notice  id'  eaidi  death  and  of  each  patient  snfferinj,'  from  a  disease 
apt  to  be  communicated  to  some  one  else ;  and  almost  ,i;houlish  for  the  otlicii' 
to  sit  at  his  desk,  day  alter  day.  and  catalogue  and  tabulate  these  retiini-. 
I'lUl  it  is  only  a  modern  version  of  the  old  riddle  of  Samson,  out  ol  the  Kil- 
ter came  forth  the  sweet;  for  without  this,  much  of  the  proy;ress  of  sanil;iiy 
science  would  be  well-ni;j;h  impossible. 

The  act  adopted  in  (ireat  ISritain  has  been  nioditied  and  improved  iipHU 
since  then,  and  in  the  I'liited  States  many  of  our  cities  and  some  of  oiir  Siaii ■^ 
liave  been  ent^ai-ed  in  a  similar  effort.  As  yet  we  liave  no  central  bureau  hi 
collectinj^  otlice  for  the  nation  ;  nor  is  this  noeossary,  if  each  Stiite  would  ih' 
its  duty.  or.  at  least,  the  .tfenenil  <,'overnment  in  that  event  need  oiilv  tabuhitr 
the  returns  of  each  of  the  States.  The  effort  is  now  makinj,'.  under  the  iiii>- 
piees  of  tlie  .Vmerican  I'nblic  Health  Associ;ition,  to  secure  a  uniform  mcllicil 
of  reij;istration  in  all  offices  collecting  vital  statistics,  by  which  the  same  naim' 
will  be  i^iven  to  the  same  disease  and  the  same  facts  recorded  in  each  leluiii 
made.  This  will  cause  a  little  confusion  at  lirst  in  those  ottices  where  s1;;tl^- 
ties  have  been  tabulated  for  a  number  of  years,  but  the  iidvanta<,'e  will  b.  -" 
jxreat  as  to  fully  repay  any  inconvenience  at  the  iii'st.  If  we  desire  In  olii:i;ii 
the  full  benefits  from  the  adv;ince  of  sanitary  science,  we  must  see  to  it  ;i;:ii 
in  every  State  there  is  an  efficient  bureau  id'  vital  statistics,  whether  \i!  ^'i 
the  su])ervision  of  the  State  iioard  of  Health  or  some  other  deparl  in^  nt 
of  tilt!  State.  The  absence  of  smdi  a  bureau  reHects  ujion  the  intcllinein ■■  hI 
the  ])eople  or  the  intenrity  ol  the  law-makiiiLf  power. 

.\re  there  tan,ii;ible  results  to  warrant  so  sweepinjx  an  assei'tion  '.'  is  ;i  :  r>: 
(piestion,  since  at  the  time  of  the  preparation  of  the  census  of  IS'.lo  \'" 
Hampshire.  Vermont.  Massachusetts.  IMiode  Island.  < 'onuectient,  New  \  li. 
New  .lersev.  and  Dcdaware  were  the  only  States  collectimi'  vital  statistic  .    n" 


i'ii()(iin:ss  OF  sAMiwin'  sciiixrK 


T,\ 


>;i('('  tlii'ii  Imt  M;iiii(';ni(l  .Mii-liii,'aii  li;i\f  Immmi  mldrd.     Ilcldic  inintiir,'  ti'^iin's, 

i;  imist    1m'  iirciiiisfil  th;it   fM'ii   luiw  llic  ri'liinis  only  ;iii|ii'ii\iiii;iti'  ;iri'ur;iry  ; 

I  \   urrr  iimch  iiinic  iiMcciii'iitc  at  tlic  lir^t.  ami  lu'lnrc  tlir  i^ciicral  rcL^iNtra- 

t,  11  was  (iiiili'ilakrii   iiidst   of  tlic  Ntalciiiciits  arr  iiicirl\  otiinali's,  att.i'i'  tin- 

I  hidii   (it   till'  Lccnf^raplifi'  will)  nivcs  tlic   iiunilirr  nl    iiilialiitaiits   in   Cliina. 

'  .crt'  a  ct'iisiis  never  lias  lieeii  taUeii.      It.  may  lia|i|ieii  that   tiie  lieiielits  are 

1  1  as  l; real  astlie  li},Mires  seem  to  slmw,  hut  alter  maUiie^  all  allttwaiiee  tliere 

I  4ieat  iiu|irovemeiit. 


I.IVKS    SAVl'.H     I'.V     I'l   l!l,|r-Iir,.\l.lll     \V(i|;K. 

i  ■niiuifisiiii  iifiliiitli  rdtixiii  Mirhijiiiii  fiiiiii  xi'iirht  f  II  f  iiiiil  mim//  /m.r  liifnn  mul  m'iiit 
llii  St, ill  ItiKiiil  iif  lliiiltli  iriis  ixtiililinhiil,  mill  from  li/ji/miil  I'l  ri  r  lufnri'  iiinl  nini'i  ll.\ 
iixlriiiiiili  !!''"<  mull  rliil>i  II  III/  llii  Stitli  Itmiril.  (t'luiijiiliil  Irimi  l/u  Shili  I),  jnirlim  nt's 
"   I'itii/  Sliili.ilirn"  of  .\h'r/iii/ini.] 


ui  REPORTED  DEATHS  PER  laOOO  INHABITANTS 

:j  SCARLET  FEVER 


01869^73 
iniBEFOREj 


TYPHOID  FEVER. 
1869-78 


The  "  EneyclopaMlia  IJritaiiiiiea  "'  asserts  tliat  two  contiirips  ,a<jo  the  mortal- 
ity (if  liondoii  was  SO  per  lOOIt,  while  now  it  is  Init  a  littll'  over  L'ft.  Tn  ISH, 
<mt  of  every  1()(),0()0  jieojile  in  Kni^land.  oO.OOO  would  have  died  before  rea(di- 
iiiLj  the  age  of  10,  and  one  half  ■would  liavt!  died  before  they  were  H>  years  old; 
ill  the  decomiium  l8Sl-<)(),  before  .'tO.OOO  would  have  died  out  of  each  1(H».0(K> 
18 


f%m 


'ViVufi/i^ 


i  (k 


.1^ 

ij... 

I 


274 


TlilUMrilS   AM)    n'()M>i:i!S   OF  TIIIC    Y/.V"  cEM'uny 


I"  hi 


,,.  I'lr 
lif 


|!''l.i 


sniiic  wiiuld  liiivc  livni  til  lit'  17,  iiiid  smuf  wdiild  luivc  li\t'(l  to  lie  ,'),">  liclnic  dn 
hall  nl'  tilt'  iiiiinlitM'  had  <l<'|iai'tc(l  iiitii  tlif  iinUiiovvii  and  thf  hcicaltci'. 

'I'll!'  ti![,'iii'cs  (if  tht!  statistii'iaii  iiuist  lie  ijiKilcd  aj^'aiu  and  aj,'aiii  in  the  |ii,,. 
1,'it'ss  nl  the  article,  an  im  ninrc  t.anj;iliic  rvidfiicc  can  lii'  i,Mvt'ii  dl  the  hrii  ■- 
tits  rcsidtinj;  Irniii  iiii|iriiv('d  lufthnds  nl'  sunitatidu.     N'crv  t'arlv  a  cniiiciilcin  ■ 

was   iilisiTVcd    lii'twi'cn    tiif    nnrlraiily    ^nid   the   dfatli-ratf.      Nfi^hlmrli i, 

where  little  (ir  im  emc  was  taken  tn  reninve  the  reinse,  where  there  were  Imil 
drains  and  a  detieiciit  watei'  sii|i|ily.  wei'i'  I'unnd  In  lie  the  alioiles  nl'  siiccmI 
I  (inns  nl'  disease.  —  sn  nimdi  sn,  t  hat  t  liese  diseases  snnn  reeeived  the  name  i  I 
'•tilth  diseases."  Aetinj;-  nimn  the  sn'4K<'^'i"ii.  the  ^usiiel  nf  cleanliness  \',,i«. 
lueached  and  its  |)iactiee  enl'nieed.  There  was  a  "redding,'  n|i"  in  its  evcni- 
nalitv  as  ihniniii,'h  as  the  cleansing  nl' .Sunt ia^jo  deCidia  in  recent  days,  li 
did  not  take  Inni;-  to  discover  that  decaying;  nrj^anic  matter  in  sonw  wav  \\;i^ 
the  niri'ndiii!j:lHidy,  and  that  this  cnntamiiiated  the  water  sn|i|ily.  Wells  weir 
cnndemncd  and  |iidtlic  watci'siipiilies  installed  ;  means  were  son,i,dit,  toenahle  tjh' 
cleansing;  to  lie  constantly  carried  on.  and  sewers  I'nr  honse  draiiui'^e  rnllouid 
nr  accnm|ianied  the  water  su|i|ily.  In  |irn|inrtion  as  this  has  hcen  ihnidn'^hh 
done  has  the  death-rate  I'rnm  certain  diseases  diiniidshed.  Hurinj,'  the  laM 
century  the  i'hirnpeaii  armies  were  decimated  liy  I'evei'  (typhns  nr  relapsin^^i  lo 
such  a  de.nree  that  the  wdrk  nl'  the  l'(dl  destrnyerat  Santia.ijn  was  trilling;  in 
cnni|iarisnn.  ( >n  intnthe  |iresent  century,  the  ,t,n('at  scouri^c  nl"  ( Jreat  liritaiii 
was  these  same  two  fevers;  so  much  so.  that  "the  fever"  meaid  the  di'cad  jail 
nr  tyjihus  I'excr.  It  was  ini|ioited  into  this  country,  ami  e|iidcniics  of  "slii|> 
fever"  well'  of  frcijuent  occurrence.  'I'hns.  as  late  as  iSKi,  it.  was  estimaliil 
that  in  l>ulilin  alone  there  weri'  Id.tlOO  cases  nf  fever,  with  a  tntal  in  I'l  lainl 
nf  I.OtKt.ddO  cases.  Tliere  were  l(».(MM»  deaths  in  Liver|io(d,  a  city  esiiecialU 
]ironetiitlie  disease;  while  in  I'Minliur.nh  one  person  nut  nf  every  iiiiu' of  llir 
liojiulation  was  attacked,  and  one  out  of  every  eij^ht  of  the  sick  died,  'rum- 
iuL,'  from  this  account  tn  the  nu'dical  returns  of  the  war  for  the  ('nion.  tlinv 
were  reported  only  1 71'.' »  eases,  with  ,'>7L' deaths,  to  the  ofhce  of  the  .Surj^cnu 
(leueral.  and  even  these  a  very  competent  antlioi'ity  :iltcr  carel'nl  investi,i,Mtiiiii 
(h'eidi'd  not  tn  lie  instances  nf  true  typhus.  ( >r  turn  tn  ei\il  practice:  iIh- 
disease  is  I'nund  so  sehhrni  with  us  that  it  is  nnt  necessary  to  assiu;n  to  ii  a 
colnmu  along  with  tlu'  other  diseases  in  |>ul)lishing  the  mortality  returns  li\ 
our  health  authorities.  The  deaths  finm  I'ever  in  I.omlou  during  <  h'tnliii. 
Xovemlter.  and  Pecember.  lSi>S.  wei'c  Imt  ■_".•(>.  Loudon  hiis  an  estimated  pnpii 
latiou  of  4.."»OT7(!('>.  and  the  "  fever"  in  the  report  incluih'd  tyi)hnid,  simple  ami 
ill-detined  forms  nf  I'ever.  as  well  as  typhus.  Tliis  makes  a  deatli-rate  nf  imt 
(•.L'C)  ])er  11)00. 

Had  sanitary  science  un  nther  trophy,  its  votaries  could  still  hoast  nf  i  hr 

great   lieuelits  tn  humanity  lirouglit  ahout  by  their  labors.     This  is  but   

of  many  ;  thus,  scurvy,  tlie  great  bane  of  the  navy,  is  now  a  disease  that  li  u 
lihysiciaus  luive  the  misfortune  tn  set>.  or  ]iatients  to  endure.  Then  that  lii-- 
ease  somewhat  akin  to  tyidnis.  and  until  within  the  memory  of  the  iatJHis 
cnufouuded  with  it.  heiu'o  (!alled  typhoid  ftjver.  is  likewise  fast  disappearing, 
more  rapidly  in  cities  than  in  rural  communities  however.  The  supprcsM-n 
of  tyjdioid  proceeds  with  eipuil  stej)  with  the  introduction  of  a  jiublic  \\.>'-\ 
supply  in  our  towns,  the  ado])tion  of  the  pro])er  means  to  furnish  this  wii' r 
unpolluted,  and  the  ])roper  removal  of  domestic  waste  through  sewers,  wh'  -'• 


1111 


i    :«-. 


ri,'0(U!i:ss  or  swirinv  .sr//;.v(7i 


iliMlts  ilH'  S(»  tri'ilti'd  ;i.s  to  v\nrk  im  liiiiin  .iltiT  t.lifv  I'si'iiiic.  Notwitli 
iiiiliii,!,'  tlicsc  ;4rciil  lriiiiii|>li.s,  il  lM.ii>tiii%'  i>  |ll■^lllis^ll)ll■,  tin-  siiiiit;iri;nrs 
ist  IS  liilliiT  tliiil  lii>  M-iciicf.  wliii-h  liiiil  its  lir,L;imiiii^',  iis  we  li;iv"  sci'ii,  ;il 
•  tiiiH'  u  lii'ii  tlicii'  \v;is  il  i^ii'iil  ii\viiUriiiii'4  di'  llir  mil  iiuiiil  cuii.si'iciii'c  in 
;tisli  |Hi|ilii's  Inr  "till'  hii'^'iM'  sviii|i;it  liy  i>i  man  with  iiiaii,"  lius  lii'iimli'iii'il 
ill  till'  _\rilis  lit'  its  ,i,'rn\vlli;  lllis  I'lnli'iivnli'il  t.n  rai(!  inr  iilic's  lil'iilliiT  mi 
I     Ills    ItllKill    \MHllll    lliil    rl'V     U|i    Irnlll    till'    '^rnlll'il;    so    t.liat,    alli'l'    JiiI'lN    III' 

:  V  yciirs  liiiil  |iass('(l,  a.  ilisi  iiii^iiisiii'il  saiiilaiiaii  (imilil  writi)  with  lilrral 
iil'ili'V  :  "  W  liatt'\(!r  ran  I'aiisi'.  it  lirl|i  In  raiisr.  ilisrominit,  |iain,  sirkiirss, 
a\\,  \  irr,  (II' criiiir  -  and  w  iiali'N  it  lias  a  triitli'Mcy  to  a\iTl  or  ilcsl  ion  .  or 
aiiiisli  siirli  ciisfS  —  an-  iiiatlrrs  nl  inliTi'^l  to  tin*  sanitarian;  and  tin- 
lAiTs  of  science  and  the  arts,  '^leal  as  thry  are.  ;iie  taxed  to  Ihe  iit.terniost, 
lilonl  even  an  iipiH'oxiniate  soliitinn  ol  iUv  proltlenis  with  wliieli  he  is  eon- 


MAI'    SMoWIMi    "  I.'I.I.ISJKA  I  ION    »lAri:s"     NOW    AVAii.Anrj; 

I'ou   riiK  MonrAM  rv  siArisrns  m-  riii;  rwr:!,!  rn  r.  s. 

<   I'ASIS    il'.MHIi. 


No'i'K. —  Stuli'~  liiiviiii,'  inn liati'  ri'^'i-tralicui  nf  iji'iilli'^  ninl  rrqiiiriiii,' luir- 

ial  |M'niiils  arc  liinrl..     Tin.  nnly  aililitiipii>  tu  tin'  li>t  sinci'  llir  < 'cii.-ii^  i>l  1*11) 
ari'  .Maliiu  ilH'M)  ami  Mirlii-aii  (IHIi7i. 


^i. 


M 


I 


ii'i'iii'd."  '  And  tiie  crowiiiiiL;'  '^Imy  of  the  scienee  to-day  is  the  care  it  l)(;stows 
upon  liie  weak,  the  ignorant,  and  the  helpless;  the  elt'orts  it  makes  to  ameliu- 
iiiie  every  ninU'sirahle  condition  of  soi'iety. 

It  would  lie  iiiisleadini^  to  iiil'iT  that  all  of  these  Iienetits  have  heen  ln'oii.^lit 
iiliiiut  solely  thi'oii,^'li  the  collection  ol'  vital  stat  ist  ics,  all  lioui^h  mneii  of  it 
wiiiild  have  been  ilitlicuH  without,  tin'  knowledge  furnished  liy  these  statis- 
tir>.  Workers  in  almost  every  lirandi  of  jmie  science  have  contribiitcd  U) 
'111'  pi'Oifress,  —  the  |iliysicist,  the  nieteorolo'^ist,  the  (diemist,  and  liy  no 
iiu'aiis  the  least,  the  l)ioloi,nst.  Iiideed.  with  the  nioi'c  recent  investi<^ations, 
till'  I'ulturc?  tul)(^  of  tin;  bi<doj,nst  has  almost  revolutionized  medicine  and  all 
tli;it  |icrtains  to  it. 

Sanitary  scienee  scfks  to  acconi]ilisli  two  ends:  it  ]iui'poses  to /<*•/'/'/'/// dis- 
ease and  to  jii'oiiiitti'  public  health.  If  it  seeks  to  ]ircvent  disease,  after  the 
fiisliion  of  the  oft-iiuoted  cook-liook.  it  must  first  secure  the  disease,  or  what 


Xlyx 


1  Dr.  .1.  S.  IJilliiiK-  ill  /.il 


I II  .'  r.iifijiiii/ji 


[iillinH 


■.»m'* 


lift 


1^1 


276 


TJiJCMJ'IlS   AM)    WOXDEliS    OF   THE   MX"'   CEXTLnV 


i     i 


i  f 


is  essentially  the  same  tliiii!,'.  know  what  ea\ises  it. 

t   th 


1 1'  the  cause 
uul  we  oau  eoiKiiier  the  cause,  we  can  inevent   the  iliseasi 


be  1< 


nowi; 


Thn^• 


a  (lisca- 


known  -as  frlr/umr  s/iira/is,  Ironi  the  name  ol'  the   |la^a^ile  invailin^i;-  the  lindx 
and  eansinj,'  sickness  and  dealh.  is  caused  hy  eatiuj;-    pork   infected  hv  th» 


trichii 


ue. 


W 


e  can  ci 


I'tainly  prevent  tiichiiKe  in  persons  liy  i'oibiddini;'  poik  ; 
but  we  also  know  that  the  tiichiuie  do  not  occur  in  all  p(n'k.  iuid  tliat  their 
])resence  can  be  detected  by  the  microscope.  it.  then,  a  sam])le  iVoni  evi'i  \ 
slauti'htered  pi.t,'  is  sidmutted  to  the  microscopist,  the  int'ected  jiork  can  It 
discovered,  'i'his  is  done  in  our  lar^'e  packing  estahlislimeiits,  especuallv  lor 
that  pork  which  is  to  be  exported.  .Vgain,  a  thorough  cooking  will  kill  the 
trii'hina'.  even  it  preseid.     Only  the  grossest   carelessness,  c 


onsen 


lUMltl 


V,  can 


account  lor  a  case  of  trichina',  and,  indeed,  it  is  a  V(>fv  rarely  occurring  dis- 
ease. This  illustrates  tin'  ini|ptMtance  td'  a  knowledge  of  the  cause  of  the 
disease,  to  enable  one  to  devise  a  method  for  preventing  it.  In  the  studv  of 
disease  eau.ses.  the  biologist  has  been  very  successful  during  the  past  lew 
years,  and  a  luimber  of  our  eommuiueable  diseases  are  di'monstrated  to  lie 
oaused  by  the  growth  and  ilevelopnu'ut  of  bacteria.  l''rom  this  demonstr;i- 
tioii  in  the  case  (d'  some,  a  geiu'ral  hypothesis  has  been  formulated,  ■wiiicli  is 
nsid'ul  as  a  wcu'king  hypothesis,  imt  by  no  means  sab'  to  call  a  the(»rv  as  vet. 
This  hypothesis  is  that  all  of  our  communicable  diseases  are  caused  bv  liviic' 
organisms  originating  in  one  person  and  conveyed  to  another,  where  thrv 
begin  to  grow,  to  reproduce  their  kind  and  to  perform  their  life  functions. 
Hence  all  communicating  diseases  are  infectious.  Some  of  these  infectious 
diseases,  like  measles  or  smallpox,  are  cajiable  o[  direct  eomnuuiication  from 
one  jH'rson  to  another,  rendering  them  contagious:  otliers.  like  typhoid  fevci' 


and  eholera.  are  not  contagious  in  this  sense  of  tl 


U'   WOl'll. 


Til 


IS   IS  a  \ci'\ 


excelleid  distinction  to  make  in  the  use  of  these  much  alinsed  words. 

'J'he  biologist  has  rendered  sanitary  science  great  service  not  oidy  in  dis- 
covering thi>  causes  of  certain  diseases,  but  also  by  aiding  to  determine  the 
nature  of  the  <li,sease  in  any  outbieak.  It  makes  a  vast  difference  if  a  given 
ca.se  is  oim  of  true  diphtheria  ov  not,  or  of  Asiatic  cludera  (U'  not.  and  often 
the  symptcuns  alone  are  not  conclusive.  Mere  the  biologist  comes  to  ouraii!, 
as  is  seen  so  often  in  eases  of  supposed  di]ihtheria.  A  ]iortion  of  tlie  thro.ii 
secretion  is  sent  him  under  such  i)rec;iutions  that  no  bactt'ria  from  the  out- 
side can  possibly  I'oiitanunate.  \Vitli  this  secretion  he  stabs  cu'  inoculates  a 
jelly  com])osition  which  h(>  has  ]ilaced  in  a  test-tube,  stuffs  a  wad  of  absorhcnl 
cotton  in  the  mouth  of  his  tube  and  i>uts  it  in  a  warm  chamber  or  incnbaliT 
If  there  are  any  microbes  ])resent.  they  will  begin  to  grow,  and  flit'  cxprit 
biologist  can   tell  the  bacteria   from  its  maniu'r  of  growth  as  readilv  as  ilie 


gardciu'r  can  distinguisli  between  his  radishes  and   lett 


uce  when   Ihey  s| 


pri.il 


in  the  spring,  ami  in  this  way  is  ablt>  to  rc]MU't  the  luiture  of  the  germs.  II 
he  is  in  doubt,  he  carries  his  cnltivatiiui  further  and  employs  other  tests  ii> 
jtrove  his  observation. 

The  biologist  has  also  rtMider(>d  great  aid  to  sanitary  science  in  disco\'  - 
ing  many  other  species  id' bacteria  that  are  helpiiil  to  nmn.  (Mirpolhu  i 
waters  could  in»t  be  ]mritied,  our  air  could  not  be  cleared  from  foul  od"  . 
nor  the  j)roi)er  decomi>ositioii  of  organic  matters  go  on,  without  the  a 
bacteria.  These  little  vegetable  growths,  while  working  nnu'h  harm 
humanity,  contribute   far  more  to  their  comfort,  well-being,  and  hap] 


III 


III! 


luiowi,. 
I  disiM-' 

he  lioilx 
1  by  til.- 
[\\i  imrk  ; 
liat  IliiMi' 
mi  fvt'iN 

iv    CiUl    I'l' 

•iiilly  ti>r 

kill  tl:r 

iitly.  (Mil 

rring  ili^- 

>(>     of    till' 

stiuly  111' 

]liist     t't'W 
tt'd    1(1    lir 

;'in(>iisti;i- 
,  wliicli  is 
ry  iis  yi't. 
l)y  livin.; 
lu'iv  tliry 
t'uiii'ticui-^. 
inlVctiiiiis 
itidii  fn'iii 

lioill    t'fViT 

is  a  viM\ 


y  in  (n>- 
nint'  tin' 
1  given 
lul  nitcn 
)  onv  aiii. 
ic  tlim.ii 
11  the  (Mit- 
i('iil;iti'>  a 

llSdl'llCIll 

ncnlial"! 

It'    CXpi  1'. 

ly  as  iIm' 
cy  s|irc'i,i 

'VIllS.       I' 

r  tt'sis  tM 


ilisi'ovi'- 
llni..l 


110 


iml  oil"'  -. 
hi'  aiil  "!' 
linn  >"'  '" 
liappin.    -^ 


Il«  I 


278 


TlilUMPHS  AM)    WOXDEllS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CEXTURY 


IMi 


itifi 


i  I  \\\ 


m 


w  '  1 1  '' 


tlum  they  do  to  their  ill.  J'os.sihly  no  better  illustrations  can  be  Ljiven  di 
the  value  of  baeteriolofjy  to  sanitary  seience,  and  the  great  progress  it  li;i 
brought  about,  than  t<j  contrast  a  cholera  outbreak  of  a  few  years  ago  \vii!i 
one  occurring  more  recently ;  or  to  i)oint  to  the  efficacy  of  inirifying  wiitn 
by  the  assistance  of  bacteria.  Another  disease,  lailnionary  consmuj)ti()n,  may 
also  be  noticed,  but  the  triumph  here  is  not  so  marked  as  yet. 

The  first  outbreak  of  cholera  in  the  I'nited  States  occurred  in  1S.">2.  In 
one  special  hospital  in  New  York  city,  I'O.'.O  ])atients  were  received  in  tin 
nine  weeks  from  July  1  to  September  1.  and  of  these  .S,-)(»  died.  An  ey  - 
witness,  who  was  jiersonally  known  to  the  writer,  one  not  given  to  exaggt.'r.i 
tion.  said  that  the  state  of  dread  and  alarm  had  been  increasing  until,  wIkh 
the  disease  first  made  its  appearance  in  New  Y'ork.  fully  one  half  of  tlir 
]»oi)ulation  had  left  tlie  city,  many  of  the  jdiysicians  Heeing  with  the  ri'si. 
There  was  no  efficient  health  department,  and  no  organized  system  for  tin' 
])rote('tion  of  the  public  health.  This  gentleman  was  a  city  missionary,  ami. 
in  the  performance  of  his  duties,  visited  many  of  the  houses.  He  mentiouid 
visiting  one  of  these  on  a  morning  when  the  tifteenth  body  had  been  carried 
out.  It  was  the  time  of  the  rumble  of  the  dead  cart  and  the  indiscriminair 
burial  in  ])ublic  trenches,  ('ontrast  the  horrors  of  this  scene  with  the  last 
attenij)t  of  cholera  to  invade  the  United  States,  in  lSi>.'!,  when,  not'  ithstaiai- 
ing  its  ])resence  at  the  (piarantine  station  in  New  York  harbor,  and  tlie  actual 
presence  of  a  few  well-authenticated  cases  in  the  city  itself,  nut  one  nf  flnsr 
coHi's  iirnrt'd  <i  fiH'itH  for  tlw  xjit'ctal  of  flic  (f!s('(isr. 

The  opinion  that  water  in  some  way  acts  as  a  conveyer  of  disease  can  lu- 
generalized  after  a  very  little  observation.  To  explain  how  it  does  this  is  a 
problem  that  was  attempted  to  be  .solved  by  the  chemist.  He  added  vastly 
to  our  knowledge,  but  it  was  not  until  tlu^  biologist  sl;owed  the  ])resence  nl 
tlie  (lisease-])roducing  bacteria  in  water  that  a  full  exidanation  was  jiossililr. 
But  the  biologist  has  done  more  :  it  has  been  found,  and  notably  in  the  vcr\ 
complete  series  of  experiments  cari'ied  on  by  tlie  ^^assachusetts  IJoard  nl 
Health,  that  even  an  ettiuent  of  a  sewer,  if  filtered  through  a  bed  of  sand.  i> 
])uritied  to  such  an  extent  that  the  filtrate  is  a  jierfectly  safe  water  to  drink. 
The  dangerous  organic  matter  disap])ears.  arid  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  tlir 
bacteria  is  removed.  And  it  is  pleasing  to  note,  when  one  has  so  mucii  In 
say  of  the  dangers  of  bacteria,  that  the  jiuritication  is  entirely  lirought  about 
by  the  actif)n  of  bacteria  working  for  the  good  of  man.  .V  sand  filter  lud 
does  not  purify  water  jn-operly  until  it  has  been  in  operation  for  a  few  day<, 
when  the  top  of  the  bed  is  covered  with  a  slime  in  Avhich  the  bacteria  art 
upon  the  organic  matter  in  the  water  and  inirify  it.  The  fact  of  the  jiurifica 
tion  was  known  before  the  manner  in  which  it  was  done  was  unch'rstood;  and 
in  those  cities  where  the  authorities  have  acted  uj)on  this  knowledge  an  1 
have  purified  their  water  supidy.  the  influence  upon  the  death-rate  of  typhus! 
fever  is  almost  as  marked  as  those  already  (pioted  for  ty])hus  fever,  wliii' 
the  scourge  of  cholera  has  been  ahnost  entirely  removed  from  their  bordci-. 
as  many  an  instance  during  the  late  cmtbreak  in  Europe  could  illustrafi'. 
does  not  contribute  to  our  self-esteem  to  know  that  most  of  the  water  si:  - 
plies  so  filtered  are  to  be  found  abroad.  There  is  m)t  enough  of  "  practi.  1 
politics"  in  filter  beds  to  charm  the  traditional  alderman  of  our  cities. 

It  is  now  clearly  proven  that  a  species  of  bacteria  is  luiiforndy  jnc-     ' 


I  i' 


PROGRESS   OF  SANITARY  SCIEXCE 


279 


i;  jiiilmoiiary  consumption.  This  biicillus  is  to  bo  found  in  the  matorial 
<■  .ghed  up  by  tliose  wlio  arc  ill  with  tliat  disoasi'.  It  has  eonsidcniblt' 
i.  acity  of  life;  the  expeetonited  material  can  be  dried,  pulverized  into 
(1  M.  and  carried  about  on  the  wind;  sliould  tlie  bacteria  so  dried  and  car- 

I.  I   find  a  proper  soil,  they  can  grow  and  re}iroduce  tlie  disease.     Fortn- 

II,  I'ly,  a  combination  of  circumstances  is  reipiired  lor  the  contraction  of 
tl  >  disease,  or  it  would  be  far  more  prevalent  than  it  is.  ^'otwithstandin^-. 
ii  dready  chdms  more  victims  than  any  other  singh;  disease.  What  has 
saitary  scien(;e  done  for  its  repression?  It  is  attenijiting.  in  a  tentative 
wiiV.  to  obtain  a  registration  of  those  who  are  consumptives,  in  order  to  teach 
il:  la  to  avoid  l)eing  possible  sources  of  infection  ;  to  disinfect  the  discharges 
ca.  lying  the  bacteria,  and  at  times  the  rooms  occupi<'d  l)y  tlie  consumiitives. 
Ill  Ivome.  for  example,  the  services  of  the  public  disiniectors  are  asked  for 
us  eagerly  for  the  room  occupied  by  a  consumptive  as  for  one  that  had  been 
\\>'i\  by  a  ]iersoii  suffering  from  di])htheria.  In  New  York  city,  where  the 
(Iriiartment  of  health  has  been  exercising  an  oversight  and  care  over  the  con- 
sumptives, there  has  been  a  constantly  dimiiusliing  death-rate  from  all  tuber- 


hivln 


TO  Pump 


!   > 


I   )! 


SAND   KIJ.TEK    IJKl). 


cular  diseases  from  IcSSd,  when  the  rate  was  4.42,  to  1S1»7.  when  it  was  2.Sr), 
wilh  the  single  exception  of  1894,  which  was  lower  than  IS'.*.").  It  is  too 
SI  Hill  to  ])rediot  the  result,  but  the  ])ro[)er  care  of  consumjrtives  promises 
iinii'li  to  check  the  ravages  of  the  disease. 

One  of  the  charms  connected  with  tlie  great  results  iiulicated  is  the  simpli- 
city of  the  methods  emjdoyed  to  bring  them  about.  While  comjilex  schemes 
and  elaborate  machinery  may  be  necessary  whenever  the  amount  of  service  to 
be  rendered  reciuires  organi/ation  and  division  of  laboi'to  iiroi)erly  accomplish 
till'  desired  results,  the  iirinciples  are  su(di  that  they  can  be  executed  in  the 
smallest  handet,  and  with  the  very  crudest  [laraphernalia.  The  two  great 
wi-apons  of  tlii'  sanitarian  in  fighting  disease  are  isolation  and  disinfoc- 
tiiiii.  Dr.  Ifiniry  ^f.  Uaker,  the  etticient  .secretary  of  the  State  l^oard  of 
Health  of  ]Mi(;higan,  has  for  years  collected  and  tabulated  the  results  of 
the  observing  and  non-observing  of  these  jirecautions  in  his  State.  He  has 
a  liap])y  faculty  for  graphi(!ally  iiresenting  the  results.  One  of  his  diagrams 
is  |ii'esented  liere  and  needs  no  ex])lanation.  In  very  few  of  these  ont- 
bii'aks  could  there  have  been  any  muiucipal  disinfecting  plant  or  isolating 
liespital. 

Isolation  and  disinfecti(ui  — but  the  old  (luarantine  and  fumigation  under 
new  names  !  Who  of  us  has  not  symi)athized  with  the  traveler  of  the  earlier 
(lays  in  the  Levant,  when  he  was  condemned  to  days  and  weeks  of  detention 


i  ji, 


^;    il 


280         TlilUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTUliY 


m\ 


1 


Ifrlh 

!    |i  1 


Wl  f. 


ill  till'  liarn'ii  lazarcttu '.'     And  even  at  so  comparatively  recent  a  date  as  Ih. 
j)il,t{i'iiiia.i4(!  ic'cordcd  by  Mark  Twain  in  his  "  Innocents  Abroad,''  lie  slat' 
that  the   Italians  louiid  it  more  to  their  coiiveniencti   to  l'nmi;j:ate  tra\-eii'i 
than  to  wash  themselves.     J  low  very  dil'fereiit  is  a  modern  (juarantiiie  statidn. 
siieli  as  may  be  Joiind  near  any  of  onr  more  important  jioits  on  the  Ailanti. 
<'oast.     If  the  health  ottieer  of  tlie  jiort  finds  a  contagions  disease  upon  boanl 
he  immediately  removes  the  sick  to  the  hospital,  and  keeps  the  well  nndci 
supi'i'vision  lon<j;  enou,y:li  to  see  if  tlie  disease  has  been  communicated  to  an\. 
He  may  keep  them  on  shipboard;  but  more  likely,  if  the  ship  must  be  disin- 
fected,  he  removes  them  to  the  detention  station,  safely  separated  from  tlir 
Jiospital.    The  steerage  has  been  crowded,  and  there  is  need  of  disinfection  oi 
their  persons  and  clothing.      Under  proper  .supervision,  each  is  re(pured  to 
take  a  bath,  for  whicii  abundant  facilities  are  furnished;  and  while  this  i> 
doing  their  clothing  has  been  jdaced  in  the  steam  disinfecting  ajiparatiis.  a 
l)artial   vacuum  .secured,   superheated  steam  introduced,  the  clothing  tlmv- 
oiighly  disinfected,  a  partial  vacuum  again   prodiUMul,  whereby  the  content < 
are  rapidly  dried,  and  they  are  ready  to  be  put  on  again  by  the  time  the  batli 
is  completed.     The  luggage  is  treated  in  the  same  w.ay,  while  the  cargo  is 
jirobably  treated  to  a  suliihiir  fumigation.  — the  sulphur  being  burned  in  fur- 
naces and  the  fumes  carried  to  all  jiarts  of  the  cargo  through  lines  of  hose. 
Ill  the  course  of  a  v(>rv  few  (hiys,  at  least,  all  but  the  sick  can  i)roceed  on  their 
jimrncy  without  any  risk  of  conveying  the  disease. 

Everything  that  has  thus  far  been  chronicled  regarding  the  progress  of 
sanitary  science  has  related  to  the  diminution  of  the  death-rate  and  the  ]ire- 
vention  of  disease.  After  all,  is  this  worthy  the  telling  ';'  When  one  learns 
"how  the  other  half  lives,"  or,  with  more  restricted  knowledge,  realizes  to  a 
degree  the  intensity  of  the  remark  of  a  young  Hebrew,  replying  to  a  command 
of  a  p(dice  ottieer  to  clean  uj),  as  related  in '•  The  Workers "' by  Trofessor 
"NVykoff :  •'  Vou  tell  us  we  've  got  to  kee])  clean,"  he  answered  in  brtjken  Vavj,- 
lisli.  lifting  his  voice  to  a  shout  above  the  clatter  of  machines;  "what  time 
have  we  to  kee])  clean,  when  it 's  all  we  can  do  to  get  bread '.'  J)oii"t  talk  lo 
us  about  disease  ;  it  "s  hrfml  we  're  after,  bread  /  " 

Is  it  worthy  of  boasting  that  sanitary  science  is  only  increasing  the  hard- 
ships and  adding  to  the  number  of  mouths  to  be  fed.  without  o])eiiing  uji  new 
ways  to  earn  one's  bread?  Even  if  it  be  so  decided,  and  all  the  claims  nl 
progress  thus  far  made  be  declared  wanting,  there  still  remains  much  Avortliv 
of  praise.  Sanitary  science  strives  not  only  to  prevent  disease,  but  also  \n 
promote  health,  and  its  progress  is  fully  as  marked  in  its  efforts  at  promotiin 
as  in  tliose  of  jirevention,  althimgh  we  do  not  jiosse.ss  the  C(dd  figures  of  even 
imjierfect  vital  statistics  to  demonstrate  the  projuisition. 

It  must  lie  kept  in  mind  that  sanitary  science  is  wider  than  sanitation  ia 
its  technical  sense.  One  would  not  care  to  assert  that  philanthropic  effeit 
and  sweet  charity  are  resultants  of  the  development  of  sanitary  science.  — 
very  few  care  to  assert  an  evident  untruth,  liut  the  influence  of  this  stmly 
has  been  widesjiread  and  beneficial.  The  whole  round  of  social  science  is  ;il  n 
permeated  with  the  truths  (h-monstrated  by  the  sanitarian,  and  is  likcwi  •• 
deeply  indebted  to  its  teachings.  Our  field  broadens  greatly  as  we  view  it. 
just  as  one  who  has  been  traveling  through  a  vale  of  surpassing  grandeur.  !>  • 
cause  of  the  mountain  barriers  on  either  side,  finds  himself  confronted  In  a 


>!  'N 


e  as  t.li' 
('  state- 
ravt'l'i 

stati(i;i. 
Atlaiitb- 
)U  bounl. 
11  uiidci 
I  to  an;. . 
be  (lisiii- 
t'roin  tlir 
I'ctiuu  Hi 
juircd  In 
e  tliis  IS 
lavatiis.  11 
iiig   tlinl- 

contcnt-; 
;  the  l):itli 
1  caryii  is 
eel  in  fill- 
's ol'  lldSr. 
d  on  tlii'ir 

rogvess  of 

I  tlio  inv- 

one  learns 

izes  to  a 

connnaiiil 

I'roi'essdr 

jken  Eu;j,- 

vliat  tinif 

li"t  talk  to 

the  liiird- 

llg  up  IH'W 

lelainis  nl 
ki  Avortliy 
lit  alsd  I" 
lironiotiiMi 
^s  of  evi'U 

itation  m 
Ipic  eftrr! 
leience.  — 
his  study 
lee  is  al  •■I 
likew'  ■' 
le  view  ;t. 
Lleuv.  1' 
litecl  In  :i 


PliOGRESS   OF  SANITARY  SCIENCE 


'J81 


.rk  wliose  beaut}'  is  enliaueed  by  its  variety  as  well  as  its  extent,  bounded. 

is  true,  by  the  same  mountains,  but  merely  a  ha/y  detinition  of  the  distant 

■  rizon. 

In  tlie  eonstruetion  of  dwellings,  for  exami)le.  the  small,  low  eeileel  rooms, 
,  iinse  earthen  or  stone  floors  were  covered  with  rushes  sehlom  removed,  the 
;,  sorbers  of  wliatever  might  fall  upon  the  floor;  the  un]iaved,  unswept,  and 
I  iisewered  street;  the  domestic  water  su])ply  but  a  well  into  whieh  filters  the 
water  from  the  adjoining  cesspool,  —  these  and  nuiny  similar  destroyers  of 
1  I  idth  and  comfort  can  no  longer  be  found  among  nations  classed  as  enlight- 
I  M'd  in  our  school  geographies.  Even  the  improvements  of  lialf  a  century 
;,  ,1  —  the  tenements  improvised  out  of  tin;  deserted  mansions  of  the  well-to- 
u'l.  with  the  additions  built  on  the  rear  of  the  lot  to  increase  the  densitv  of 


A    til  AKANriNK   STATION. 

the  population  and  the  rent  of  the  owner  (as  well  as  the  death-rate),  are  dis- 
appearing, and  ill  their  places  we  find  dwellings  capable  of  furnishing  air  and 
light  to  all  of  the  residents. 

Then,  in  the  matter  of  streets,  how  much  more  attention  is  now  given  to 
small  parks  !  When  about  the  middle  of  the  century  interest  in  public  parks 
was  revived,  the  efforts  of  the  various  cities  were  directed  to  the  securing  of 
large  tracts  of  ground  and  beautifying  them  in  every  way.  They  were  open 
to  every  one,  it  is  true,  but  too  often  too  far  removed  to  be  of  use  to  the  sub- 
luerging  tenth.  Xow,  while  not  adorning  these  with  one  garland  less,  tin; 
cftVut  is  making  to  break  up  the  congestion  of  the  crowded  distrii'ts  by  breath- 
ing spaces,  to  the  comfort  and  vigor  of  those  who  must  make  the  surrounding 
houses  their  homes.  The  streets,  too.  no  longer  ]Kived  with  the  unsightly 
(.■iiblile-stones,  are  made  noiseless  with  the  asphalt  paving  and,  what  is  more  to 
the  ])urpose,  can  be  easily  cleansed  by  flushing.  When  practical  business,  and 
net,  practical  jiolitics,  prevails  in  the  niuniciiiality,  there  is  no  o]»portiinity  for 
the  household  refuse  to  accumulate,  although  no  longer  rushes  are  available  to 
receive  it,  for  it  is  regularly  and  ju'omptly  removed. 


i': 


v.fdvifi'f, 


I 


■iif:' 


,      ■     m 
i 


;i.5| 


282 


TRIUMPHS  AM)    nONDEns   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


m 


The  exigencies  of  trade  conipelled  om  government  to  establish  its  buroiii: 
for  the  inspection  of  meat.  The  necessity  of  an  inspection  of  foodstiitt's  fi>: 
('xi)()rt  (Icnionsi rates  ilic  |ir)ssil)ility  of  iKhiltcnition  for  the  lioinc  markft, 
AVliilo.  possibly,  the  ingenuity  of  the  sophisticator  has  more  than  kept  \n\rr 
with  the  keenness  of  the  inspector,  tlie  health  of  the  peo])le  has  been  main 
tain(>(l,  their  comfort  promoted,  and  their  resources  husbanded  by  the  inspec 
tioiis  carried  nn  by  the  various  eity  and  state  l)oar(ls  of  health. 

The  weliare  of  the  ptMjple  at  home,  in  their  dwellings  and  at  their  tablo. 
does  not  limit  the  efforts  of  the  sanitarian.  He  takes  cognizance  of  the  dai]\ 
toil,  the  ceaseless  grind,  to  win  one's  daily  bread.  He  recognizes  that  some 
callings  are  dangerous  or  annoying  t(t  the  people,  and  devises  methods  to  over- 
come tliis,  or  failing  in  tliis.  insists  that  such  occupations  must  be  carried  on 
remote  froiu  the  dwelling-place  of  man.  Others,  he  finds,  bring  danger  to 
those  who  are  employed.  Tiiis  may  not  be  an  inherent  danger,  but  one  ar- 
quired  by  our  crowding  of  of)eratives,  or  in  other  ways  not  securing  to  them 
pro])er  comfort;  and  factory  inspectors  are  at  work  to  reduce  these  dangers  Id 
a  mininuim,  and  to  prevent  (jhild  labor  as  well  —  giving  to  youth,  as  far  ;i> 
cessation  from  overnnich  toil  can  give,  an  op])ortunity  to  develop  into  physical 
manhood  or  womaidiood.  The  saintarian  insists  upon  pro])er  ventilation  in 
mines,  and  tries  to  devise  the  means  to  remove  the  danger  from  those  trade- 
that  ordinarily  are  inherently  dangerous. 

The  sanitarian  seeks  to  aifl  in  the  amenities  and  relaxations  of  life  as  well. 
The  playgrounds  for  children,  the  athletic  grounds  by  the  riverside  at  ]>ost(in. 
recreation  jtiei's  in  N<'w  Y'ork.  are  exami»les  of  this.  And  all  of  these  are 
comi)aratively  recent  efforts,  adding  to  the  catalogue  of  achievements  during 
the  century.  It  was  the  arch-enemy  who,  in  the  poem  of  anticputy,  said  : 
"All  that  a  man  hatli  will  he  give  for  his  life."  lUithe  made  the  remark  alter 
much  observation,  ami  to  .JelK)vah,  unto  whom  even  he  would  not  dare  to  lie; 
and  the  rolling  years  since  the  Helu'ew  epic  was  first  written  have  only  addni 
testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  assertion.  In  these  later  days,  when  the  rule  and 
plummet  are  everywhere  a])plied,  where  the  scientist  delves  and  classitics  to 
seek  the  cosmos  in  the  ajiparent  chaos,  there  was  evolved  out  of  self-seekii'.;- 
for  life  a  higher  and  better  rpiest,  —  a  search  for  those  things  which  make  tm 
the  health  of  all.  This  seareh  has  widened,  until  many  a  broad  savannah  ha- 
been  trodden,  many  a  mountain  scaled  and  wilderness  explored.  With  its  evei 
extending  view,  new  responsibilities  and  greater  cares  have  been  thrust  upcn 
those  who  are  endeavoring  to  rule  in  this  domain.  A  community,  a  nation,  i- 
but  a  unit.  Let  one  ]»ai-t  suffer,  ami  all  are  in  jKun  ;  let  one  but  decay,  an'! 
rot  is  imminent  everywhere.  There  can  be  no  true  social  ])rogress.  no  real 
stability  of  government,  no  national  prosperity  worthy  the  name,  unless  tin 
environment  of  each  individual  i)ermits  the  enjoyment  of  j)ersonal  healtli.  ii 
he  individually  obs(M'ves  but  the  ordinary  care  of  self.  And  whatever  else  id 
progress  f(n'  sanitary  science  may  be  granted  or  denied  as  belonging  to  m  :■ 
century,  the  crowning  claim  of  all,  which  cannot  be  taken  from  her,  is  tha'. 
along  with  the  ideas  endioilied  in  couimonweal  and  commonwealth,  she  I  - 
added  the  other  of  etpial  dignity  and  worth  —  Public  Health. 

Chaules  McIxTiiti:, 


In 


THE  CENTURY'S   ARMIES   AND   ARMS 


I  III 


A  TUfK  iiiiitreciation  of  the  progress  made  in  the  arts  ami  sciences  in  the 
iiiiieteeuth  century  can  he  ohtained  only  hy  contrastini;  tlie  conditions  found 
al  present  Avith  tiiose  existing  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  difference  between 
the  sperm  candle  and  tlie  electric  light;  between  the  stage-coach  and  the 
rilpid-tlying  express  train;  between  the  flail  and  the  threshing  machine; 
hrlween  the  hand-loom  and  the  machinery  of  the  modern  woollen  mill; 
l)itween  the  cruel  medical  operations  of  five  score  years  ago  and  the  skillful 
Miigery.  with  the  use  of  ana'sthetics,  of  the  i)resent  da}';  or  between  the 
111,1  il-carrier  with  letters  in  his  saddle-bags  and  the  electric  teh'gra])!!  flash- 
in.;-  news  instantaneously  from  continent  to  continent ;  marks  the  difference 
liiiween  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  and  the  ojiening  of  the  twentieth 
oi'iituries. 

Hut  there  is  scarcely  an  agency  that  has  been  emjjloyed  during  this  won- 
(Inlul  century  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  man  that  has  not 
liirii  enlisted  for  his  destruction.  Steam,  electricity,  chemical  knowledge, 
ciiniueering  skill,  and  mechanical  invention  have  all  been  employed  in  the 
science  of  war,  and  everything  jiertaining  to  the  organization,  arms,  e(piip- 
iiicnt.  suj)ply,  training,  and  even  the  size  of  armies,  has  been  so  revolution- 
i/cd  that  there  is  scarcely  anything  in  (!ommon  between  the  forces  that  fought 
iit,  Marengo  and  those  emjdoyed  in  recent  wars.  ex(!e])t  the  characterisv.ic  of 
bring  armed  and  organized  bodies  of  soldiers  under  military  leadership. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  born  in  the  midst  of  war.  All  Europe  was  an 
armed  camp,  and  the  contest  between  the  princii)les  of  the  French  Kevolu- 
tiiin  and  the  (jld  feudal  system  had  taken  the  foi'ui  of  actual  strife  upon  the 
tii'ld  of  l)attle.  A  great  alteration  was  taking  place  in  the  methods  of  war ; 
the  old  jjedantic  strategy  of  the  Austrian  school  had  already  received  a  rude 
shock  at  the  hands  of  the  brilliant  young  Bonaparte,  and  the  old  tactical 
uii'thods  befjueathed  by  Frederick  the  (Ireat  were,  also,  soon  to  be  shattered 
l)y  tiie  genius  of  the  newer  and  greater  warrior.  To  appreciate  the  changes 
tliiit  were  already  being  made  in  military  methods,  a  brief  glance  at  the 
<u'^anization  of  the  armed  forces  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
is  necessary.  The  Prussian  army,  as  organized  by  the  great  Frederick,  was 
i('<;arded  as  the  finest  of  the  time.  In  it  the  most  exact  and  machine-like 
iiicfhods  were  observed,  the  most  careful  ac(!nracy  in  marching  was  recpiired, 
tlrill  was  carried  to  mechanical  perfection,  volley  tiring  was  conducted  with 
the  greatest  precision,  and  no  skirmishers  were  employed.  In  comparison 
witli  later  methods,  the  whole  system  may  be  characterized  as  exact,  meth- 
oilieal,  and  slow.  Armies  were  supjilied  entirely  from  magazines,  by  means 
of  h)ng  and  cund)rous  trains,  and  the  art  of  moving  rapidly  and  subsisting  on 
the  country  was  still  to  be  discovered. 

The  French  army  produced  by  the  Jtevolution,  and  led  bj-  such  men  as 


284 


TRIUMI'lIS  ASD    WUXDEUS   OF   THE   XIX'"  CENTUUY 


l!"t'  > 


ffi'il 


Diigommii'i',  ] Iodic,  Morcuu,  uiid  IJoiiiiiiiii'tc,  was  trained  to  oiMtratit  i:: 
cohuiui,  to  deploy  ([uickly  into  line,  and  j;,'cnt'rally  to  act  with  ctdcrity  ;  wliil. 
the  impoverislit'd  tn-asury  of  tlu;  n'[tublic  coniptdh'd  its  armies  to  li\ 
entirely  iii)on  the  country  in  which  they  were  o|ieratinj,'.  as  the  only  altfrnii 
tive  to  starvation.  This  entailed  sericnis  liardshi[is  to  the  soldiers,  and  ^vv\\\ 
distress  to  the  population  of  the  country  in  which  they  were  acting,  but  ii 
marked  distinctly  the  beginniiii;-  of  a  new  system  of  supjdy,  which  con 
tributed  greatly  to  the  rapid  movement  of  armies.  The  French  army,  iit 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  contained  no  regiments,  but  was  organized  inln 
demi-brigades,  each  of  which  consisted  of  four  battalions,  each  comprisin.; 
ten  companies,  two  of  wliich  were  trained  to  act  as  skirmishers.  TIicm- 
demi-brigades,  with  one  or  laore  batteries  of  artiHery,  constituted  a  divisidii. 
to  which  a  small  force  of  cavalry  was  generally  added.  Jn  LSd")  Na]K)le(jii. 
then  the  sui)reme  ruler  of  France,  made  important  changes  in  tlie  organizii- 
tion  of  the  army.  The  denn-brigade  was  replaced  Vjy  the  two  battalion  regi- 
ments, each  regiment  now  consisting  of  eight  comjianies.  Two  regiments 
formed  a  brigade,  and  two  brigades  and  a  regiment  of  light  infantry  consti- 
tuted a  division.  On  the  light  regiment  devolved  the  duties  of  skirmishers; 
namely,  to  harass  and  develop  the  enemy  before  the  main  attack.  'I'Ih- 
divisions  Avere  grouiied  into  larger  organizations  kncnvn  as  mrjix  d'tiniin',  i>y 
army  corps,  each  of  which  consisted  of  all  arms  of  the  service,  and  was.  in 
fact,  a  force  capable  of  operating  indej)endently  as  a  small  army.'  A  corps 
of  reserve  cavalry  was  also  formed.  In  nund)ers  the  cavalry  was  eijuid  to 
one  fourth,  and  the  artillery  one  eighth  of  the  strength  of  the  infantry.  Tlie 
infantry  was  armed  with  a  smooth-bore,  muzzle-loading,  Hint-lock  musket, 
which  rcfpiired  some  thirty-two  distinct  motions  in  hiading,  and  which  liiul 
an  effective  range  of  only  two  hundred  yards,  though  by  giving  it  a  high  ele- 
vation it  could  do  some  damage  at  twice  th;it 
distance.  This  weapon  bore  about  the  same 
relation  to  the  magazine  rifle  of  the  present 
day  that  the  old-fashioned  sickle  bears  to  tlir 
modern  mowing-machine.  The  artillery  con- 
sisted of  muzzle-loading,  smooth-bore  guns, 
which  had  less  than  one  fourth  the  range  el 
the  modern  infantry  rifle.  Cavalry,  bciiin 
able  to  form  with  comparative  impunity 
within  close  jiroximity  of  the  opposing  infan- 
try, could  sweep  down  u](on  it  in  a  headlong 
charge ;  and  the  use  of  the  sabre  on  the  tield 
of  battle,  now  so  rare,  was  then  an  alnmst 
invariable  feature  of  every  conflict.  I'nder 
Xapoleon  the  armies  contiiuied  to  "live  (ni 
the  country,"  but  magazines  of  sui)plies  were  carefully  prepared  to  suppli - 
nient  the  exhausted  resources  of  the  theatre  of  war-. 

In  besieging  a  fortified  place,  the  first  parallel  or  line  of  batteries  of  t!  r 
besiegers  was  liabitually  established  at  about  six  hundred  yards  from  t!;;' 
enemy's  works,  a  distance  then  at  long  artillery  range,  but  which  would  U'  '■,• 
be  under  an  annihilating  fire  from  infantry  rifles.     The  cannon  used  so!.  1 

1  Brigadt's  and  ilivisimis  had  long  oxisti'd,  but  the  army  corps  was  a  creation  of  Napoleon, 


y^^^^Pt  .-( 

^ 

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ffeii 

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w^ 

OLD   STYLE    SHUAPXEL. 


111  ill 


THE   CENTURY'S   A  i:  MIES   AND  A  I!  MS 


•J8o 


,()t  iilmust  exclusively.  tli(iii,ujli   early  in  the   jireseiit  eeiitiii'V  a  projectile, 

vented  by   Lieutenant  Siirajjuel,  of  the  iWitish  army,  and  whicli  now  uni- 

rsally  bears  his  name,  was  introduced.     This  ccmsisted  of  a  thin  cast-iron 

:    cU  tilled  with   round   nuisket   balls,  the   interstices  between   which   were 

I   led  by  pourinj,'  in  mtdted  sul|iliur  or  resin,  to  solidify  the  mass  anil  prevent 

from   erackinj,'  the  shell  when   the   |(iece  was   Hreil.     A  hoh^   was  bored 

i  .rough  the  mass  of  sulphur  and  bullets  to  receive  the  burstinj,'  eharij;e, 

'■  liich  was  just  suttieient  to  rupture  the  shell  and  release  the  bidlets,  which 

)  icu  moved  with  the  velocity  that  the  ]irojcetile  had  at  the  moment  of  biirst- 

w.'^.     Shrapnel  has  at  all  times  been  a  (h'struetive  missile.  thou,u:h  in  its  early 

J^rm  it  was  insignitieant  in  eomi)arison  with   tlu;  "man-killing  projectile'' 

V,  liicli  now  bears  the  same  designation. 

In  the  yo.ar  1<S0(),  the  Congreve  rocket  was  addeil  to  the  wea])ons  of  war. 
It  consisted  of  a  case  of  wrought  iron.  Idled  with  a  eom2)osition  of  nitre, 
(■hari'oal,  and  sulphur,  in  siudi  proportions  as  to  burn  more  slowly  than  gun- 
lewder.     The  head  of  the   rocket  consisted  of  a  solid  shot,  a  shell,  or  a 


CONOHKVK    HOCKKT. 

shrapnel.  At  the  base  was  fastened  a  stick,  which  secured  steadiness  for  the 
projectile  in  its  tiight.  The  range  of  the  rocket  was  scarcely  more  than  five 
liuudred  yards,  though  a  subsecpient  imjirovement.  which  dis])ensed  with  the 
},'\n(le-stiek  and  substituted  three  tangential  vents,  increased  the  range  very 
CDiisiderably.  Congreve  rockets  were  nsed  with  effect  in  Europe  in  1.S14, 
and  against  our  raw  militia  at  lUadensburg  in  the  same  year.  They  seem, 
however,  to  have  depended  more  ujton  the  moral  effect  of  their  hissing  rush 
thiin  upon  any  really  destructive  ]>roperties.  and  were  effective  mainly  against 
raw  troops  and  cavalry.  The  rocket  is  now  tin  obsolete  weapon,  having  made 
its  Inst  api)earance  in  war  in  the  Austrian  army  in  l.S()('». 

The  infantry  of  all  the  armies  of  Continental  Europe,  when  deployed  for 
iiattle,  was  formed  in  three  ranks.  On  the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Leii)sic, 
Niipoleon,  ti.."^''^ff  himself  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  allies,  ordered  his 
infantry  to  deidoy  in  two  ranks,  in  order  that  his  front  might  approximate 
in  length  to  that  of  the  enemy.  This  formation  had,  however,  been  adojjted 
hy  the  liritish  some  years  before,  and  had  been  used  with  great  success 
iigaiust  the  assaulting  Frenc^h  cidumns.  in  many  of  AVellington's  battles  in 
S|)aiu,  where  the  steadfast  Anglo-Saxon  soldiery  was  able  to  maintain  the 
"thin  red  line,"  and  throw  the  tire  of  every  musket  against  the  denser  forma- 
tiiin  of  its  foes.  It  was  not  until  the  liritish  trooi)s  encountered,  upon  our  own 
soil,  an  Anglo-Saxon  ojjponent  as  steadfast  as  themselves,  and  better  skilled 
in  marksmanship,  that  they  were  unable  to  achieve  a  victory  over  their 
enemies.  True,  our  raw  militia  was  everywhere  l)eaten  when  it  encountered 
the  disciplined  soldiers  of  Great  liritain.  but  our  regidar  troo])s  at  Chippewa 
anil  Lundy's  Lane  gallantly  defeated  the  choice  veterans  of  AVellington's 
campaigns;  and,  at  Is^ew  Orleans,  an  army  composed  mainly  of  hardy  back- 


i  j 


, '  I.  9  ■     />.  j 

lf3 


"   \v 


km 


1^  ii 


m. 


tin 


m. 


286 


TltWMPIlS  AM)    WOSDEliS   OF  Till-:  MX"'  VENTUIIY 


In) 


|i    I 


•X 


u 

Eh 


woddsiiit'ii,  tniiiit'd  in  ludiiin  ti<,flitiiiK,  and  cxjiiTt  in  tlin  ii^.' 
of  tlic  litlc,  liurk'd  iiacli,  with  t'fi^ditl'ul  cainiij,'*'.  cximti- 
cnct'd  Itvitisli  soldiers  wlio  had  liahitually  triuniiiht'd  u\iy 
tlic  lirst  vt'tcrans  of  tlic  Krcncli  t'ni|iirt'. 

The  hattlf  of  New  ( ►rh-ans  niariifd  tin'  introdnrtion  ni 
till'  I'iHf  as  a  forniidabh-  arm  for  infant rv.  It  was  liy  im 
lucans  a  new  w»'a|ion,  for  it  iuid  liccn  invented  in  (ierimni) 
in  ll'.KS;  but  it  hail  not  been  used  to  any  extent  in  mili- 
tary service,  mainly  beeansc  of  the  sh)\vness 
of  loadini,'.  Tin!  eapabiiities  of  the  riHe  in 
the  hands  of  an  army  of  expert  marksmen 
were,  however,  made  so  manifest  by  .lacikson's 
great  vi(!tory  that  the  attention  of  military 
men  was  tnrned  towards  the  weapon  wiiich 
had  enabled  a  iM'nde  army  to  overwhelm  the 
ehoieest  troops  of  Knn.pe.  j,,^.,^,  ,,^, , 

Vet  it  was  not  nntil  liSilO  that  a  pra<'tically 
ctlicient  military  ritle  appeared.  'I'his  was  the  inventinn  n| 
Captain  .Miiui'.  of  the  Freiieh  army,  and  was  the  well-known 
"Mini(''  ritle,"' lonj;'  familiar  to  troops  on  both  contincuis. 
The  weapon  was  a  nni/./le-loader.  and  its  ])rojeetiIe.  tin- 
'•]\lini('  ball,"  was  of  a  eonoidal  shape,  as  shown  in  tlie  ;i(- 
eompanyinj;-  lii^nre.  The  ball  beinjf  sli,i;htly  smaller  in 
diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  piei'e,  the  loadinj,'  was  ea>il\ 
accomplished,  and  the  shock  of  the  e\|(iosion  a.nainst  tin- 
cavity  at  the  liase  of  tlie  bidlet  forced  the  lead  into  tlir 
i^roovi's  of  the  bore  and  caused  the  shot  to  take  up  a  i'i>t;ir\ 
motion  on  its  axis — in  other  words,  "to  take  the  riHii:;." 

Ikitles.  mostly  constructed  on  jirinciples  similar  to  tlidM' 
on  which  ^Minie's  weapon  was  baseil,  were  soon  in  use  in 
the  armies  of  all  jjfreat  nations.  The  riHe  nuisket.  '•  niodrl 
of  ISiM,"'  adopted  liy  the  L'inted  States,  is  shown  in  tin' 
accompanying,'  ti.nure. 

In    LSI"   percussion   caps  were   invented   in   the    Iniicil 
States,  but  some  time  elapsed  before  they  were  introduiiil 
into  military  use  ;  an<l  though  the '•  percussion  ritle"  \\:i^ 
known  in  1S41.  the  victorious  troojis  whicii  went  with  Srutt 
in  the  brilliant  campaii^n   from   N'era  Cruz  to  the  City  nl 
.Mexico,  six  years  later,  were  armed  with  the  flint-lock  mus- 
ket.    ] u  18.')o.  Colonel  Colt  invented  the  first  jiractical  u- 
volving  pistol.     This  weajion,  es]iecially  in   its   ])resiiit 
])erfected  form,  is  so  well  known  as  to  need  no  descrip- 
tion.    T'he  first  pattern  of  (!olt's  revolver  used  paper  cit- 
tridges  and  percussion  caps. 

In  the  long  jieriod  of  peace  which  Kuro))e  enjoMil 
after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  but  little  change  was  mn'ic 
in  the  organization  of  the  armies  of  the  great  powei->; 
and  in  tlie  Crinu'an  war  ( 1  SiM-rtd )  tiie  composition  of  ''  •■ 
English,  French,  and  Russian  armies  did  not  differ  nm;  - 


"  I 


y 

1  tlui  II- 
,    0X1)CI 


ictlnli   '■, 

US  by  1." 
Iifriii:iii\ 
:  ill  mill 


NIK    IIAI.I.. 

^•('UtinU  111 
I'U-klinWll 

(lut.iiii'iits. 
'ctilf.  llii- 
ill  the  :m- 
;iii;illfr  ui 
was  ca-'ilx 
^•aiiist  til'- 
into  til'' 
a  I'litaiv 
itiii:-." 

to   tlln.-r 

n  use  in 
,  ••  ukmIi'I 
11  ill   ill'' 

'  rnii'-'l 
ntroilui''''! 
ritic"  u:i-^ 
A-ith  Sc'lt 
t>  City  t'f 
luck  luiis- 
actical  n- 

,S  pi't'S''llt 
()  (Icscii'i- 
[laju'r  ci'i- 

(>lljn\  i''l 

livas  iu;i'ii' 

powi'i-- ; 

lion  of  <1'«" 

ItVt'V  iii;i:  - 


TUJ-:   rA\V777M".S  AliMll':S  AXl)  ARMS 


J87 


1     !1V 


"   '!  '>I 


[1% 


IFT 


I  I  •1,1  . 


tt'lf! 


li 


1^   IM 


'    !( 


in 


•.'88         TIUUMI'IIS   .IM»    \\().\l>i:iiS   ol-   THE   MX'"   CEXTIHy 

Uscil  witll  LTli'llt  rttVct  llil(ill;4li(iut  llir  \\  iir  ii|  Scct'ssioll.  'I'llis  ^,'1111  \v;is  lii;i('. 
I'V  \vi'a|i|iiii.L;  linilor  plati'  iiiiiuikI  an  irmi  liar,  so  as  to  I'nnii  a  cn  lindiical  ma 
till'  wliiilf  liriip^r  broii^'lil  til  a  wriiliiii;  liral  in  a  liirnucu  ami  tlu'ii  ])iis>'  I 
tliiiiiij^li  riilici'.s  til  iiiiiii'  it  Miliillv.  Till'  iiicrc  was  tlit'ii  Iiort'il  ami  tiiiiinl  i  . 
till'  |iiii|iri' sliaiic  ami  iliiiH'iisiiiiis.  'I'lic  inujiTtili's  Inr  I'ititul  ^miiis  wtit  l;i  - 
cfally  riiati'il  witli  Milt  metal,  nr  liifiiislii'il  willi  an  fX|ianiliii,i,f  base  (ir  cup  ■  i 
similar  metal  nr //-'////;•  ninr/ir  .■  tlimii^li  in  snmi'  systems  tliey  were  t'lii'iii.sli.  .| 
uitli  stmls  (ir  Imttmis  wliicli  littnl  iiitu  tlie  Hriinves  of  tlie  Ixife.  In  tlie  ea  . 
Ill  the  Whit  wiirtli  ;4iin.  the   iifnjeetile  was  made  iieaily  nl   the  exaet  si/o  and 

inllll  III    the   Imle.  Sli  as  tii  tit    ai'i'matel\    iutn  the  L,'l(Hi\ cs, 

|ii'ee(didiiadinv;'  eaiuinii  were  lint.  hiiwe\er,  (|uii'kly  ailiiiiteil,  iiwiie^'.  ]iei'lia|.  . 
to  cdiiservat  isia  nil  tlio  part  ol'  artillerists,  and  partly  liecause  the  guns  liii 
jirndiieeil  did   not.  sei  m  tn  j;'i\e  appreeialily  hettei'  I'e.siilts   in  range,  accururv, 


ItODMAN    (UN. 


1  !  I 


HH 


<ir  evon  in  rajiidity  of  tire  tliaii  tlie  iim/./.le-loaders.  "Not  only  wore  lireeih- 
Inading  eaiinnii  adopted  with  seeiiiini,'  reliietaiico.  lint  ritied  eannoii  geiieially 
were  looked  upon  with  disfa\dr  liy  many  artillerists  of  the  old  seliiH,]. 
Iloliciilolie  tells  of  an  old  Prussian  .ncneial  of  artillery  who  was  so  prrjii- 
dieeil  ai^'ainst  the  ritied  innovation  that  he  requested,  on  liis  death-bed.  tli:it 
the  salute  over  his  erave  slionld  be  tired  with  nothini;'  but  smooth-bore  liuns. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  JL'-pound  smooth-bore  Xai)oleon  uuii 
loie^  held  its  own  ai^ainst  the  now  ritied  tiehl-jiieces,  as  many  a  bloody  baiMi' 
in  our  Civil  War  wtdl  attested. 

Ill  the  manufacture  of  heavy  guns  the  United  States  for  some  time  l''! 
the  -world,  in  lS(i(>.  (ieiieral  Jvodnian.  of  the  Ordnance  J)epartmeiit.  pm- 
«biced  the  first  l.Vineli  gun  ever  made.  This  gun  was  made  of  cast-ii'ii. 
and  was  cast  on  a  hollow  core,  cooled  by  a  stream  of  water  jiassing  thii'iiuli 
it.  by  whiidi  means  the  metal  nearest  the  bore  was  made  the  hardc>t 
most  dense,  and  the  tendency  towards  bursting  was  thus  reduced  to  a  r. 
mum.  (leneral  Kodmaii  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  hollow  cake  ]inw 
which  consisted  of  cakes  pertorated  Avith  niiiiierons  small  holes  for 
jiassage  of  the  Ihinie.  thns  enabling  the  ])owder  to  be  progressively  ■ 
snmed,  and  causing  the  amount  of  gas  at  the  last  monu^nts  of  the  disch 


ml 
i- 

r. 

'II- 


(',  UCCUVlli'V, 


WCl't'     IlllTlll- 

oii  tfcntMiillv 


\tll-l)('il.  Ili:it 


rtiufiit.  I'lii- 


i.i;m.i;m,  wiM-ri.i.i*  m  trn. 


1 

if 

'  }  i 

f 

i>rl 


I'll' 

fi 


m 


il 


>   .■'kii 


!•*, 


^1 


.i  .    II 


[{  l'i?l 


THE   CENTURY'S   A II MIES  AXD  AllMS 


•JS9 


t,  lie  greater  than  at  tlie  instant  of  ii^niition.  A  large-grain  jiowder.  known 
;(>  "nKunnioth  jiowder."'  wan  afterwards  devisotl  by  liim  to  imuluee  the  same 
1  alts.  It  will  be  seen  later  that  this  invention  has  rendered  possible 
liir  powerfnl  ordnaiK-e  of  the  present  day;  and  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much 
t(.  >ay.  that  llodnian   is  really  thus  the  father  of   the  modern  high-power 

;4iillS. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  Secession  the  heaviest  gun  in  the  United 
Slates  was  the  liVineli  luulnian,  the  projectile  of  which  weighed  oL'O  lbs.,  the 
charge  of  powder  weighing  .'>.■>  lbs.  Ne.\t  to  this  was  the  lO-inch  C'olunibiad, 
^\  liicli  iired  a  lOO-lb.  shell  with  a  charge  of  IS  lbs.  of  powder.  The  effective 
range  of  these  guns  was  a  little  less  than  three  miles.  The  heaviest  mortar 
wa.■^  of  lo-inch  caliber,  tired  a20(>-lb.  sludl.  with  a  charge  of  L'O  lbs.  of  ])ow- 
<1(  !■.  and  had  a  range  of  UVJi)  yards.     This  mortar  was,  like  all  others  then 


oi.i)  sMoorn  DOHK  mohtah. 

ill  use.  manipulated  by  means  of  handspikes,  and  not  only  was  much  less 
liowertid,  but  was  much  more  clumsy  than  the  admirable  mortar  of  the 
pivseut  day. 

Tlie  Crimean  and  Italian  wars  had  foreshadowed  the  passing  away  of  the 
old  military  conditions  ;  .ul  the  dawning  of  a  new  era  of  warfare.  I!ut  it  was 
in  the  gigantic  struggle  whi(di  rocked  our  own  country  for  four  yeai's  that  llie 
(li'M'lopiiients  of  modern  warfare  really  commenced.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
t,'icatcoiitlict  the  ranges  of  1(I(»0  to  l'J(U)  yards  bu'  field  guns,  and  of  l.ldO  to 
-I'i'ii  yards  b)r  heavy  guns,  were  as  gi'cal  as  could  lie  secured  with  anv  degree 
III  accuracy.  The  infantry  rifle  with  whicli  the  ruion  and  Confederate 
Miiiiics  were  ;irmed  had  an  extreme  range  of  liut  |0(M»  yards,  and  a  really 
<'ltrrtive  range  of  only  half  that  distance.  The  riflt>  was  ;i  mu/./.le-loailei', 
wliiih  re(piired  nine  distinct  motions  in  loading  besides  those  necessarv  in 
I'niuiiig  the  piece  with  the  percussion  cap  then  used.  The  tactics  employed 
;it  lli>t  in  all  aims  of  the  service  did  not  differ  materially  from  the  methods 
ciii|ilnye(l  in  the  Na])oleonic  wars;  and  a  line  nf  American  infantry  deployed 
tiir  battle  in  two  ranks,  slK)ulder  to  shouhler,  scarcely  differed  in  anything 
10 


II 


■i,  I  L 


.^i 


290 


TltlUMPlIS  AND    nOXDERS   OF  THE  A7A''"  CENTURY 


m  I 


! 


but  the  color  of  its  uiiit'ovms  from  the  "•thin  red  liiiu ''  of  AWlliiigton's  av:i,- 
riors.  All  this  was  to  ht;  chaugi'il ;  but  it  was  not  only  in  the  niultcr  of  ain- 
and  tactics  that  a  revolution  was  tt)  bo  effected,  for  new  forces  hitherto  untrii  1 
were  to  be  enii)loyed  in  the  art  of  war. 

The  War  of  Secession  was  not  only  one  of  the  most  gigantic  conflicts  evi  r 
waged  on  earth,  but  was  one  which  will  always  be  of  interest  to  the  militan 
student  because  of  its  remarkable  developnu'uts  in  the  scii'nce  of  warfaiv. 
and  one  which  will  ever  be  a  source  of  jjride  to  Americans  because  of  ihr 
grim  earnestness  and  stubborn  valor  disjilayed  by  the  contending  ariuii>. 
From  first  to  last,  more  than  two  millions  of  men  were  enrolled  by  tlic 
United  States,  and  in  the  hnal  camiutign  1,1(H».0()0  men  were  actually  l)e;ii 
ing  arms  in  the  service  of  the  Union.  The  infantry  was  organized  in  compa- 
nies of  one  hundred  men.  ten  comj)auies  forming  a  regiment.  At  first,  tlinr 
or  four  reginuMits  constituted  a  brigade,  though  it  was  afterwards  lormed  ol  a 
greater  number  wlien  the  regiments  became  (lejtleted  by  the  losses  of  battlr. 
Three  brigades  generally  composed  a  <livision,  wliich  also  liabitually  includni 
two  batteries  of  artillery  and  a  small  detachuu'nt  of  cavalry  for  duty  as  order- 
lies and  messengers.  Three  or  more  divisions  constituted  an  army  corps. 
The  cavalry  was  formed  into  brigades  and  divisions,  which  in  the  later  years 
of  the  war  were  combined  to  form,  in  each  of  the  large  armies,  a  corps  of  cav- 
alry. It  was  in  command  of  su<'h  corps  of  mounted  troops  that  Sheridan. 
.1.  K.  ]>.  Stuart,  ^lerritt.  and  Wilson  achieved  their  great  fanu'.  The  hai- 
teries  first  distributed  to  divisions,  or  even  brigades,  were  iifterwards  assigmd 
to  the  army  cor])S,  and  all  guns  not  thus  emjdoyed  were  groujjcd  into  a  c(iip> 
oi'  reserve  artillery. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  two  factors  most  important  in  warfare  were 
found  to  be  two  inventions  designed  i^rimarily  for  the  interests  of  ]M'a(i', 
namely,  the  railroad  and  the  electric  telegraph.  Steaiu  and  tdectrieity  liad 
both  been  used  in  the  Crimean  and  Ltaliiu  wars;  but  it  was  in  the  War  n| 
Secession  that  they  received  their  first  gr-at  and  systematic  application.  Tin' 
effect  of  the  use  of  railroads  in  war  not  only  enables  armies  to  be  more  rapidly 
concentrated  than  was  fornuM'ly  the  case,  but  venders  it  possible  to  su[iply 
them  to  an  extent  and  with  a  certainty  that  would  otherwise  be  out  id'  I  lie 
(piestion.  The  difference  between  the  sn])ply  of  an  army  by  wagon  and  liy 
rail  was  clearly  shown  in  the  siege  of  I'aris,  in  1S70-7I.  where  six  trains  a 
day  fed  the  wlude  besieging  army,  while  it  is  estimated  that  nearly  ten  thcii- 
saml  wagons  would  have  been  recpiired  for  tht;  same  ]iur}i(jse.  Moreover,  llir 
force  of  troops  necessarily  detaidied  to  jjroi.ect  a  line  of  railinad  comnninira- 
tions  is  luit  nearly  .so  great  as  the  force  that  would  be  necessary  to  guard  tie 
innumerable  wagon  oi'  pack  trains  that  would  otherwise  be  recjuired.  In  i!if 
opinion  of  the  best  luilitary  authorities,  railroads,  had  they  been  in  existemr. 
would  hav(!  enabled  Xa])oleon  to  conquer  llussia,  and  with  it  the  wm  Id  i 
while,  without  tlu^  aid  of  railn^uls.  the  successful  inv;ision  of  the  Soutli  i'.v 
the  armies  of  the  Union  would  have  been  an  imjiossibility.  It  is  only  wlile 
itkeejis  moving  that  an  army  can  '-live  on  the  country."  It  is  like  a  swam 
of  locusts,  eoiisumiug  everything  within  reach  ;  aiul  if  it  be  conijielled  to  liait. 
whether  for  battle  or  from  other  cause,  it  must  bt;  su]>])lied  from  bases  in  I'u' 
rear,  or  it  will  speedily  disintegrate  froiii  Ininger  alone.  This  fai-t  was  I"  ly 
ajjiireeiated  by  (leneral  Sliernmn,  when  he  left  .\tlanta  in  his  famous  ••  ina  '  h 


I  (. 


rUE   CENTURY'S  ARMIES  AND  ARMS 


201 


I  till'  si'ii;"  tor  tliough  lio  expecteil  to,  and  did,  live  upon  tlio  i-ountry,  ln^ 
1  ;  vi'itlit'less  took  tilt!  ])r('('aution  to  carry  with  him  a  wagon  train  containing 
'■  ,,  iMity  days'  rations  I'or  his  entire  army. 

in  the  War  of  Secession  the  electric,  telegraph  first  ajijieared  on  the 
1  ,  Id  of  battle.  The  telegraph  train  became  a  ])roiuinent  feature  of  all  our 
liiuiies;  and  the  day's  march  was  hardly  ended  before  the  electric  wire,  rap- 
jiily  established  by  an  expert  corps,  connected  tlu;  headtpiarters  of  the  army 
V,  itli  rliose  of  each  army  corps,  division,  and  brigade.  l>ut  it,  was  not  in  its 
ciiiployment  on  the  actual  field  of  battle  that  the  teb-graph  found  its  most 
v.iinalile  military  use.  It  enabled  generals,  separated  by  hundreds  of  miles, 
til  lie  inconstant  communication  with  each  otlier,  and  rendered  it  possible 
tor  (Jrant  to  control  from  his  lieii(h[uarters  hut  at  City  Toint  the  niovcments 
(>r  the  armies  of  Sln'rman.  Thomas,  and  Sheridan  in  combined  operations, 


-15:^S^ 


Sri:N(l.K   <  AUUINE. 

wtiirli  enabled  each  to  perform,  in  harmony  with  the  others,  its  [lart  in  the 
iiiigiity  plan. 

It  followed  as  naturally  as  day  follows  niglit  that  a  shrewd  and  intelligent 
lii(i|ile.  cngageil  in  a  desperate  struggle  for  self-preservation,  would  avail 
tliciiiselvtis  of  all  means  provided  by  military  science  for  carrying  out  the 
(.'imtest  in  which  tliey  were  engaged.  Iron-clad  vessi'ls  had  been  devised  in 
lidth  England  and  Fram.'e,  but  they  were  merely  frigates  designed  on  the  old 
liiH's  and  jiartly  covered  with  a  sheathing  of  armor.  With  characteristic 
iiiirgy  aiKt  ingenuity  the  Americans,  ignoring  old  traditions  and  seeking  the 
>lLiirti'st  road  to  the  fulHllment  of  a  manifest  want,  prudtuted  simultaneously 
till'  Merrimae  and  the  Monitor,  the  former  resemliling  "a  gabled  house  sub- 
merged to  the  eaves,"'  and  the  latter  looking  like  "a  Yankee  cheese-box  njion 
a  raft."  These  novel  vessels  met  in  their  memorable  combat  at  Jlamptoii 
lliiads;  and  the  booming  of  their  guns  sounded  the  death  knell  of  the  old 
wiMKJen  navies. 

As  with  war  vessels,  so  with  firearms.  New  conditions  were  met  with  iii- 
viiitive  genius  and  niechanical  skill.  'I'hough  the  great  mass  of  otir  troops 
'niitinued  throughout  the  coiiHict  to  use  the  mnz/le-loading  rifle,  brccch- 
liiailcis  were  in  the  hands  of  many  thousands  of  our  soldiers  before  the  close 
"I  ilic  great  contest,  fn  iSfil  the  cavalry  of  Sheridan  iind  Wilson  and  many 
ii\L,'imeiits  of  infantry  were  armed  with  breech-loading  crbines,  which  gave 


mf-.  l;| 


\:\U 


'h^l 


1 1' 


I    1 


1  i! 

!■,,, 

, 

ji 

Ill' 

1',  1 ! 

|i||i 

ltit'1 

':> 

292 


rniuMvus  and  woxdkus  of  the  xl\"'  ciuXTiny 


them  a  great  advantagf  ovor  their  oiipoiu'iits.  'I'lie  et'tVet  tit'  the  breech-loader-, 
upon  tlie  C'ontVtU^rates  was  uiiiiU'asaiitly  siir]»risiiit,'  to  them,  ami  the  Sotitherp 
soliliers  are  said  to  have  remarked  with  dismal  humor  tiiat"the  ^'aid<ec- 
loaded  all  idght  and  tired  all  day." 

The  priiieipal  breceli-loadiiii,'  arms  in  use  in  the  I'nion  armies  were  tli' 
Siiarjis  and  tlie  Spencer.  In  the  Siiarps  cariiiiie  tiie  Itarni 
was  closed  l»y  a  sliding  hreeeh-pieee  winch  moved  at  rigln 
angles  with  the  a.xis  of  the  ])ioee,  the  breech  being  opened 
and  closed  by  ]mlling  down  and  raising  up  the  trigger 
guard.  The  Spencer  carbine  was  a  magazine  ritle,  and  \v;i- 
greatly  superior  to  the  Sharps.  The  maga/ine  of  the  ritir 
lay  in  the  butt  of  the  stock,  and  was  capable  of  holdini; 
seven  cartridges.  As  the  cartridge  was  tired  and  ejected 
another  wiis  pvished  forward  into  the  breech  l)y  a  spir;il 
spring  ill  the  butt  of  the  jiiece.  The  Spencer  Ciiriiine  useil 
metallic  cartridges.  The  introduction  of  tl-  e  car!  ridges 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkal)le  adva"ces  in  t  e  art  of  \v;n 
made  during  the  ])reseiit  century.  '\  ,  lartridge  in  use  in 
18(')4-(>r>  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  tigure;  it  consisleij 
of  a  thin  c.o])per  case  tirnily  attaidied  to  the  bullet  contain 
ing  the  ])owder.  and  having  at  its  base  a  small  metallic 
anvil,  ill  a  cavity  oi  wliiidi  was  placed  the  fulminate,  wliieli 
was  e.xplodeil  by  means  of  a  tiring  jtiii,  driven  in  by  a  blnu 
of  the  hammer.  The  advantages  of  the  metallic  cart riduc 
can  scarcely  be  overestimated;  it  rendered  obsolete  the 
percussion  cap.  and  being  water-jiroof  it  did  away  with  tlie 
ever-jircsent  bugbear  id' damp  aiiiniuiiit  ion.  'IMie  old  injuue 
tion.  "Put  your  trust  in  (iodaiid  keep  your  jiowder  di\ .' 
has  consei|uently  lost  much  of  its  force;  for  while  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  soldier  will  continue  to  place  his  ndiance  ui»on  I'rovideiue. 
tlie  latter  part  of  the  advice  can  now  be  safely  ignored. 

Among  the  many  advantages  possessed  by  the  breechdoader  over  the 
muz/ledoader.  the  ])riiicipal  ones  are  greater  rapidity  of  tire,  ease  of  loadiie,' 
in  any  position,  diminished  danger  of  accidents  in  loading,  and  the  impossibil- 
ity of  putting  more  than  one  diarge  in  the  ])ieee  at  the  same  time.  This  la-t 
advantage  is  by  no  means  slight.  Among  L'7,(l(Mt  muzzledoading  muskets 
])icked  up  (m  the  battleihdd  of  (iettysburg,  at  least  l.'4,(HH)  were  loaded,  of 
these  about  half  contained  two  charges,  one  fourth  held  from  three  to  ten 
charges,  and  one  musket  contained  twenty-three  cartridges. 

The  failure  of  the  .\niericaiis  to  jirodiice  during  the  great  war  a  practical 
breechdoading  tiehl-gun  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the  field  artillery  in 
use  at  that  time  answered  fully  all  the  re(|uiremeiits  then  existing.  (hviiiL; 
to  the  nature  of  the  country  in  which  the  armies  were  operating,  the  range  •<[ 
the  .'Mmdi  rifled  gun  was  lully  iis  gi'eat  as  could  have  been  desired  ;  and  en 
the  broken  and  wooded  ground  which  generally  formed  our  field  of  battle,  the 
smooth-bore  Na]ioleoii  gun,  firing  shrajimd  and  canister,  seemed  to  lupe 
reached  almost  the  acme  of  destructiveness.  Abireover,  the  muzzle-loadiii.; 
cannon,  botli  rifled  and  smootlidiore,  were  served  Avith  such  celerity  as  to  ma'." 
it  a  matter  of  doubt  for  some  years  after  wliethcr  the  introduction  id  brec  '.• 


MKTAl.l.lC    (  AIl- 

TFiMiF;  OF  18li4-()5 


nr 


TIIK   Cl-JNTUliV'S  AllMlKS  AND  ARMS 


'1\)\\ 


ch-loailcr 
Soiitlicn 

>  were  \\\< 
tilt'  biirir; 

I'd  at  iii;lii 
ing  »)i)t'iuii 
lit'   trii,'^^'! 
o,  and  \v:is 
)t'  tlu'  rillr 
of   holdiiii,' 
lid  i'jt'c1c(i 
l»y  a  si>ir;il 
irbiii'.'  iiscil 
,'arti'idt;rv 
•  art  of  WMi- 
;<■  in  use  in 
il  ('(lusislcil 
let  coiitiiin 
ill    iiit'tallic 
iKitc.  wliicli 
II  by  a  lilnw 
ic  cartridge 
bsolctc  till' 
[\\  with  llir 
)ld  iiijuui'- 
wdt'f  di\." 
('  it    is  1(1 
rovidciuT. 

over  tlu' 
of  luadiir,' 
iiniiossiliil- 

This  l;i>l 
<;  imiski'ts 

M.it'd.    or 

irct'  to  ten 

I  practiriil 
artilh'iy  in 
n;,  Owinu' 
ic  raii,ij;i'  "i 
d  ;  ami  <'ii 
battk'.  thr 


to  h 


^.lo-l 


oao 


las  to  in; 
)f  bi'Of 


udiiif;  lit'hl-gnns  would  inatcM'ially  iiicvcast!  the  rapidity  of  tire.     It  was  not 

:  :.iil  infantry  lirt^  had  givatly  incrcasi'd  in  range  and  rapidity  that  a  further 

provciiu'iit  in  licld  artilhu'y  bccaim'  iictH'ssary.      In  siege  artillery,  heavy 

!  tied  guns  (d'  tht!  IJodinaii  and  the  I'arrott  type  appeared.     The  I'arrott  gnu 

as  of  cast  iron,  strengthened  by  shrinking  a  coiled  band  of  wrought  iron 
(M'r  the  |)ortioii  of  the  [lit'ce  surrounding  the  charge.  The  famous  "Swamp 
^  igel,"  used  in  the  siego  of  ('harleston,  was  a  I'arrott  gun.  Tlu;  sea-(!oast 
aitillery  consisted  mainly  of  smooth-bores  of  largi'  calibre,  whi(di  wtn-e  able  to 
1. intend  snciu'ssfnlly  with  any  armor  then  aHoat.  It  is  a  curious  fact  tliatr  the 
u  ir.  so  to  speak,  between  guns  and  armor  has  been  incessantly  waged  Wxw.v. 
ilic  introduction  of  the  latter,  every  advancio  «>f  armor  towards  tlm  ilegree,  of 
ih\  ulnerability  being  met  with  the  production  of  agiin  capable  of  piercing  it. 
The  sea-coast  artillery  (d'  the  United  State's  in  the  Civil  War  met  fully  every 
I'lniiand  to  whi(di  it  was  subjet^ted. 

The  AVar  of  Secession  ju'oduciMl  the  iirst  piiictioal  iiia(diiiie-giin, — tlu!  (lat- 
lihL;.  —  though  such  gnus  were  not  used  t(i  any  extent.  Tiie  machine-gun  has, 
ill  lact,  passed  through  a  long  period  of  gestation,  ami  it  is  only  in  recent 
yrais  that  it  can  be  said  to  have  attained  its  full  birth.  Our  great  war  was 
aiMi  not(Ml  for  the  introdiuMion  <d'  torpedoes.  These  peculiar  weapons  iiad,  it 
is  I  rue,  been  devised  may  years  before;  and  b'obert  l-'ulton  had.  in  the  early 
|iart  (d'  the  century,  devoted  his  inventive  genius  to  the  production  of  a  sub- 
111  nine  torpedo,  which,  howi^ver,  was  never  practically  tested  in  war.  It  was 
mil  until  tile  contest  (d'  IS(il~(;.">  that  torpedoes  were  of  any  practical  use. 
Till'  high  explosives  (d'  the  present  day  being  tluMi  unknown,  these  torpedoes 
(lr|ii'iidcd  for  their  destructive  force  upon  gunpowder  alone.  \'et  cruile  and 
uiNignilicant  tlumgh  tlu^y  were  in  comparison  with  Iht;  mighty  engines  of  de- 
stiiiction  now  known  by  the  same  name,  they  accomplislied  great  results  in 
innic  than  one  instance.  The  destruction  (d'  the  lloiisatoiiic  ol'f  ( Tiailcston, 
llir  sinking  (d' the  Teciimseli  in.Mobihi  I'.ay,  and  Ciishing's  daring  destruction 
(it  lilt'  .Mbemarle,  gavt;  notice  to  tin;  world  tiiat  a,  new  and  terrible  engine  of 
wart'are  had  iiiaile  its  appearamte. 

liiit  it  was  not  merely  by  the  production  of  new  weajions  that-  the  great 
Aiiiericau  war  was  characterized.  It-  marked  the  turning-poinl  in  taittics  as 
well.  The  first  elTorts  of  our  great  armies  id'  raw  volunteers  were  as  crude  as 
tlie  warfarti  of  untrained  troops  always  is.  and  it  was  fortunate  that  we  wens 
epliosed  to  a  foe  as  unpracticed  as  ourselves;  but  as  the  ti'fiops  gained  experi- 
ence ill  war,  actpiireil  the  necessary  military  instiuction,  —  in  brief,  hiarneil 
their  trade  anil  becaiiie  regulars  in  all  liiit  name,  —  they  displayed  not  only 
a  steadfast  prowess,  l>ut  a  military  skill  that  placed  the  veteran  Ameri- 
laii  soldier  at  the  head  of  the  warriors  of  the  world.  The  art  of  eoiistriictiiig 
hasty  intrenchments  on  the  tield  of  battle  grew  out  of  the  rpiickness  of  the 
American  soldier  to  apjireciate  the  necessity  of  providing  defensive  means  to 
iiiiitralize,  in  some  degree,  tlie  greatly  increased  ilestructive  effect  of  imjiroved 
anus.  In  this  res|)i'ct  he  was  thirteen  years  in  ;iilvance  of  tin;  European  sid- 
iliei',  for  hasty  intrenchments  did  not  aiJjiear  in  Kuro^ie  until  the  Turco- 
llussian  AVar.  True,  intrenchment  on  the  field  of  battle  was  as  old  as  war 
itselt ;  but  the  .Vmericaii  armies  were  the  first  that  developed  a,  system  id' 
ipiickly  covering  the  entire  front  of  an  army  with  earthworks  hastily  thrown 
up  in  the  jiresence  ot  the  enemy,  and  often  actually  under  tire.     Skirmishers 


'«;i;> 


,1.1    'MM  I 


I'p    ;■' 


204 


rn/i  M/'/is  AM»  \\<>m>j:i:s  or  riii-:  xixm  cestuhy 


were  no  liiiii,M'r  used  iiwrt'lv  In  tt'd  and  dcvcloi)  I  lie  ciiciiiv  ;  Im)  in  niiiny  nl 
our  liiitt It's.  iKitiilily  in   Sliciniiin's  canipiiit^Mi   in  (icorLjiii.  Ilu- cni^ii.i^cnn'nt  \v;i 
bt'Ljun.  and  ImiLjliI  to  tin- rnd,  li_v  stronn' slxirniisli  lines  succi'ssivt'ly  rcintorci  > 
ironi   tlif   iii.iin   Imdy.  wliirli   liicy  ^'radnally  alisorlicd   in   Mic  ciinrsc  ol   lli 
action.      I  li'ic.  too.  t  lie   Ann'iii'an  soldier  was    I'ldly  six   years   in  advance  m 
the  l'",mo]iean  wairiof:  tor  it  was  not,  nntil  (he  (iernians  had  lieen  wained  In 
the  tei'iilic   losses   inciiired  in  their  earlier  hatlles  with  tiie  l'"reneli.  in   JS7i'. 
that   liiey  evolvi'd   li<ini   their  own  experienee  a  system  ol'  taet.ies,  the  essen 
tial    |irincii>les  ol   wiiich    had  already   been    demonstrated    on    the   Western 
Continent. 

The  increased  ran.i,'e  ol  artillery  a^'aiii  received  a  practical  illnst  ration  :   |ni 
at  the  sieij;e  ol    l''ort    I'nIasUi  (hel'nion   hatteries  lirst  opened   tire  at  ranL;v 
varyin;^-  Irom  l<>'>n  to  .';|(M)  ynrds  tnnn  the  Conrederate   iorl.      .\t.  the  sieL;e  o| 
Charleston  shelU  were  ihrown   into  tin-  city  IVom  a  Waltery  nearly  live  mile, 
distant. 

In  iSdd.  till'  hriel  Imt  Moody  war  between  Ansti'ia  and  i'rnssia  smhh'nK 
raised  the  laiti'r  nation  troni  a  comparatively  snbordinale  ]iosition  to  llir 
Iront  rank  ol  nnlitary  ]powei's.  'I'lu'  greatness  of  I'rnssia  was  jjorn  in  tin 
sackcloth  anil  ashes  ol  national  hnndliation.  iMtrbidden  by  IS'apoleon,  allri 
her  crushing;  defeat  in  IstKJ-?.  to  maintain  an  army  of  more  than  .lo.nnn 
men.  her  ureat  war  nnnister.  Scharnhorst,  conceived  the  plan  of  dis(diar,^iir_; 
the  soliliers  Irom  military  service  as  soon  as  they  had  receixcd  the  reipiisili' 
instrnction.  and  filliii;,'  their  plai'cs  with  recruits,  in  this  way.  thoii,i;h  tlir 
standing  army  iii'ver  ex<-eeded  the  stipulated  number,  many  thousands  ol 
rrnssians  received  military  trainiiii,';  and  when  Trnssia  deidarecl  war  a;4ain-t 
Napoleon,  alter  his  disastrous  iJussian  cainpaitj;n,  the  disidiart^ecl  men  wcic 
called  back  into  the  r.ink^.  and  there  arose  as  it  by  mai^ic  a  I'ormidahle  I'm- 
•sian  army  ot  traineil  soldiers.  The  principle  of  universal  military  servin  , 
thus  called  into  existence  in  i'russia  in  time  ot  war,  had  been  conlinunl 
through  tilty  years  (d'  peace,  and  enabled  I'russia.  with  a  population  scareelv 
more  than  hall  as  numerous  as  thai  oi'  .\ustria.  to  |)laee  upon  the  decisi\i 
iiidd  ot  K(Hiii,';4iiitz  a  larger  army  than  that  ot  her  opponent. 

'l"he  Prussian  system.  whi(di  has  since  been  coj)ied  by  all  the  great  militai  \ 
nations  (d'  lairope.  is.  in  its  essential  features,  as  billows:  Every  abledi-idieil 
man  in  the  kingdom,  upon  reaching  the  age  of  twenty  years,  is  a>ailable  l"i' 
military  sei'vice  ;  and  each  year  there  are  chosen  by  lot  sutlieieiit  recruits  I" 
maintain  the  army  at  its  authorized  strength.  The  great  body  (d"  the  iii.ilr 
]iopnlation  is  thus  brought  into  military  S(M'vi(!e.  'I'here  are  a  b'w  exce|i 
tions.  siudi  as  the  only  sons  of  indigent  jiarents.  and  a  small  number  of  nun 
\vlio  aro  in  excess  of  the  bnce  reipiired.  Any  man  wdio  escaju's  the  dratt  Ini 
three  sueccssive  years,  ami  all  ablediodied  men  cxempt(>(l  for  any  cause  froiu 
service  in  tlie  regidar  army,  are  incorporated  in  tlit^  reserve.  The  term  'il 
service  in  tlie  regular  army  is  two  years  for  the  intiUitry  and  three  Ibrtl!'' 
artillery  and  cavalry.  After  being  dis(diarged  from  the  regular  army  llir 
soldier  iiasses  into  the  reserve,  where  he  serves  for  four  years.  While  in 
the  reserve,  he  is  called  out  for  two  field  exercises  of  eight  weeks'  dniatii!! 
ea(di.  ami  the  rest  (d'  his  time  is  available  for  his  civil  vocation.  At  the  cum 
tif  four  years  in  the  re>erve  lie  passes  into  the  Laiidwehr.  in  Avhi(di  he  i- 
reiiuired  to  jiarticipate  in  oidy  two  titdd  exercises  of  two  weeks'  dnration  ea'  !i. 


Mil 
III 


hi  ■  I'l 


V67.'  )■ 

it  ill   iii;iiiy  III 
;ii^t'iiiriit  \v;i 
I'ly  rfiiirmrci 

CIIUl'SC    of    III 
ill    lulvillU'C    I   : 

'('11  wiiiiu'd  li 
■noli,  ill   IST". 
ics.  till'  fsscii 
the    Wt'stclii 

list  nil  ion  ;  i'ni 
tire  '.it  r;iii:4i 

\\,  tilt'   sicnc   nl 

iirly  live  iiiilr  ■ 

issiii  sii(l(li'iil\ 
lOSitioll  In  til'' 
i,s  lioi'ii  ill  till 
s;i|Mil(>()ii,  iitli'i 
V  iliini  .|0.(Miii 
of  discliMr.niii'; 
(1  the  rcciuisiii' 
ly.  tli(Mi,i;li   till' 

■     tllOIISillllls    111 

•cil  war  ii'^iiiii"' 

(•(1     Mini    Wiir 

iiidalilc  I'ni^ 
itary  scrvirc, 

fll    COlllillUril 

it  ion  scai'c('l\ 

t.llC    (l('('isi\r 

ixrcat  iiiililar\ 
•\'  al)lt'-l)'"lii'il 

ii.ailalili'  l"i' 
•lit  recruits  I" 
V  of  the  mall' 

a  few  t'M'i'i'- 
uiiiliiM'  ol  null 
-;  the  draft  Im 
iiy  cause  finni 

The  term  "1 

tiiree  for  tli'' 
liar  army  t'lr 
irs.  W'liile  i^i 
I'eks'  (Inratinn 


At  tl 


le  <'i"i 


ll  Wllich    lie 

Unration  ea- 


'/•///•;  (•/■:.\T(:ny's  .ntMn:s  A.\n  aums  -jir, 

\rtcr  live  years   in  I  lie   l.andwelir  |iro|per.  lie  passes  into  tlie  seeoud  levy  ol 
lie    Laiidwelir,    wliere   lie    is    free    from   all    military  duty   in   tiiiif  of  |iea<'i'. 


\,  <>[ 


i<di  still    lialile  to 


lie  called  to  arms   in   i 


asc  of  war.      l-'rom   llie  sei'nnd 


I     \\'   o 


f  I  lie    l^aiid  weiir   lie    passe 


lie   a'j-e  ol    tiiirt\ -nine   years,    into  the 


;iidsfiiriii.  wliere  lie  remains  until  lie  reai'lies  liis  forty-lift  li  year,  wlien  lir 
liiially  discliai'Ljed  from  military  duty.  'I'lie  soldier  in  the  liandsturm  is 
articallv    free   from   all    militarv    diilv,   for   that    liodv  is   never  called   out 


it    in  case  of  dire  iiat,ioiial  eiiier''eiicv.      I>\  tliiss\sleiii  I'russia  liecaiiie 


'I   oiilv  a   militarv  power  liiit    '•a   nation   in  iirms.'"  in   the   hla/c  nf  wIk 


li'C. 


y  melted  away 


III  the  military  .nloiy  of   Austria  and  of  l''raiicc  siiccessivel 
i'l  luimiliatiiiL^  defeat. 

The  careful  military  preparation  of  I'russia  in  time  of  jieace  was  hy  no 
iiiraiis  limited  to  measures  for  providiii,!,'  an  army  stnui;,'  in  numlieis.  Mmmv 
\i.ir  her  trodps  were  asseiiililed  in  hir.i^e  liodies  for  practice  in  the  mameuvres 
ol  the  halt  lelii'Id.     This  miiiiici\  id'  war,  at  first  liiditiv  ri"'arded  hv  the  mili- 


proiliici'd  such  udiidcrlul   effcd- 


l;ii\  leaders  (d  the  other  I'airopeaii  nations,  | 
in  proiiiotiiiL;  I  he  etlicicucy  of  the  army  t  liat  it  has  since  In  ■en  copied  in  all  the 
armies  of  I'lurope,  and  is  now  regardeil  as  the  most  important,  id  all  iiistruc- 
I  ii'u  for  war. 

riiou,i;'h    lireccli  loadiiii;'    ritles  were,  as  we  liiive  seen,  used   in   the  War  of 
Si  icssion,  the  I'russian  army  was  the  lirst  that  ever  took  the  lield  compii'ti'ly 


riiii'd  with   such  weapons.     'I'lie  I'russian  rifle  was  not    m 


w,  for  It    had  lieen 


invented  liy  a  Thni'iii,L,nan  eunsmith,  named  Dreyse.  ahoiit  the  time  that  the 
.M mil'  ritle  appeared.  Dreyse's  arm  was  known  as  the  '• /iindnadelL;-ewelir,'' 
or  needle-Ljiiii,  and  its  effect  in  the  .\ust  ro-l'riissian  war  was  so  decisive  and 
si.iitliiij;  as  If)  (MUse  mu/./le-lnadini,'  rifles  everywhere  to  he  releeated  to  tin- 
linilio  of  obsolete  weajions.  \'et,  the  iicedle-nnii  was  hut  a  sorry  weapon  in 
ciiiiiparison  to  those  now  in  use,  and  was  distinctly  inferior  to  the  Spenecr 
railiiiie.  Its  lireech  mechanism  was  clumsy,  it  used  a,  jiaper  eartrid.LTc,  it  was 
III  if.  accurate  l)e\(md  a  raiiLje  id'  three   hundred   vards,  and  its  effective  raie'e. 


was  scan'ch'  more  than  twice  that  distance 


The  (lermaii  inlaiitry  fou'dit  in 


three  ranks,  and  its  tactics  was  not.  eipial  to  that  employed  hy  the  American 
inlaiitry  in  the  War  of  Se(;ession.  'i'lie  I'russian  field  artillery  was  the  most 
hirmidahle  that  had  yet.  appeared,  and  coiisisted  mainly  of  steel  hree(di-]oad- 
in'4  rifled  f^iiiis,  which  were  (dassed  as  (i-pounders  and  d-poiinders,  though  the 
lar;4er  pi(!ee  tired  a  shell  wei.Lfliiii.LC  lilteen  pounds,  and  the  smaller  projeiitile 
used  a  sliidl  weinhini,'  nine  iioiiuds.  In  the  .Austrian  army  the  infantry  was 
aiiiicd  with  a  mu/./.le-Ioadin.t^  ritle,  and  the  artillery  consisted  entirely  of 
iiiu/zle-loadin.e;  rifled  eiiiis. 

The  exalted  military  prestij^'c  grained  hy  Prussia  rendered  it  certain  that 
she  must  soon  enter  the  lists  in  a  contest,  with  fraiice,  wdiose  commanding,' 
I'lisitiiiii  in  JMirope  was  so  seriously  iiieiiai-ed  hy  the  rise  of  the  new  ]if)\vei-. 
[•"oieseeiiit^  the  iiievitahle  contlii^t.  Napoleon  III.  cndcavoi'cd  to  prepare  for  a 
serious  striie'u'le.     The  French  infantry  was  armed  with  the  Oiassepot  rith-, 

doiihle    tli;it    of    Die    needle-i,niii.      .V 


iL!'e    iiearlN' 


which  had  an  idfective  rai 
iiiachiiio  f^iin.  known  as  the  iiiitriillh;>is<\  was  also  introduced  into  the  l-'mich 
Miniy.  Miudi  was  expected  of  these  new  arms  ;  hut  so  superior  was  the 
iir'^anization,  readiness,  i,'eneralsliip.  and  tactical  skill  of  the  I'rnssians  that 
the  war  was  a  |iraetieally  iinltrokeu   series  of  victories  for  Prussia  and  tlie 


:'l    1 


')'>;.; 


iiJKi 


TIIIIJMI'HS  AND    WONDEJIS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTCliV 


allied  (Jerinau  Stutcs.  ri'otitiii<^  by  tlu'ir  exiicriciicu  in  the  (Mmrsn  of  tlic  cdi:- 
fliet,  till'  I'russiiins  i'oi'mcil  tlu'ir  infantry  lor  attacii  in  three  lines  ;  tiie  iii>i, 
consisting  of  skirmishers,  tlie  second  of  snjjports,  either  deployed  or  in  small 
colnnms,  and  the  third  of  a  reserve,  generally  held  in  eolnmn  nntil  it  oauic 
under  sni^h  fire  as  to  render  deploynniiit  necessary.  The  skirmisliers  wcir 
constantly'  reinforced  from  the  supports,  iind  finally  from  the  reserve  as  tlic 
attack  progressed,  the  whole  force  being  united  in  a  heavy  line,  and  o])eniiiu 
the  hottest  possible  fire  when  close  enough  to  the  cneniy  for  tlie  final  chargi  . 
In  its  essential  principles  this  attack  formation  is  in  use  at  the  present  diiv 
in  the  armies  of  all  civilized  nations.  The  I'russiiin  artillery  was  handleil 
with  terrible  effect  both  in  battle  and  siege.  A  new  demonstration  of  llic 
increased  power  of  artillery  was  given  in  the  siege  of  I'aris,  in  which  shells 
were  thrown  from  the  heights  of  <'lamart  to  the  Pantheon,  a  distance  of  five 
miles. 

'I"he  next  European  war  was  the  contest  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  in 
1877.  In  this  conflict  the  Anu'rican  system  of  hasty  intrenchments  was  uscil 
with  success  by  the  Turks,  who  were  also  armed  with  an  American  riHe.  thi- 
Peabody,  whicdi  enabled  them  to  inflict  serious  losses  upon  tint  liussians  at 
a  range  of  a  mile  and  a  (piarter.  Owing  to  the  Turkish  intrenchments  and 
the  inferiority  of  their  own  arms,  tlie  IJussians  won  tiieir  victories  ovim'  miuli 
snudler  armies  only  with  a  gruesome  loss  of  life.  X  furtiu'r  imix'tus  was 
given  to  the  devehjjiment  of  the  infantry  rifle,  and  the  German  tactical  expc- 
rience  M'as  conHrnieil  by  the  Russian  (Jeiu'ral  Skobeleff  in  the  declaration 
that  infantry  can  successfully  assault  only  in  a  succession  of  skirmish  lines. 

The  war  in  Turkey  was  the  last  great  European  conflict.  Subsciiuent  cani- 
])aigns  of  the  b'ussians  in  Central  Asia,  of  tlie  English  in  Egypt,  the  Soudan. 
and  India,  of  the  .lapanese  in  China,  of  the  Turks  in  (irecce,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans in  ('ul)a.  iiave  emphasi/.t'd  the  lessons  already  taught,  and  denionstrati'd 
the  increased  ])()wer  of  new  weapons. 

Having  taken  a  I'ctrospcctive  view  of  the  military  forces  and  weapons 
emploved  in  the  wars  of  tlie  iiineteentli  century,  let  us  now  turn  to  a  cim- 
siiU'ratit)U  of  the  armies  and  arms  of  the  ])resent  day.  TIk^  adoption  of  t  !ir 
system  of  universal  military  service  has  increased  tiie  size  of  tlie  staiulini^ 
armies  of  the  nations  of  Europe  far  beyond  tlie  proportionate  iiici'case  i>r 
their  respective  iwpulations.  In  round  numbers,  the  strength  of  the  arm  it- 
of  the  great  powers  is  as  follows:  Russia.  SfJ'.t.OOO;  (Jermany.  ."iS."!.!  ido : 
France.  01. S.OOO;  Anstria.  olMi.OOO;  Italy,  L'MUdOO;  (ireat  i'.ritain,  L'L'LMMiit.' 
Not  only  are  the  standing  armies  greater  than  in  the  early  days  of  tlie  rcii- 
tiiiy.  but.  t)wing  to  the  im[)roved  methods  of  transj)ortation  and  sup])ly,  tin- 
forces  now  brought  upon  the  field  of  battle  are  vastly  larger  than  in  the  day-- 
of  Napoleon.  The  French  army  at  Marengo  was  less  than  .'lO.OOd  stron;^'. 
At  Austerlitz  it  was  only  7i>,()(K).  which  was  its  strength  also  at  Waieilnn. 
In  only  two  battles,  Wagraiii  and  Leipsic.  was  Xapoleon  able  to  place  loO.oiio 
men  on  the  field;  and  in  the  latter  battle  the  armies  of  all  Europe  opposnl 
to  him  numbered  only  2S(»,()00.  In  mort;  recent  times  Prussia  alone  \)hc<'] 
u])on  the  field  of  Koniggriitz  2L'.'}.0(M>  men  with  which  to  oppose  the  Austri,!a 
army  of  L'0('>.(HH) ;  and  at  Gravelotte  the  great  French  army  of  180,00(1  im n 

'  These  numl)ers  f;ive  tlie  peace  strength  of  the  armies.  In  time  of  war  they  can  easily  be  qui  1 
rupled. 


.»Ul: 


1*1 


M 


UY 

)t'  tlu'  cnli- 

;  tilt'  1ii>i 
)V  ill  siuiiil 
til  it  caiii'' 
slicrs  WCIr 
Tve  as  llir 
\il  opciiiiin 
iial  chari^c. 
ireseiit  (la\ 
iis  liaiullcii 
:,i()ii  of  llic 
liich  sliclU 
nice  of  tivf 

Turkoy.  in 

;s  was  viscil 
in  vitie.  11m' 
Iviissiaus  at 
liiiit'iits  ainl 

OVtT  UUlcll 

mpctus  was 
.(•tical  t'\\'v- 
(It'claratinii 
iiisli  lilies. 
.'([lU'Ut  caiii- 
jtlif  Soudan. 
the  .Aiiu'ii- 
monstniti'il 

wcaiioiis 
11  to  a  ciiii- 
itiou  ol'  I'.H- 

■itaniliii;^ 
increase  nl 
the  aniiii- 
.  r>S."i.(MiO; 

!.'•_'■_'.(  100,' 

of  the  eell- 

<nii])ly,  the 
in  the  (lay^ 
UKI  stniii;^. 
Wateiln... 
ICO  lod.ooo 
|)0  oplKiseil 
[one  i)lae''l 
le  Austri.iii 
|50,(»()(t  men 

isily  be  qii '  1 


THE   CENTUUY'S  AUMIE^   AM)  AHMS 


297 


v.is  (Piitiiunibercd  hy  the  (lernian  host  of  L'7<>,(MM).  It  is  ))robiibl((  that  in  tlie 
in  :;t  .u'l'oat  KnroiK>an  war  nioro  than  a  niillion  men  will  he  found  contending 
(i;i  a  singlo  battleliehh  .V.  (h'taih-d  descri[itii)n  of  tho  iinnies  of  nil  the  groat 
jiuwers  would  provo  wearisonio  to  tht;  reader,  f(U'  tiieir  points  of  resemblance 
arc  many  and  their  general  characteristics  arc  the  same.  'I'lic  (Jorman  army 
iii.iv  he  taken  as  tho  most  perfect  specimen  of  a  highly  organized  military 
tuive.  and  a  (h-scriptiou  of  its  organi/ation  wouhl  answer  with  slight  moditi- 
tM'.inii  for  the  other  armies  of  ('ontiiieiital  Kiiroiu'. 

riie  infantry  of  tho  (Jerman  army  is  organized  in  companies  of  L'oO  men 
oarli.  Four  companies  constitute  a  battalion,  and  threi;  battalions  compose 
ii  regiment.  The  brigade  consists  of  two  regiments,  and  the  division  is  eom- 
posed  of  two  \)riga(h'S  of  infantry,  fcmr  batteries  of  artillery,  and  a  reginu'Ut 
et  iMvalry.  The  army  eorjjs  consists  of  two  divisions,  a  body  of  corps  artil- 
lery composed  of  twelve  batteries,  a  battalion  of  engineers,  and  a  sup[)ly 
train.  !n  round  number.s,  the  fighting  strength  of  the  army  corjts  consists 
ol  ;!(>,(HIO  men  and  IL'O  guns.  The  cavalry  is  organized  in  s<niadrons  of  I.jO 
sallies  each,  five  S(piadrons  forming  a  regiment,  only  four  of  whidi  are  em- 
plciyed  in  the  tield,  the  fifth  remaining  at  tiie  regimental  (lei)ot.  'l"ho  cavalry 
liri-ade  consists  of  three  regiments;  and  the  cavalry  division,  which  is  com- 
pdsi'd  of  two  brigades,  aggregates  ,'t(>00  sabres.  Thus  a  small  part  of  the 
(Mvalry  force  is  attached  to  tluf  infantry  divisions,  while  the  bulk  of  it  is 
(ir'4aiiizcd  into  divisions  eomjiosed  of  mounted  troops  alone,  two  batteries  of 
lierse  artillery  being  attached  to  each  cavalry  division.  The  entire  military 
terce  is  divided  into  '•  armies,"  each  consisting  of  from  three  to  six  army 
corps  and  two  or  more  cavalry  divisions.  The  cavalry  has  about  one  sixth 
and  the  artillery  about  one  seventh  of  tho  numerical  strength  of  the  infantry. 
The  (lerman  cavalry  is  armed  with  salire,  carbine,  and  lance.  The  ofhceis 
ciiny  the  sabre  and  revolver. 

Ill  the  army  of  tin;  I'nited  Srates  the  organization  differs  in  many  respect.s 
friuii  that  of  the  (ierman  army.  The  infantry  conii)anies  eaeji  consist  of  l(l(» 
larii.  including  otlicers.  Twelve  companii's  form  a  regiment,  and  three  regi- 
ments constitute  a  l)rigade.  .\  division  is  composed  ot  three  brigades,  and 
the  army  corps  is  ma(h!  up  of  three  divisions.  The  number  of  batteries 
assigned  to  the  divisions  varies,  as  also  the  anioiint  of  corps  artillery.  In 
the  army  operating  in  Cuba,  the  artillery  was  all  in  a  se])arate  organization, 
ami  was  distributed  to  the  divisions  only  on  the  eve  of  battle.  Kxperienco 
ami  tJH'ory  alike  suggest  four  batteries  for  each  division  and  eight  batteries 
iiirtiie  corps  artillery,  ^'o  cavalry  is  assigne<l  to  the  divisions,  but  a  regi- 
ment is  supposed  to  be  assigned  to  each  army  e(U'ps.  The  nuun  force  of  the 
cavalry  is  groujied  together  into  cavalry  divisions.  The  cavalry  is  (U'ganized 
into  troops  of  1(H>  sabres,  four  troops  forming  a  s(piadron.  and  three  sipiad- 
idi's  constituting  a  regiment.  Three  regiments  form  a  brigade,  and  three 
l)'i;,,Mdes  a  division.  The  American  cavalry  brigaih'  is  thus  of  the  same  size 
as  a  Trussian  cav;dry  division.  The  cavalry  is  armed  with  the  sabre,  carbine, 
ami  revolver.     The  lance  is  unknown  in  the  American  army. 

Having  viewed  the  composition  of  modern  armies,  let  us  now  see  how  they 
arc  armed.  A  consideration  of  the  jiowder  now  in  use  is  a  necessary  jireface 
to  a  description  of  the  weapons  employed  in  the  warfare  of  the  present  day. 
The  old  tine-grained  black  powder  familiar  to  every  boy  who  has  evtu-  han- 


m- 


urn 


I  r, 


1   i 


\     ; 


i 

^ 

ii 

'1 

m  1 

1 

<*\ 


'  Hi 


I  ,  i 


'ii'!. 


\>\)H 


rinr.Mfns  .\m>  wosniius  or  iue  a/.V"  (i:.\rn;y 


(lli'd  ;i  .-.lioiLjim  li;i>  |iiisM'(l  ('iim|ilfl('l\  (Hit  of  mililai'v  iisr.     'I'lic  iiiiwilcr>  n 
I'liiplovrd  UMiiilK   liiivf  ^iincdltiHi  tir  iiili'd^lvciTiiif  ami  ,i;iiiiciitttiii  Inr  a  Im 


H'v   ail'   |irai'l icall\  .siiiulvclcss,  llir   |iiii(liic|   nl    llifir  ('(iiii 


hiisli 


nil    is  aliii' 


('III  iicl_V  gasi'iPiis.  ilicv  leave  no  snlid  ifsiiliiiiiii.  ami  are  of  tlie  (jualitv 


\\\\n\\  ■ 


is  ••  sldw-hiu'imii. 


,i,'l\  iii,^;'  a  (•(iiistaiillv  iiuTeasiii;4'  pressuie  mi  tlie  iu'dircln,. 
Ii'diii  the  iiioiiieiil  III  ii^'iiil  inn  tn  llie  lime  when  il  hM\esllie  iinr/./le  nj  liir 
]iieee.     'I'liese    jinwihTs   are  iiiaiiiirai'l  iireil    in  ihin   sheels  or  small    IuIm',  ,.y 


euiils.  wliieh.  liir  small   aims,  are  lirnkeii  i 


l|i    III! 


aiiis.     'I'hes'  \ar\   in  eiilur  Irmn  lii^lit  M'IIhw  Io 


ill; 


ru'lnre  tlie  a(lii|ita>ii  nl  siiinkeless  |pn\\  ihr,  t  hr 
cake  imwiler  invented  hv  (ieiieral  Kmlman  li.iil 
lieeii  hi.i^hlv  de\i'hi|ied  and  im|irii\i'd  in  thr  I.mih 
of  "eneoa  powder."  This  was  made  in  lie\a,-iiii;d 
prisms,  each  peiloi'aled  liiiinilndinallv .  so  a-'  lu 
have  a  hollow  core.  'IMiese  grains  were  eareliillv 
arranged  in  the  eartriil,L;es  so  as  to  have  thi-v  (■..|( 
eoni  iiMious  I'roni  one  i^raiii  to  aiiollier.  in  ui.jrr 
thai  tipon  i,:4iiition  the  ('oinlnist  ion  would  liei^in  in  the  interior  and  piniliiiT 
a  constaiillv  inereasiiijx  voliiiiie  ol'  ;.;as  as   the  I'xierior  siirtace  ol'  lhe-i,Mii 


riiisM vrir  I'liWDiaj 


was   reaelied.     'riiounh   the  time   id'  eomlmslion   was  too  vapid   to  li 
ciated    1)\'   the   ordinarv    senses,   it    wa> 


lieNertlii'less,    oiiite    dilTereiil     In 


'I 
th(^  iiractieallv  instantaiieoiis  eoinliiistioii  ol'  the  old  simill-iirai 


■\v 


11  powder,  aiiij 

as  siiseeptililv  (d'  aeciirate  ineasnremenl.      Much  ditlienltv  was  experieiiml 

ikeless   powders.  Iml   ;ii 


■jirii 


in  ovcn'oniing  the  detoiiatiiii;  teiideneies  of  the  sun 
last  tlie  rcipiisite  slow-liiirnini,'  properties  were  ohtained.  The  sniokrli'>s 
])o\V(ler  lor  lai'ii'e  i;:uiis  is  made  in  eartridiics  eoiiiposed  of  Immlles  of  siii|i> 
or  cords,  or  in  flie  same  prismatic  form  as  the  cocoa  powder,  and  the  prmis^ 
of  coinhiistion  is  I  ho  same. 

'I'lic  form  of  the  n'liii  is  (Icpeiideiit  entirely  upon  the  nature  of  the  ]iii\M|rr 
used.  .\s  the  pressure  of  the  <.;as  constantly  increases  with  the  luirnin.;  ol 
the  ]iowdei'.  the  maximum  force  will  lie  reached  at  the  moment  llir  c'lm. 
Imstion  is  complete.  'I'he  Icntxth  of  the  bore  should,  therefore,  he  jii--t 
sutlicient  to  enable  the  powder  to  be  entirely  consumed  at  the  exact  iii-laiit 
the  iirojectile  leaves  the  ]iiu//.le  of  the  piece.  A  shorter  bore  would  iini^i' 
much  of  the  powder  to  bo  thrown  out  uiiconsiimed,  while  a  nmcli  ,t;iv:iiri' 
leii.nth  would  retard  tlic  i)rojectile  by  subjectinj,'  it  to  the  friction  ol  ihr 
bore  after  the  niaximiun  force  of  the  powder  had  been  reached.  'I'liis  ;ii'. 
counts  for  the  t^'reatly  increased  leni^th  of  the  modern  cannon.  .\  cli;i!i.;i' 
in  the  uu'thod  of  nun  construction  has  accordingly  become  necessary.  (Iim.s 
are  no  lon;_!;er  made  of  cast  iron,  but  are  "built  up"  of  steel.  The  e\|pl('- 
.sion  of  the  ]iowiler  is,  of  course,  exerted  iii  every  directitui,  a,L;ain>^  iIh' 
bore  and  sides  of  the  piece  as  well  as  ai,'ainst  the  base  of  the  iiroiriiilr. 
This  ])rodnces  two  strains;  a  lon,i;itudiiial  strain  wliich  is  t'xerted  i:i  ilic 
(lircotioii  of  the  axis  id'  the  ])iece.  and  a  transverse  strain  Avhich  teiiii-  \i' 
burst  the  j:ruii.  It  is  neciessary,  therefore,  to  have  f,li(>  ]»ioce  so  stnii,'. 
es])ecially  at  the  points  of  tirst  exiilosioii.  as  to  connti'ract  these  str;ii;i>. 
and  thus  cause  tin  entire  lorce  to  be  exerted  upon  the  projectile  in  ilic 
direction  of  the  *•  least   resistance. 


This  streu'^th.  or  "  initial  tensi 


ol;       1- 


iStfl 


m 


Mil 


J 


.!•    il    1.,, 

is  iiliii  ' 
I.V  t<n.. 

Iiroircl 
■]i'   .'.I    !■  . 

II     U{l   illl" 
VcUdW    In 

iwdcr.  I  III' 

llUllll     Ili'I 

I  t  III'  liinii 

lll'\;i,!^nli;il 

.  Ml  ;i^  Im 
•  ciin'riiH^ 
■  I  lii>  f'n 
.  ill  nr.irr 
tl  |ir(iiliicc- 
tin'  i;i:iili 
lie  iipi'ii' 
■rt'iit  li"iii 
)\vilrr.  ;niii 
\|icri('iii'il 
ITS.  lull   ;ii 

.sllini^rli-v- 
-;  nt'  >!  li|i- 
llO   IU'di  rs^ 

\r  jKiWilrr 
iiiriiiiiu  "t 

till'    ("Ull 

{',  111'  |ii-t 
n't  iiisliiiit 
(iiild  I'iii;-'' 

ll    ,L;lV;ilrr 

inn   III   lilt' 
'V\u>  ;h'- 
A    cliini^c 

I'V.        (illl.S 

111'  v\\^'•■ 

|i;;iill-'     I  111' 
priiji'i'!  ;li'. 

I'd   ill   till' 
1  tciii!-  t" 

ISli    Stl"!!'^'. 

[;i'  stiaiii-. 

|i'    ill   llii' 

liisidi:      1' 


m^ 


'm 


I   I 


\m 


m 


if'' 


1 , 1 


it    I?-: 


;t(Mi        ii;ir\iriis    i.v/»   ii  (».\7  »/•;/.' v  <»/••  /•///•.•  a/a '"  r/.;,v/7  7,'.j 

(ilitiiiiicil  li_\  slniiiKiiii,'  rxlmdiM"*  nl  strrl  iiM'i  till'  i)iii;m;il  r\lmilrr  nf  ||  ,■ 
|iii'c(>,  (Mcli  (lutri  cvlnKlcr  or  inckct  liciii^  :i  li'u  llmiisiiinlllis  nt  mm  in.  h 
,sin:ill<'r  in  its  niirrinr  iliiiiiicli'r  |Ii;mi  tli*'  niilrr  iliiiiiictrr  nt  llii>  r\|iiiil<| 
wliii'li  il  nicliisi's.  Miiil  lii'iii^;  ('\|i;iii(li'il  liv  liciitiiif;  In  ii  siiHirii'iil  iIcmiit  i,, 
«Mi;ilili'  it  tit  he  slippt'il  lucr  llii'  liillri.  rpiiii  rnuliii),',  I  lii'  jiii'ki'lr  cm-iI  i 
<'iiiist;mt  iiinl   |iii\\t'i  liil    Imci' ol'  i'iiiii|m'ssinii.  wliicli  I'Diinti'iui'ls  llio  niit  \\,m.| 

lircssiirc  <t|    till'    111! il     ('\|iinsiii|i.        Tiii'    loii^it  iiiliii;il    sliiiiii    is   li'ss   ilm 

gi'i'ons  tliini  till'  nllirr.  inul  is  nsiiiiilv  roniilcfiirti'il  li\  mi  iiiti'ilni'Kni';  nl 
snini'  III  llii>  r,\liinlrrs  oi'  1iimi|is,  to  winrli  llii'  stiiiiii  is  triiiisinitti'il  li. m 
t.lic  l)H'i'('li-plni;.  Tin'  uit  <>l  luiililiii^,'  up  f;iiiis  liiis  lici'ii  of  sinw  uinwili. 
tlic  tiist  I'tVorts  in  tliis  ilircctinii  Inivinf;'  lici'ii  iiiiiilc  iiy  Sir  \V.  ({.  Ariiisl  iinij. 
Mciirl.v  IkiII  ;i  I'l'ntiirv  ;ik<>.  I'Ih'  wi'inlM  ol'  tlu'  pi'oicctili'  ul'  tlir  pri'si'iii 
ICi-iiii'li  nun  in  tin-  riiitcil  Stiiti-s  scrvici'  is  'J.'i7(*  po\iiiils;  tlii'  i'li;ni;i'  n| 
piiwiliT  wi'iolis  IttCiO  piiiinds,  iiml  lln'  r\tn'ini'  riiii^i'  is  iiiiiic  liiiin  II  iiiili  .. 
Till'  I'list  III'  i';irli  simt.  is  .'«<l.'i(t,  ;niil  wlii'li  \vi'  nmsiilri'  lliiit.  this  ilnr.  iml 
ini'luili'  till'  wriir  ;inil  ti'iir  ol  tin'  t;nn,  it  is  rviilriit  lliiit  iiioni'V  liiis  lii'ininr 
iiiiui'  llian  I'MT  lii'loii'  "till'  siui'ws  ot  wiir." 

Not  less  ri>iii;irl\;ilili'  than  tlic  iiiipii'v  I'liu'iil  in  I'aniion  is  tlii>  iniproM'im'iii 
in  iiiorlars.  'I'licsi'  nioitars  arc  vi'iy  uiiliki'  tin'  rliiiiisy  wrapons  of  lliat  iiainr 
iiianipiilati'il  liy  liaiiil-spiUi's.  wliii'li  wni'  known  in  oni'  .^rcat.  war.  Tlirv  :iir 
now  iiionnti'ii  on  a  platrorin  wliii'li  turns  on  rollns.  Tliry  an-  rlrxalc.l 
or  ili'pii'ssi'il  li\  a  iiii'i'lianiral  appliaiict',  an-  loailcil  at.  tlir  Itrrt'i'li,  air  a'  .n 
rati'ly  ritii'il.  anil  ran  ilio])  tlit'ir  projt'rtili's  on  tin'  iln-ks  ol'  iiostili'  vrsxl  ,ii 
a  rangi'  of  six  inili's.  Tliry  aic  pkn'i'ij  in  i;ronps  of  four.  I'arli  in  a  si'paiiii 
pit.  soiiii'  liattrrii's  ronlainiin^  iis  many  as  four  L;i'oiips.  or  sixti-rn  mortar-  In 
all  important  si'a  roast  hattorii's  liotli  L;niis  ami  mortars  an'  so  arrannnl  ,i  -  in 
ill'  tii'i'il  liy  I'lr  'tririty.  ritln'r  siii;;ly  or  in  vollrys. 

A  ilynamili'  :-;iin  lias  ln'i-ii  ili'\  isi'il  hy  Captain  /alinsky  lor  llic  pnrposi'.  as 
till'  naiiH'  inipiii's.  of  tli row i  11,1;  a  p;'o|ri'tili'  rontainiiiL;  ilynaiiiiti'.  Atlrmpl  i>i 
tiro  il\  namiti'  iirojoi't  ili's  hy  nii'ans  of  powder  liavi'  tints  far  failrd.  In  iln' 
/alinsky  unii  tin'  propi'lliny'  powrr  is  romprcssi'd  air.  Tlir  projci'tili'  mn 
tains  from  tifty  to  sixty  pounds  of  Liclatinr  dynamitr,  tlu'  explosion  of  u  In.  |i 
is  ti'rritic.  I'Aci'llont  ri'snits  liavi'  lu'i'ii  olttaiiu'd  witli  Zalinsky's  ;^iiii  up  I"  ;i 
rant,'i'  of  L'tMlK  yards.  Itiit  as  tliis  is  iiisii^nitirant  in  t'onipai'isoii  with  the  iih'i 
nions  ranni'  of  liiutli-powcr  raiinon  nsim;  powder  as  a,  I'liarj^'e,  the  d\iiaiiiilr 
i;nn  is  still  a  weapon  of  limited  usefnliiess.  Although  the  dynamite  L;iin  lias 
not  as  yet  fnlti'led  the  desired  reipiirements  as  to  ran<;e.  promisiin^  exprii- 
menls  have  lieeii  mid'' in  tiriiij;- shells  ehari^ed  with  hii;li  explosives  from  in.'i- 
tars  nsinj;' I'h.ii'Mes  01'  )iowiler,  and  it  is  ]irolialily  a  ipiestioii  of  only  a  sliinl 
time  before  meuiis  will  he  I'oiiiid  for  siieeessfiiUy  liriiii;  dynamiie  in  ;i  similar 
manner. 

The  i;reaf  imiM'ovements  in  tield  artillery  make  the  cannon  of  the  imiIv 
haltlelields  of  the  eentnry  seem,  in  comparison,  almost,  like  harmless  l"ys. 
'I"he  modern  tielil  j^nn  is  made  of  steel,  is  rilled,  loads  at  the  breech,  and  lias 
fjreat  rapidity  and  act  iiracy  o\'  lire.  The  extreme  range  of  the  .'».L'-inrli  In M 
gun  in  the  Tnited  States  service  is  about  bmr  miles.  This,  in  fact,  is  hevnil 
the  ordinary  range  of  human  vision,  and  it  is  hut.  rarely  that  the  groiinil  U>y 
so  great  a  distance  is  free  from  features  that  obstruct  the  view.  |''or  t  hcsi" 
reasons  the  tiro  of  Held  gnus  can  seldom  be  ntili/(!d  beyond  :i  range  of  two  in  'i  s. 


Ml 


mm 


ill)    ill  ii 
11   rvliiiil   1 

'I,    CXI'll       I 
in  (MllW.M.l 

less   (I  111 
IdcKiii'.   .'I 
itlt'il    h'ln 
\v  ^niuili, 

Aniisl  lull'; 

IC       |ll'('Mlll 

cliiiriM'  III 
I  I  I   mill  . 

S     (llH'S     llill 
lilS    ln'cnlili' 

i|)ri'\  I'liM'iit 

I  li:il   II. mil' 

'ril('\     .lie 

ro  ('1('\  iiii'il 

1,    illT    ilirll 

('  vessel-  ill 

II  se|i;il;ili' 
iKirtiii'-.  Ill 
[■;iliL;eil  J--  In 

ilir|iiise.  ;is 

Icllljll    ■   III 

III    llii' 

•(■til n 

11  ni   w  lili  li 
;iiii  11)'  li'  ;i 

ll ni'i 

i|\  iiiniiile 
ill'  Ljiiii  li;is 

illM-   r\|iri|. 

Iriiiii  iiim- 
iily  ii  -^li'"! 
11  ;i  siiiiil.tr 

tlie  iMily 
liiless  ti'V--. 
•ll.  mill  li.i-- 
'_'-iiieli  Inlil 
,,  is  lie\  "iiil 

(_rl'(lllllll    I'T 

Imii-  tlie'^c 
two  llllli'S. 


/•///•;   r;.;.v/77/| '.s     l/,'U//.,s'   .|,V/»     l/M/N 


:iiil 


'I'l  |irnjeelile  nl  I  lie  .'i.L'  illi'll  lielil  U.\{{\  Wei^jlis  Jill,  |i(illllils.  illjil  tie'  ellilli^'O 
III  iiwiler  .'!•,  |Miilll(|s.  '{'lie  .'I.Ci  iliell  null  is  ii  still  |iiiirt>  |MiWe|'liil  We;i|Mi||, 
III  >\ei^r|lt  III  tlie  |il'njeeli|f  illlil  eliiir^e  liciliu  L'D  illlil  1}  |M)||M<Is  lesjieet  i  \  el  y. 
M  I;  lire  used  nniiinsl  iiiiiiiiiiiiite  oltjeets,  siieli  ;i .  cm  tliwmk^;  ni  luiililinns  ; 
liii  llie  ^,M'e;it  illlllleiy  |ii  ujecl  ile  Inr  llie  liilt  I  leliclil  is  slirii|p|iel.  ||  is  Imw 
\i        illllerelll    liniii  tlie  eiiiile  |ii  (i|cct  I  le  K|iii\Mi  li\   tlie  silllie  miiiie  in  llir  curly 

\i  I      III  lilt iitiiiy.      'The   liiillcts  llie  iisseiiilileil  in  eiiiiilni   liiycis  iiml  licM 

III  I'lisitinii  liy  "  se|iiii;iliiis."  wliicli  me  slmil  ciist  null  evliinlcrs  with  lii'ini- 
;.|il  riiii  euvities  Illlil  uliidi  tlic  linllets  lit.  The  linlliiiii  sc|imiitiir  lit-.  Iiy 
liii  lis  lit  lll^s  iiitii  recesses  lit  the  liiisc  iif  the  s||l'ii|iiirl,  iinil  |iicvclit'^  ilele- 
|iiM  lent  I'litllt  inn  nl  Mie  chm'l^c  III  lillllels.  The  tn|i  se|illl;itnl'  is  Sllliint  li  nil 
It,  ii|i|per  side,  Mild  is  lie|it  tiniily  in  |il;ice  Ky  the  hcud  nf  the  iniijcct  ile, 
w  liii  ll  screws  ii),riiinHt,  it.  The  se|nMiitii|s  |iievent  iiinveincnl  or  ilelm  iiiiil  mn 
c|  llie  lillllels  lllldel'  sIliicK  iil  dischlime.  mid  lieil|i,r  \vc]||<elicd  liy  l;|i||;il  cuts, 
iiiiii;ise  the  ellcct    l»\    riiniishiiin   uddil inniil    liiiynicnts  nl'  ctleitivi    weiuhl. 


A«m|uvxuyv.T^afflM.'^'p';jii;,',\^mi^ 


!B»-~^_ 


/X  X  X 


'«ymm\\mKfiimMtiimimm<i»iiim^ 


Mom  UN  siiKM'Ni.i,. 


'I'lie  slir;i|iiiel  I'ur  the  ."..'_' iiieli  i^'iin  cnntiiiiis  Ki'J  lnillels  nnc  hiiH  iiieh  in 
iliiiiiictcr  mid  weiehin^  II  tn  the  |iiiiinil.  The  tutiil  iiiinilier  nl  Imllets  mid 
iiiiln  idiiiil  |iieccs  in  the  slir;i|iiiel  is  L'()l. 

The  heavy  seii-cnasf,  ^,Mins  me  nnw  niiiiinted  either  in  miiinied  turrets,  '■// 
li'irlii/h\  nr  on  dis;i|i|ieiirinj,'  i,nm-('iiriiiii,'es.  The  first  system  is  very  enstly 
mill  is  lint,  f^cnerally  used  in  the  rnited  Stutes.  The  second  system,  in  winch 
llie  141111S  arc  lired  nver  a  |para|iet  and  ;ne  cnnsfiintly  exposed,  is  used  nnly 
III  I'.ire  ciises.  The  third  has  lieen  iierlccted  nitlie  Ciiit.ed  States  in  the 
r.iilliii;,'t.iiii-( 'rnzier  and  the  (Inrdnii  disii|)))cariie^'  !,'iin-earriaj,'r'S.  These  cai- 
ri;e^'es  enable  the  ^iin  tn  he  loaded  in  s.'il'ety  inirler  cnvci'  of  the  earria^'e  pit, 
iiinl  then  to  lie  I'liiscd  hy  me;i.ns  nl  cniinterweiL,dits  nr  cnmpressed  air  tn;i  pnsi- 
timi  rnnii  which  it  can  lire  nver  the  par;ipet.  With  trained  einninneers.  the 
'iiiii  iiiii  he  riiiscd  mid  lired  in  twenty  secnnds.  and  this  lirief  periml  nl  expn- 
.Miie,  especiiiUy  when  smnkeless  pnwdcr  is  used,  renders  it.  almost  impnssilile 
lor  the  enemy  to  locate  the  ^mi  with  any  de(,'ree  of  iiceiiraey.  The  shnek  n[ 
the  ri'iMiil.  taken  up  hy  pneumatic  nr  hydraiilio  eyiindeis,  brink's  the  piece 
li:iik,  ijiiiekly  liiit  'gently,  totlie  loadini^  position,  whence  it  is  a^'Jiin  r.iised  |nr 
liriiii.,'. 

The  siege  artillery  <>f  tlie  I'liited  Stiites  army  consists  ol'  the  ."inch  i,'iiii, 
till'  Tincli  liowitzer,  and  the  7-iiic|i  mortar.  Tlicy  all  use  shell,  and  their 
cltntive,  range  is  Irom  three  tn  tmir  miles. 


II 


■^1 


i 


1 


:!ii 


i^il 


^!  M 


Ii|i|:| 


302 


TRIUMPHS  AND    ]VOXI)/:iiS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


"NVlu'ii  till'  I'lioiiiy  is  slu'ltCR'd  lifliiiul  cntrciicliiut'iits  it  is  ditKcult  to  riM  i 
liiiii  Avitli  sliraimt'l  tiivtl  Irdiii  ticlil  j;uiis.  Field  mortars  havi'  aecordin,', 
beuu  devised  lor  this  iiiirposc!  and  have  given  excelleid,  results.  The  I'uiii  il 
States  3.()-iiu'h  field  mortar  is  riHed.  and  earries  a  shrapnel  weighing  tweniv 
pounds.  The  weight  of  the  tield  mortar  is  only  ."iOO  pounds,  and  it  can  l/e 
easily  earried  in  a  cart  drawn. by  a  single  mule. 

Hut  great  as  the  improvements  have  heen  in  artillery,  they  are  h'ss  inqMii'- 
tant  than  the  changes  et'tected  in  the  iidantry  ritle  ;  i'or  upon  the  (pialitv  nl 
the  ini'antry  dejH'nds,  more  than  upon  anything  else,  tl»;  ettieieu(!y  ot  :iii 
army.  There  are  many  kinds  ;it'  rifles  now  in  use  in  the  different  armies  n\ 
the  world,  but  in  their  essentiid  princijiles  they  are  very  simihir.  All  use 
snu>keless  ]iowder.  ami  all  are  provich'd  with  a  magazine  which  admits  dl 
firing  a  number  of  shots  without  reloading.  The  Springfield  rifle  t'oruK  ilv 
in  use  in  the  United  States  army  has  been  rejilaeed  by  the  Krag-.lori;vii- 
sen,  which  has  a  maga/iiu'  holding  five  cartridges,  and  is  jirovided  with  a 
cnt-off  which  enables  the  [piece  to   be  used  as  a  single-shooter.     When  an 


*i\ 


KU.V(i-.I01{(;F'.NSi:N    lUl'l.K. 


emergem-y  demands  rapid  tire,  the  opening  oi  the  cut-off  enables  the  i;n- 
tridges  in  the  mauazine  to  be  fired  in  rapid  succession.  The  range  ol  \\u- 
Krag-.lorgenseu  is  KMKl  yards,  being  practically  eipial  to  that  of  the  MaiiMT. 
which,  in  tlu'  hands  of  the  S[ianiards.  inflicted  casualties  upon  o\ir  inni 
Avlieii  they  were  more  than  two  miles  from  the  hostile  position.  The  uil- 
f'erence  in  the  penetrating  power  id'  the  Ivrag-.Iorgensen  and  the  Springliclil 
is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  taken  from  the  report  di  ilir 
chief  of  ordnance  for  iSlt.'t.  The  Sjuiugiield  lead  Imllet  was  tired  wiiiiii'.i 
grains  of  black  powder,  and  jienetrati'd  .'»..'!  iitches  of  poorly  seasoned  oak,  iln' 
bullet  lieing  badly  deformed.  With  a  bullet  covered  with  a  (ierman  >il\i  r 
jacket  the  penetration  was  ;"»..".  inches,  the  br'.let  being  again  del'oriiM'l. 
'I'he  Krag-.Iorgeiisen  used  a  bullet  consisting  of  a  lead  core  and  a  cuiio- 
nickcled  jacket,  which  was  fired  with  .">7  grains  of  snuikeless  powder.  I  in' 
bullet  }ienei rated  well-sea-oned  oak  to  a  distance  (d'  L'-f.L'  inches  and  '^;c< 
taken  owX  in  perfect  condition.  The  new  rifle,  at  short  ranges,  ha-  m 
almost  explosive  effect  and  produces  a  shocking  wound:  but  at  (irdiii.uy 
ranges  the  woumls  inHicted  by  if  may  be  almost  characferi/ed  as  mercilul. 
for  the  bullet  makes  a  (dean  imncture.  ;iud  uidess  a  vital  organ  is  sti;:rk 
the  wound  heals  easily  and  quickly.  I'he  old  exiiression  of  •'  forty  roui''  , 
so  familiar  to  veterans  of  the  Civil  War,  is  now  obsolete;  i'or  no  ^i''  'i' 
now  thinks  of  going  into  action  with  less  than  loO  cartridges  y^\^  lis 
person.      Not  only  is  the  iiring    nu)re    rapiil    than  was    ft)rnH'rly  the  •     •: 


■\\  i. 


M 


HY 

lit  to  vvu.  I 
,eooi'(linui\ 
'lie  rniiril 

lllg    t\Vl'lii\ 

1  it  can  li.' 

loss  iini"  r- 
!  ([Uiility  lit 
L'luiy  "1  -11 
t  iiniiics  o| 
r.  All  u.M.' 
I  atliuits  111 
Ic  t'onuciiy 
i';ig-.I()i-i'ii. 
dod  willi  a 
Wliou  an 


U'S 


tl 


10   cai- 


au'j;*'  i>i  !  iir 

Itlic  Maii--i'r. 

,111  uiii'  niiii 

li.     Tlu'  -lil'- 

Siirin;4'tii'l'l 

|i(ivt  (iT  I  ill' 

■(>(!  with  li'.' 

It'll  (lak.  I  111' 

hrl' 


li'iiiaii  >i 

(Ift'miiM'il. 
lid  a  I'U'iii- 
Iwdt'f.  Till' 
and  \M-^ 
;.  lia-  111 
lit  iil'diii.  i.V 
Is   llU'l'i'il  ,1. 

^i  is  sli  ■  ■■■'^ 
Itv  mill'     ." 


no 


,!•       lis 


Iv    till' 


I. 


'~^.V  i^-^Ji 


mm 

'km 


"  mi 


*  : 


I   I 


Jllj 


304 


TRIUMPHS  AND   WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX''"  CENTURY 


but   the    lii,fliter  weight   of  the    cartridge  enables  a  greater  number  to   lio 
carried. 

Yvom  the  riHt^  to  the  (iatling  gun  is  only  astej),  for  the  latter  is  esseiiti;ili\ 
a  collection  of  riHc  barrels  tired  liy  nuichiner}-.  It  consists  of  a  nundier  — 
generally  ten  —  of  riHe  barrels  groujjcd  around,  and  i)arallel  to.  a  centiii 
shaft,  each  barrel  being  jirovided  with  a  lock.  l>y  turning  a  crank  at  tin- 
breech,  the  barrels  and  locks  are  made  to  revolve  together  around  the  sluiti. 


fiATI.INO    OIN. 


the  locks  iuiving  also  a  forward  and  backward  motion,  '.le  first  ui  viii'li 
inserts  the  cartridge  into  the  barrel  and  closes  the  breech  at  the  time  ol  I  lie 
discharge,  -while  the  latter  extracts  the  caitridge  after  tiring.  I'pcn  the '41111, 
near  the  iireech,  is  a  hojiper  wliich  receives  the  cartridgf^s  from  the  feed  r:i-c. 
The  cartridge  lulls  from  the  hopper  into  the  breecdi-blcck  of  the  nppcniuot 
barrel,  and  in  the  course  of  the  first  half-revolution  of  the  barrel  it  is  inscrtnl, 
the  hammer  is  drawn  back,  and  at  the  lowest  ])oint  of  the  r^'volutioii  thr 
breech  is  (dosed  and  the  cartridge  is  tired.  As  the  barnd  comes  '!]»  in  liic 
second  half-revolution  the  cartridge  sludl  is  extracted,  and  v,',;i'n  tlic-  luii.l 
reaches  tlie  toji  it  receives  another  cartridge.  "^I'lie  (iatling  g.in  c:':  !  c  lii''l 
at  the  rate  of  lOOO  to  l."iU(>  shots  a  minute.     It  g.i. "rally  uses  t-.,  ,su       .  ,.!■ 


THE   CENTURY'S   AllMlES   AX  It  ARMS 


MO") 


W'^e  as  the  infantry  vitiv,  Imt  sonio  jiattcrns  of  tlic  i,miu  iin-  a  projectile  an 
rh  in  (liamt'ter,  and  ajiproxiniate  closely  in  tiieir  effect  to  a  field  ^iin. 
:,c  gun  is  mounted  either  on  a  carriage  similar  to  that  of  a  tield-jiieet;  or 
.  a  tripod.  tJatling  guns  were  very  siu,'cessfully  used  by  the  1  British  in  tiie 
ilu  War  and  in  the  Soudan,  and  by  our  own  troops  in  the  battles  around 
intiago. 

The  Gardner  is  a  lighter  machine  gnu  than  the  (iatling.  It  consists  of  two 
■  lallel  rifle  barrels,  and  is  operated  by  means  of  mechanism  at  the  breech. 
Iiich,  as  Ml  the  case  of  the  (Jatling.  is  work<'d  with  a  crank.  It  can  tire 
lit  shots  a  minute  without  danger  of  overheating,  as  the  breeches  are  cn- 


.Noi!i)i;NKi;i,r  itACii)  Kiiii;  (.in. 


V    ■' 

lit 

i     11 

i    1 

i 

nHl 

'      1  ;ini 

;i 

■'m 

i'ifl 


i:\ 


! '  ■!.'■<] 


1)1    W  i  1 1 1  ■  1 1 


I'liised  in  a  metallic  water-jacket.  Tts  extreme  portability  makes  it  a  most 
valuable  wea[((jn,  tlunigli  its  firing  capacity  is  not  cipial  to  that  of  the 
(latling. 

'riierc  are  several  other  types  of  machiiu'  guns,  but  the  most  iiigeiiious.  and 
jM'iliaps  the  most  effe(!tive,  is  the  ^laxim  autoiuatic  gun.  This  has  a  single 
liairel.  about  two  thirds  of  which,  from  the  muzzle  towards  the  lireech.  is  sur- 
iinmded  by  a  water-jacket  into  wliich  water  is  automatically  injected  at  each 
liiscliarge,  thus  rendering  overheating  impossible.  The  mecluuiism  for  opcr- 
iitiiig  the  gun  is  at  the  breech,  covering  the  remaining  third  of  the  barrel. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  draw  back  the  trigger  to  tire  the  first  shot;  the 
rciiiil  of  tlie  piece  again  cocks  it,  and  the  gun  is  tluMi  automatically  fired,  the 
process  being  kept  U])  until  the  cartridges  in  ;.i(>  feed-belt  are  all  expended. 
The  cartridges  are  fed  to  the  ]iiece  by  means  ol  iielts  holding.").'!.")  rounds,  two 
or  more  of  the  belts  being  joined  togetlic  if  desired.  The  Maxiiu  gun  can 
ciimIv  tire  ten  shots  a  second,  and  if  every  man  at  the  ])icce  were  killed  tiie 
lui'iiiciit  the  first  sliot  was  liicd  tlu'  gun  would  keep  on  until  it  iircd  at  least 
.">.")'_'  more  shots.  go 


'i 


w^i 


;Mt(J  77.'7/".»//7/N   .I.V/>    W()Xl)l':ii'S   or   TlllC   A/A"'"    <'/:\Tiity 


bi 


■II 


Tlic  (iiitliiiL;-.  (iiinliH'r,  M;i\iin.  and  similar  t;ims  arc  known  as  inaclim 
!,Miiis.  Of  tlic  siuiii'  p'lu'ral  taiiiiiv.so  to  sjicaU,  arc  rapid  tire  t,Miiis,  wliicli  ai. 
lidwcvcr,  (iistinj;iii>li('il  t'loiii  niai'liiiu-  ^iiiis  by  liaviii>;  a  lart^'cr  calilirc.  loailn, 
l)v  Iiaiiil.  luiviiiij;  mily  one  liancl.  ami  liciiis,'  proviiicd  wiMi  artilii'iai  means  , 
clu'ckini,'  recoil  and  rctnrnint;-  tlie  pieee  to  tlic  lirin,L(  posit  ion.  'Tliex  n 
metallii'  amnuiuition,  and  have  a.  lircecli  meclianisni  wliieli  eoeUs  the  liiin 
pin  and  extracts  the  empty  case  liv  the  same  motion  which  opens  the  hrrc, 
lor  reloadinj;-. 

Hapid-liring  i;iins  were  first,  designed  as  a  means  of  naval  del'ense  a,i;a 

project  il 
ol  sntlieient  power  to  penetrate  the  plates  of  the  boats.      In  the  na\'al  s( 
the  ,i,nin  is  monnted  on  ;i  sprinj,' retnrn  carriaLie  fixed  to  the  vessel,  so  that  llie 

(leranLiement  of  aim.     On  land  a  rii,nd  carriairc  is  nsed.     This  caniaire  ha-    i 


torpedo  lioats.     Thev  tlelivei' a  rapid  and  easily  aimed  lire,  and  nse  pi 


]iieee.  when  i!iseliari;ed.  is   broii^jhl    back  to  the   lirin;^  position   withon 


III  I 


r\  ir 


s]ia<le  at  the  end  of  the  trail,  which    is   l.irced   into  the  Lcround  by  the  n ;1 

and  holds  the  ,y;nn  and  carria;.;'e  in  place.  'I"he  principal  rapid-lire  ;4nns  av 
the  !iotchkisr>.  l)ri,L;;Ljs.Schroeder.  Nordenrdt,  Kriipp.  Canet.  and  .\rmsticiii^. 
icli  lire  IVom  live  to  ten  shots  a  minute,  and  nse  either  shell  or  shrapu'l. 
I  >:neriments  are  now  beini;'  made  in  dil'l'crent  armies  with  a  view  toado|iiiii- 
i.,|.ul-lir<'  ,!;;uns  for  lield  artillery. 

The  princiide  of  rapid  lire,  or  "(piiek  lire."  has  been  snecessfidly  applinl 
to  Li'iins  having' a  caliber  as  ^reat  as  six  inches.  'I'lie  metallic  I'art  ridur  ii  nl 
in  rapid-lire  i;iins  is,  in  appearance,  simply  a  "  bi^-  brothci'"  of  the  carlriif^c 
nsed  in  the  infantry  rille. 

("losel\-  allied  with   nuns,  both   in   coast    defense  and   in  na\al  wail'.iir.  ,nv 


torp 


!' 


■riKie  \\('a| 


ipons  of  1 


lis  I  vpc,  usee 


1   ill   the  War  of  S 


ece-.sh  Ml. 


lia\e   been  developed   into   iormidable  engines  of  war.  before  whose  i\c>\\ 


tlVl 


iwer    the    stroilU'cst    vessels 


are   helpless.      l'"or  their  classilical  imi   ,iii.l 


description  .sec  •• 'I'he  ( 'ent iir\'s  Naval  rro'^a'css,"  pa.u'es  SI.  S.">. 


r 


Irui'tnc   power  of  torpedoes   is  so  well   known  as  to  -ivc  tin 


i^reat    moral  wci^'lit   as  a   means   of  defense.      The  fact   that    thedeni 


ior>  on 


the  jlallic  were  known  to  be  protected  b\   torpe<loes  saved  ihein 


laii  n.ti- 


fi 


an  attack  by  the  l'"reneh  navy  in  !S7(*-7I.  and  ('ervcra"s  licet  in  the  hailh 
of  Santiago,  in  JS'.tS.  was  safe  from  our  sipiadron  so  loiij;'  as  the  mouth  n|  il 
channel  was  closcil  with  Spanish  t(M'pi'does. 

TlioUi;'h  necessarily  brief,  the  forc.n'oin;.,' sketch  will  show  that  in  the  cmii 
of  till  iiineteeiitli  century  armies  have  increased  eiioriiioiisly  in  si/e.  :ii 
in  the  |iower  of  rapid  movement  and  certainty  of  supply.  Infai 
increased   in  relative  numbers  and  in  inipoi 


itr\    !i:i- 


rtaiice.      lOxteniied  ord 


er   li'-;lilMiu. 


ill  which  the  individuality  of  the  soldier  comes  into  play,  has  taken  the  plm 
of  the  old  i'i<j:iil  shonldcr-to-slioulder  line  (d'  battle.  'I'he  private  soliii'i' 
vocation  lias  risen,  in  manv  braiudies  of  tlii;  militarv  service,  from  a  trailr  i^ 


:>  1 


rofession,  iuid  now.  more  than  ever  b(dore.  is  extensivi*  traiiiinir  and 


order  of  intellect   necessary  for  the  commaiid  of  armies.     War,   have  bci 
shorter,  sharper,  nuu-e  decisive  and   more  terrible;  and  increased  ei 
has  been  jihiccd  npoii  the  warning,  "  In  timo  oi'  iteacc  pnquire  for  war. 


UlillilM- 


AuTiiL'u  L.  Wacm  i; 


PI 


'V 


Ullll'lllli' 
i'llicli  :in  . 
c,  Itmilni  ■ 

menus  ..', 
'I'lu-N    i;  r 

tlic  I'mi;  '. 

\\r   lircrrli 

iSc  ;)i;;ini  i 

|irtij('cl  llrs 
S'lll  SCVVIr- 
^(.  tliat  tlir 
itlinin  ;iii\ 
•iiii^f  lia--  a 
,•  the  rri'uil 
ri'  ;_;uiis  af' 

r  slii'aiuirl. 
1(1  adi'iii  111'-; 

illy  ainili'il 

I'lrid',;!'  llnl 

lu'  carlri'l;!' 

warl.irr,  ;nv 
Srci'>~.ifii. 
ISI'  il<'--l  111''- 
Mliiiii   ana 

i\i'  lliriu  a 
icnnaii  liar- 
lluan  li"iii 
the  liarli'T 

KUltll   111    till' 

II  the  CHlllM' 

III  si/i'.  ami 
iit'aiili>  lias 
U'V   li-lilmu. 

■  11  tlif  I'l"'' 

itc    snlilaa'-- 

111  a  Ivaili'  I" 
anil  a  li'uli 

liavc  lirr^air 
>{\    ('lU|ill'i-l'' 

war." 
IWaiiM  i: 


,.  1,  i^ 


TIIK  (JENTURY'S  PUOGUESS  LN   ACilUCULTUltK 

I.        \  niSSI  I'IKKS    Ol-    KAItl.V     lAKMIMi. 

1 1'  till-  llioiiijlil.  ciitiTS  tilt',  iiiiiiil  III'  till'  ri'adrr  iliat,  a  yoiit.li  (?)  ol  sixt.y- 
M\rii  is  lint.  i'iiiii|ii'lciit,  to  writi!  ii|Miii  a^rirulliira!  iiii|iiiivrMii'iit,  Inr  tlin 
ciiiiif  criit.iiry.  llir  answer  is  that,  siieli  iiii|iiu\  enieiil.  ean  seaieely  lie  .said 
l:i  have  lieL^iin  until  near  llie  iiiiddle  id'  the  eenliiiy;  lliat,  t.lie  early  Inrties 
saw  I  lie  writer  at.  wmlc  mi  a  I'ai  in  ;  that,  he  has  ever  since  li\ed  <iii  ;i  lariii  ; 
;ilid  that.  he.  t  lierel'iin',  writes  Irnni  |iers(ilial  e.x  perieiiee  (d  the  iiil|iliive- 
iiii'iils  u'hieli  have  I  raiisln' iiied  a'.;rii'ult.nre  Irnni  a  siiiijile  art  In  a.  |iriilniiiid 
■-iM'Mi'e. 

I'll     realize    the    iiro'^ress  aL;rieiilt  ure    has    made,    we    miisl    iiiideistaiid    ils 

c diliiin    in    the    lir>t.   halt'  id'   I  he  ccnlury.  and    the   eaiises   wliieli    |ire\  eiiled 

iiiiiii'iiveiiienl.  at.  that  time.  Tin'  snil  w.is  rich  with  the  aeciimiilal  imis  uf 
iTiii lilies,  and  the  i'liriiier  was  at  im  e.\|H'iisi'  In  eithrr  inaiiilain  nr  re. lure 
li-ndily,  I'lir  with  Imt  iiidilTeieiit  ciiltivatinii  l;ii-;_;e  criiii,  eniild  ill'  raisi'd. 
\\  lirii  a  Held   lii'canir  iiii|iii\  eiished.  with  axe  and    tnreli  a    new    lield  was  sntm 

i'!i';i;i'd     rnilil     the     I'liresl.        The     im|ilcllle||ts     ill     IIM'     Were    ill     the    rriidrsl     .Hid 

iiiH^lU  iii;iiiurai't  iired  li\  I  he  iic;i  I'l'sl,  lilackMii  il  h.  a  lid  il.  cnst  lull  a  lew  dnl- 
l;il  -  III  ('i(llili  a  lariii;  .--till  tlie\  were  Slllliclelil,  liir  I  he  W  ;nit  .  nl  the  r;illiier 
111  lli.it,  dale.  .'^11  il  will  lie  seen  Ihal.  the  dillimllv  wa  >  iml  in  tic  laiiii 
iii.r  with  llie  r:irmer;  lnr  he  eniild  '^niw  imt  niily  ad  thai  w.i.-.  lll'l■l•;.^a  r\ 
tm  l.iniilv  n^e.  Iml  mure  than  eiiiiiiL;li  In  sn|i|ily  the  demand  I'nr  -indi  marl\et 
;i,  lie  iiad.  rerlia|is  tic  '^reate,-,!.  dillicnlty  in  the  w;i\  nl  .ciriciiil  iir.i  I  |iin- 
•^rr-isw.is  the  want  id'  I  raiis|inrlat  inn  I'acililies;  I'nr  ;i  m;irKct  wasnl  little 
iiM'  til  a  larmer  il  he  was  se|iaralei|  rmm  it  liy  a  hiindiid  niilr^  nv  iicire  id 
fiKiiis  which,  ihrnie^h  alninsl  the  entire  winter,  were  sn  deep  with  mud  llial 
iiiiiili'i'ii  rarmers  wmild  think  them  utterly  iiiijiassalile.  with  streain-  nn- 
hihl'^ed  and  hills  iin'^raded.  The  lirsl  step  Inward  relic.iic;  t  he  lurnier  id' 
Ml  s  trnnlile  was  dnhn  (,>ninc\  .\dams'  iiiessa;.^'e  tn  ('mi^Mess  in  l.SL'7,  when  he 
ii'i'oiiimendcil  the  emisl  riiet  inn  id'  the  N.'iliiiiial  ii.iad.  the  eiistern  lerminns 
"I  '\liicli  was  In  lie  in  .Maryland  and  the  weslern  at  St.  j.nnis,  .\In.  This 
I' .111  'Aas  enlist  meted  within  a.  lew  years,  'i  was  the  tir^l  niillet  lnr  I  Ic 
I  i.i|is  nl'  the  i^reat.  West,  and  nver  il,  acmss  the  .Mle'^haiiy  .Mniinlains,  a. 
|iriii'i'ssiiin  111'  cmeri'd  waLjiiiis  piissed  iliiriii.i;'  the  entire  \e;ii'.  enrryiii'^  the 
|ii"iiiicls  111'  the  I'arms  In  the  I'lastern  markets  and  l)riii,i,Miiif  liatik  iiiaiiiirac- 
lilliil  L^'nnds.  ()lientlier  aVt'lllle  was(i|iene(l  I'nr  the  i  lit  erelia  ll.l^e  nj  prndllels 
hi'iwi'cn  these  twn  sect  inns,  tile  I''i'ii'  Canal  iieiin^  eninpleled  ill  l.SL'.~»,  and 
•iilii-'^ed  and  imprnved  many  years  later. 

I'uriiiL;  the  thirties,  just,  precedinic  the  era  nl'  railrnads,  there  was  aliiinst  a 
I'la/e  nil  the  suliject  id  canal  linildiii','.  and  scni'es  nl  miles  id'  eaiials  were 
!'i"4iiii  whicli  were  never  cnmpleted.  a^  with  the  lievinnin.!,' Ill  lie  Innrih  de- 
I'ii'i''  111  the  ociitury  tlie  rail  mad  idea  had  taken  pnssession  id'  the  ininds  ni'  tic 


i 


;■''     til 


M   ;: 


mi 


308 


TUII.MI'IIS  A  SI)    WUNDKUS   OF  THE  XIX">   CESTL'liV 


u 


n 


ih 


!   i 


|i!i|] 


■M( 


i 


lit'diilc.  In  sonic  cast's  tlic  tow-patli  of  the  canal  fornicd  tlic  roadbed  for  ti 
railroad  which  su|ierseded  it,  and  [(rohalily  more  lines  of  canal  were  abandoin 
tlian  were  coniplcted.  The  era  of  railroads  —  that  wonth'rful  factor  win  ,, 
was  to  revohitioni/.c  farMiini;  —  dates  from  about  iS.'iO.  Tlie  first  loeonioti.i' 
in  tlie  I'nited  States  was  iiii|)orred  ti'om  lOnyiand  and  [ilaced  iqion  tlie  rails  i:i 
]S1",(.  and  in  ls;!(>  tin-  hrst  American  locomotive  was  built.  It  was.  howevi  i, 
very  neai'  the  middle  of  the  century  Ixd'ore  the  system  of  railroads  hail  be.  ii 
comiileled  so  as  to  materially  improve  the  condition  of  af,nieulture :  ami 
althouj,di  the  fact  may  sound  strauj,'e  to  some,  the  first  railroad  train  ran  ini.i 
ChicaLfo  in  iN.'il'.  During;  these  years  of  de])ressed  ugricnlture.  however,  llic 
liojiulation  of  the  country  was  rajiidly  increasiiif;. 

While  the  railroad  system  of  the  country  was  developing,  tuminkes  wciv 
being  built  radiating  from  the  principal  markets  and  railroad  stations.  W  iih 
the  begininng  of  the  .secoml  half  of  the  century  the  farmers  awoke  to  the  iin  ! 
that  the  l' nitcd  States  was  a  large  and  populous  nation,  recpiiriug  an  immeii-i- 
amount  ol'  su|)plic>.  ami  that  iiupi'o\ements  for  transportation  had  been  liii- 
nished  so  that  the  markets  were  easily  act'cssible.  Uel'ore  passing.  Iiowcmi, 
from  the  discouragements  and  ditlicultii's  (d'  agricidture  in  the  eaily  (l;iy>. 
some  practical  illust  rations  of  the  ditficulties  met  with  seem  necessary  to  give 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  condition.  What  would  the  farmer  of  lo-i|;iy 
think  were  he  obliged  to  start  with  a  load  (d'  wheat  in  midwinter  over  ro;iil> 
Avhich  crossccl  uid)ridged  streams  aiul  wound  over  clay  hills,  not  a  rm!  cit 
•.'dch  w,i^  macadami/ed  and  all  (d'  which  were  ]ioorly  gradeil.  spending  t.'ii 
days  with  a  biur-hoise  team  to  make  a  round  trip  of  one  humlred  miles  w  ilii 
thirty-tive  bii>heis  of  wheat,  and  sidl  it  iii  the  market  for  .").">  cents  a  bushel  '.' 
^'et  such  was  the  fact  which  the  writer  had  from  the  lips  of  a  iarnni' 
who  had  been  through  this  experience.  Two  thoughts  may  occur  to  ilir 
reailer  —  iirst.  1  hat  thirty-live  busluds  was  a  light  load  for  a  tourdiorse  tiMiii. 
ami.  second,  that  hotel  bills  would  more  than  absorb  the  mom'y  received  tiuin 
such  a  load  of  wheat.  Uut  both  of  these  are  explained  by  saying  that  out' 
cause  of  the  liuditiiess  of  the  load  was  that  the  farmer  nuist  carry  feed  lor  lii^ 
team  for  the  entire  trip,  and  another,  the  uncertainty  of  the  condition  of  the 
roads;  for  though  ho  might  start  with  the  roads  frozen  S(did  and  ])os>ilil\ 
Avorn  smooth  by  the  teams  which  had  preceded  him,  he  was  liable  on  tie'  nip 
to  meet  with  a  suilden  thaw  which  reduced  the  roadbed  to  mortar,  so  that  tin' 
wheels  would  sink  almost  to  the  axle,  and  in  many  cases  the  load  woidd  lir 
found  too  heavy  for  his  team.  It  was  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  a  score  et 
]daces  to  the  mile  where  the  fences  had  been  torn  (hiwii  and  rails  carried  iiiio 
the  middle  of  the  road  to  be  used  in  ]irying  the  wagons  out  of  the  mud  wImu 
hopidessly  mired.  The  reason  the  liotid  bills  did  not  consume  the  proreci-. 
of  the  load  was  that  there  were  none:  for  the  farmer  carried  his  camp  keltic. 
bedding,  and  provisions  with  him,  and  slept  in  the  wagon  during  his  entiii:' 
trip.  The  same  farmer  relerred  to.  in  tidling  ids  story,  said  that  all  'In' 
money  speid.  on  the  ten  days' trip  was  three  ''tips"  (IS^  cents),  and  that,  piv- 
Rtimably.  was  for  thri-e  •■  iii]is  "  of  whiskey. 

.\n  iideresting  i)ersonal  experience  in  the  winter  of  lS4(!-47  was  in  drivinir 
liogs  from  .\nder-on,  Iiid..  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  a  distance  of  about  1.10  ii;;!cv 
The  drove  was  started  with  the  mercury  at  zero,  and  the  Iirst  ditliculty  me;  ;r 
in  getting  them  across  White  Kiver.  as  there  was  no  bridge  and  the  si'     : 


77/ A'   (•/•jyTlliY'S   J'JiOUJiKSS   I\  AOliJCL'LTi'lH-: 


•M)\) 


;,.ast  l)t'  lordt'd.  'riic  lio^s  iihsdliitt'ly  n'tiisfd  to  ciiUT  tlit'  iry  Wiiter,  liut. 
Ml-  [)i()m'i'i'  of  that  day  was  ciiual  to  any  i'mi'r,i;i'iicy.  'I'lic  drove  was  soon 
liiuUllt'd  on  the  liank,  rails  were  carried  i'l'oni  an  adjoining  tiold,  and  a  close 
ji.ii  was  Ituilt  around  them  :  tiieii  two  jilueky  t'ronliersnien.  witli  thick  leg- 
.iiigs  reacldng  I'roni  aid<le  to  hijis.  towed  them  hy  the  ears  to  t'ro/en  shoal 
water  in  the  centre  of  the  river,  and  pushed  them  across  the  ice,  when  they 
v.i're  oblii'tMl  to  go  ashore  on  the  other  side.  Two  days  later  a  suihlen  and 
uiiexiiec^ted  thaw  set  in,  wlu-n  for  one  hundred  weary  miles  the  drivers  urged 
tlie  hogs  through  mud  whieli  reached  from  fence  to  fence,  and  wiiich  was  so 
tlaid  that  not  a  trace  was  left  behind,  as  it  flowed  in  to  till  not  only  the  track 
111  the  hogs  l)ut  the  footstejjs  of  the  drivers.  When  after  days  of  urging  the 
hugs  began  to  lose  strength  and  fall  by  the  way.  they  settled  down  into  the 
(lo/e,  from  which  the  men  must  lift  tliem  into  wagons  which  accompanied  the 


son.  iTi.viauziM!. 

drove  or  were  liired  from  farmers  along  the  road.  When  Cincinnati  was 
reached  it  seemed  that  the  woi'st  troidjle  of  the  journey  was  over;  but  not 
Ml.  tor  the  climax  of  disaster  with  this  drove  was  reached  at  the  shiughier- 
lieiise.  when  for  two  weeks  the  weather  was  so  warm  that  no  slaughtering 
niiild  be  done,  and  the  price  of  ])ork  declined  (hiy  by  day.  until  the  entire 
Jiiivc  was  tinally  sold  at  one  and  three  ([uarters  cents  jier  pound  dressed 
weight  —  and  during  the  entire  time,  both  on  the  road  and  in  the  pens,  tlie 
hogs  had  been  losing  rapidly  in  weight  every  day.  This  was  the  lowest  jirice 
recalled  for  hogs;  l)ut  it  was  very  eonunon  to  ha.ve  a  glut  in  the  market  of 
■^iiinc  staple  which  reduced  the  price  so  low  that  it  scart'ely  paid  for  transpor- 
tation, aiul  in  some  eases  made  it  ;ictually  unsalable. 

A  neighbor  relates  that  when  he  was  ;i  boy.  needing  some  money,  his  fatlier 
iiiaile  him  the  offer  that  he  might  have  all  the  corn  that  he  would  shell,  take 
til  mill,  and  market  the  meal  in  CiiK'innati.  forty  miles  distant.  He  went  to 
'viuk  with  a  will,  i)repared  a  two-horse  lii;iii.  and  reached  Cincinnati  with  it 
■^atily.  only  to  find  the  market  glutted  so  that  he  could  not  get  an  offer  on  it. 
A  jiart  of  it  was  finally  sold  at  lU  cents  ]ier  bushel,  and  the  remainder  was 
taki  II  home. 


1  •(%,•  '"  ioii?!f  .^-  ' 

'  'mm 


aiu 


TUIUMPUS   AM)    WOXhEllS    OF   THE   X/.\"'   VEXTiJiV 


I  « 


"i 


■;  i'l 


3  i' 


v3'! 


!!'  I 


Duriiii;-  till'  cldsiiij^'  years  of  tlic  tit'lli  (Iccadc  tlir  iirici-s  ol'  stock  were  at  tli 
lowest,  gcHul  dairy  cows   biiuniiij;-  from  S~  to  8'.' pi'i'  liL'ud ;  yearliiij^M'aht 
Iroiii  $1  to  -151' ;  the  very  best  horses,  !«!40,  and  stock  liogs  sulliug  lor  ."SI  or  M' 
ouch.     At  tlie  same  time  many  ol'  the  necessities  ol  lii'e  wert-  sold  at  exurln 
tant  prices,  and  an  examination  ol  an  old  account  book  shows  the  I'ollowin, 
ligurcB :    Salt,  )t!«4  per  barrel  ;  nails,  (i  to  S  (tents  per  pound  ;  calico,  IL?},  ccni- 
pcr  yard;  drilling.  I'."*  cents  per  yard;  clocks,   !ii!40  each   (the  value  ol  tl.. 
best  horses  '.). 

Some  other  I'acts  nuist  be  taken  into  consideration  to  understand  why  tlir 
farmers  did  not  attemi)t  improved  methods.  One  was  the  condition  of  tlir 
currency.  The  I'lnted  States  Uank,  which  it  would  seem  sliouhl  have  afford' d 
security  and  stability  to  the  currency,  had  been  wrecked  by  tlie  action  i>\ 
Andrew  .lackson  in  vetoing  its  rechartering  and  withdrawing  the  I'nitrd 
States  funds  (at  that  date  about  .D!4;>,()(I(),(K)(I)  from  it  and  ]>rivate  banks  hmi 
been  established  over  the  entire  west  and  south,  a  system  of  what  was  thin 
known  as  "wild  cat"  banks  supjdying  the  jjcople  with  currency.  Tlie  man 
who  was  trading  needed  to  carry  in  his  ])ocket  at  all  times  a  '•  bank  detectoi ." 
1o  which  he  might  refer  to  ascertain  liow  many  cents  on  the  dollar  t!ie  issue 
of  each  bank  was  worth. 

T.ooking  back  at  the  condition  of  affairs  as  described,  remembering  how 
few  the  markets,  how  easily  glutted,  liow  unstable  the  currency,  and  all  the 
uncertainties  connected  with  the  disposal  of  the  farmer's  ])roducts,  what  waN 
there  to  .stimulate  him  to  imprt)ve  his  methods  or  increase  his  jn-oducts  '.'  It. 
as  was  occasionally  the  case,  tlie  farmer  determined  to  imjirove  his  stock.  lie 
must  import  from  l'"ngland  or  buy  at  high  j)rices  from  an  impoiler,  and  tiiriv 
being  no  exjiress  com|)anies  to  deliver  his  stock,  he  must  eitiier  go  in  peiMMi 
or  tru.'it  to  ]irivate  individuals  to  drive  them  over  the  mountains  or.  if  suiali 
stock,  to  bring  them  in  wagons  the  entire  distance. 

lie  could  not  afford  to  carry  on  a  wi(h'  correspondence,  for  each  iinli- 
vidual  letter  cost  twenty-live  cents  postage,  if  the  distance  was  over  thivc 
hundred  miles.  It  was  not  until  184')  that  postage  was  reduced  to  iin 
cents,  and  ten  years  later  it  was  reduced  to  three  cents  for  letters  of  halt 
an  ounce. 

If  any  one  is  inclined  to  throw  the  blame  upon  the  farmers  for  not  haviir,' 
done  their  part  to  improve  agriculture  and  bring  }irosperity,  he  should  cmi- 
sider  the  C(mditions  under  which  they  had  lived  for  a  generation  ;  the  uum-- 
tain  markets;  the  low  prices  of  products;  that  they  must  construct  roads  and 
bri<lges,  build  schoolhouses  and  churches,  clear  the  farms,  nearly  all  of  wliicli 
Avere  covered  with  heavy  tindier;  and  the  fact  that  all  this  work  was  (inm' 
with  the  crudest  implements.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  farmers  had  hn n 
accomplishing  wonders  and  were  worthy  of  the  highest  i)raise  rather  than 
blame. 

With  tlie  beginning  of  the  last  half  of  the  century,  the  farmers  suddenly 
awoke  to  tlic  faxtt  that  the  conditions  had  become  wonderfully  favoraM''. 
Towns  and  cities  were  growing  uji  on  every  hand,  offering  new  market-. 
Kailroads  and  other  means  of  transportation  were  opening  to  them,  invin- 
tive  geinus  had  taken  u]i  the  improvement  of  implements  of  agriculture,  and. 
best  of  all,  prices  liad  advanced  greatly  for  all  the  leading  jiroducts.  Tin' 
improvements  of  methods  in  farming,  which  have  not  been  less  than  thn.-i-  ni 


',!■! 


THE  CENTUllY-S  PllOGRKSS  IN  AGRICULTURE 


»U 


ii.imifactui'iu;^'  and  other  ciiUings,  datt;  from  this  tiiuo,  and  will  be  doscrihcd 
uiulertlu!  loUuwiny  heads:  luiprovt-ments  in  implements;  in  stock;  in  drain- 
;i  .e  and  tillai^e;  in  the  niaintainint,'  and  increasing  of  fertility;  in  care  and 
1  (ling  of  stock;  in  and  aronnd  the  farmer's  home  ;  and  education,  which 
includes  agricultural  literature,  farmer's  organizations,  and  schools. 

II.     IMI'HOVKMKNTS     I X     KAIIM     I M  I'l-KiMKX  TS    AM>    M.V<  111  N  KKV. 

In  writing  on  the  improvi'inents  in  agriculture  one  can  scarcely  fail  to  i)e 
iiii [tressed  with  the  fact  that  whenever  the  human  race  comes  to  the  point 
that  it  must  have  help  and  make  a  demand  upon  nature,  slut  always  honors 
the  draft;  and  as  the  steps  are  portrayed  hy  which  the  agricultural  products 
ol  this  continent  have  been  increased  a  hundred  folil,  while  the  power  of 
the  individual  worker  has  increased  wonderfully,  and  the  labor  has  l)een 
li.;litened  by  machinery,  we  can  see  that  these  inventions  and  improvements 


ill! 

It  I 


ii^  ij 


Hi 


rUK    (Ol.lMIilA    lIAUVKsrKU    AM)    I'.IXDKl! 


came  just  as  fast  as  they  were  needed,  and  no  faster.  (Jod  has  given  to  the 
hiunan  mind  such  power,  and  to  the  hands  such  skill,  that  whatever  is  neces- 
saiy  is  soon  provided  when  the  want  is  made  known.  l'erha])s  there  is  no 
hcttcr  way  in  which  this  can  be  traced  than  in  tlie  appliances  by  whi(;h  the 
fanner  feeds  the  world.  It  is  an  interesting  study  to  note  the  successive 
stcjis  in  the  improvement  of  implements  for  the  work  of  the  farm.  In  the 
hcninning  of  the  century  the  sickle  and  Hail  were  all  that  were  needed  to  cut 
ami  tiiresh  the  grain  ;  and  it  was  by  a  series  of  steps  that  the  steam  thresher 
and  tlie  c(mibined  mower  and  binder  were  evolved.  The  sickle  was  all  that 
was  needed  until  ])0]mlation  increased  and  markets  were  made  a(;cessiblt>  ; 
thrn  the  I'radle  was  inventt^d.  With  the  former,  an  expert  cimld  cut  an  acre 
a  (lay,  and  with  the  latter  four  or  more  acres;  luit  all  the  work  was  done  by 
linnnm  nniscle.  The  man  using  a  sickle  must  W(uk  with  bended  back  all 
ilay.  The  cradle  enabled  him  to  work  erect,  and  lightened  the  labor;  but 
when  the  "  Heaper  sickle  "  was  invented  the  labor  was  transferred  to  brute 
iun<cle.     The  first  machines  were  clumsy  and  heavy  to  draw,  recpiiring  as 


"1    i<*%\ 


m  I 


'*  '■■«M;i 


y 


1 '  #i^i 


ml 


31"J 


TUILMI'llS   AM)    WoyiiKJiS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTUHY 


niiicli.  or  iiioi't',  power  to  cut  tlic  ,y;v;iiii  as  to  cut  and  bind  it  witli  tlic  lin,,! 
niiiniiij,'  modern  hinder.  Now.  tiie  ukui  who  swelten'd  with  hended  liai'k  i.  i 
(tr  twelve  hours  to  cut  an  acre  ol'  <,M'iiin  witli  the  sickh'  "(h'ives  liis  tc.i:  i 
ati(  Id,"  and  hy  siniiily  },niidinj,'  it  cuts  and  hinds  ten  or  tiftcen  acres  a  (l;r. , 
auil  carries  the  hundh'S  to  the  shock  row. 

Tlie  iniproveiuent  in  thresiiin^'  nuichinery  has  heen  as  marked  as  in  fli.  ' 
tor  harvestiui,' tiie  i;rain.  in  tiie  tirst  part  of  tlie  century  all  tiie  work  \\,,s 
(hme  witli  tlie  Hail,  ami  on  i'arms  wliere  a  larj^e  amount  (d'  f^nain  was  nidw  u 
it  kept  a  man  busy  a  good  part  of  the  winter  to  thresh  it.  'I"he  first  impiuM'- 
meiit  was  in  threshing  the  grain  by  tramping  it  out  with  iiorses.  and  wnli 
two  men  and  four  liorses.  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  from  lifi\  id 
one  hundred  bushels  could  he  threshed  in  a  day.  I'.ut  by  both  these  niethmis 
there  was  the  disadvantage  that  in  all  daiuii  weather  tlie  work  mu.-t  In- 
stopped,  as  the  grain  would  iiecome  so  tough  that  it  could  iM't  l)e  tliresiird. 


■B^ 

M| 

1 

^^^         ^^A  •?/ 

"■  ■.  j^^^^ 

:"'.  ^         3    •■■■-■■   ;  ~'^"'^~?"?- 

1 

1 

^,  ilT    "^^^:-  „- 

mM 

im^- 

B 

***^-w 

irs?^-<,^ 

.~i.~JiSHH 

IMI'HOVKI)    riMiKsni:!!    WITH     lil.OWKIt    AND   SEI,K-KKKI)i:it. 

Another  disadvantage  of  these  metiiods  was  that  it  took  a  long  time  to  prc- 
l)are  tiie  crop  for  market,  and  in  case  of  a  siuhien  rise  in  ]>rii'e  the  tainicr 
could  not  take  advantage  of  it  as  he  now  can  when  his  grain  is  all  thrcsln-d 
in  a  single  day  and  held  in  tiie  granary  for  sale,  lii  the  thirties,  the  Hist 
threshing  maeliines  were  )nit  in  use.  and  were  but  little  improvemeiil  omt 
tiie  method  of  tranipiiig  with  horses.  The  machines  were  of  small  cai>acil\, 
and  simply  threshed  the  grain,  but  did  not  separate  it  from  the  straw  wnA 
chaff,  both  of  wliicii  operations  liad  to  be  (hmo  by  hand;  and  if  tlie  stiinv 
wa.s  to  be  saved,  either  in  tiie  barn  or  in  a  stack,  it  had  to  be  all  liandlrd 
witli  rakes  .and  forks.  The  tirst  threshing  machine  tiiat.  the  writer  ever  -^iiw 
was  one  that  w.as  called  "The  'I'ravidlcr.'"  'I'his  was  followed  by  machines  i mi 
by  stationary  liorse-power.  These  were  calltMl  ••  chaif  pilers."  from  tlie  l;iit 
tliat  lliey  threshed  tlu*  wheat  but  did  not  se])arate  it  from  the  straw  or  cliall. 
Tlie  tirst  horse-]iowers  were  inclined  planes,  or  endless  chain  jioucrs,  as  lin'V 
were  called,  and  were  run  by  the  weigiit  of  tlie  horses,  tlie  floor  revohiiig 
under  tiieir  weight  as  they  atteiniited  to  go  ujt  the  grade.  Tliese  Aveic  s"iiii 
su]ierseded  by  lever  ]iowers.  made  at  first  for  two  or  four  horses,  but  ali'i- 
ward  increased  in  si/e  and  power  until  ten  or  twelve  horses  were  used;  ;;!ul 


THE   CESTUItY'S   I'lioHlillSS   IS   AGlUCULTUIili 


•M\\ 


;,  Hit  tliis  tiiuc  tilt!  iiiiicliiiu'i'v  tor  scjiiiriitiiij;  the  ^'lain  uiid  cliatt'  was  iiddfil 
'  till!  nuicliim'.  It  almost  suciiu'd  to  the  fariiu'i's  at  this  tiiiio  tliat  |M'r- 
l,  tioii  had  lu't'ii  I'tMfht'd  when  two  or  three  hmidred  bushels  eoidd  lie 
t,..eshed  in  a  tlay  and  also  cleaned;  l)iit  the  feedinj,'  of  this  larLje  niini- 
1,  ,•  of  horses  was  a  heavy  tax  upon  iIk^  farniers,  iiartieuhirly  when  a  rainy 
(I,,,-  would  intervene  befon*  the  job  wa^  tinished,  ami  they  were  oblii;ed 
ti,  keeji  the  horses  two  or  three  days.  The  invention  and  introdui-tiou  of  the 
111  anted  steam-oni,Mnu  not  only  saved  the  farmer  from  this  ex[iense,  but 
ii;  1  increased  the  power  ami  doubled  the  daily  capacity  of  the  machine. 
]■.  r  a  short  time  the  farmers  were  satisfied  with  this;  but  the  en,i,Mne  was 
h,  .ivy,  and  often  the  farnu'rs'  teams  were  li^^ht.  ;ind  as  it  was  the  rule  that 
(■ii.h  man  must  draw  the  enf,'ine  from  Ids  farm  to  where  the  next  job  was  to 
1,1'  done,  and  often  the  distance  was  i,'rciit  and  the  roads  bad.  it  was  not  lonj; 
until  he  tired  of  this.  Then  came  the  tnietion  en,i,dnc.  which  not  only  tnins- 
piiited  itself  but  also  drew  the  thresher  and  separator.     About  this  time 


it.^hi 


ilf 


AlTOMATie   MolNTi;!)  STA(Ki;U    Aim    loi.DlNC    ATI' \rn  MI:n  T. 


iiiinther  ditticulty  arose ;  for  now  that  the  machine  had  been  improved  and 
till'  power  increased  so  that  under  favorable  conditions  a  thousand  bushels 
rimld  be  threshed  in  a  day,  the  handlint^  (if  the  straw  became  a  serious 
iniiblem,  for  it  was  impossible  to  build  it  in  a  stack  suitable  for  keepiuL;' as 
fast  as  the  machine  would  deliver  it.  The  first  step  to  lighten  and  expedite 
this  labor  was  in  adiliug  a  straw  carrier,  a  kiiul  of  nsvolviug  jilatforni,  which 
WHS  attacheil  to  the  separator  and  woidd  lift  the  straw  some  twelve  or  fifteen 
ti'cr.  For  a  year  or  two  the  farmers  were  satisfied  with  this  help,  but  so(Ui 
limnd  that  it  was  inadetpiate  for  the  work.  Then  the  stacker  was  invented, 
;i  si'jiarate  machine  which  was  backed  luider  the  straw  carrier  to  receive  the 
straw,  and  which  had,  mounted  on  wheels,  an  elevator  which  would  carry  the 
Ar.xw  to  a  height  of  twenty -five  or  thirty  feel,  and  not  only  coidd  it  do  this, 
Imt,  it  was  the  work  of  a  moment,  with  a  crank  at  its  base,  to  raise  it,  and  it 
iimld  be  run  at  any  angle.  When  the  machine  first  started,  the  straw  carrier 
was  placed  horizontally,  and  as  the  stack  grew  in  height,  it  was  raised  until 
in  the  finishing  out  of  the  stack  it  stood  at  ;in  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  or 
luoif.  The  straw  carrier  could  not  only  be  raised,  but  by  an  ingenious 
arrangement  of  small  wheels,  it  could  be  moved  fnun  side  to  side  by  ;i  light 
IMvssure  with  one  hand,  or  by  a  man  on  the  stack  jiushing  it  with  his  fork. 


Ill     :> 


mi 


V.\'  ! 


it's 


'1i 


,!i  !■!' 


!i 


:(ii 


TiiirMi'iis  AM)  n'oMJi:ii's  or  riih:  a/.V"  vEXTunv 


Witli  this  admiriiltlt'  iiiucliiiic  lnr  lniinlliiiLj  tln'  ^tiaw.  it    fciiinl  as  tlimi 
|it'rl('cti(iii    hail   l)i'cii   rcaclu'd.  ami    tlial    tiicrc    was  now   inactically   initlii; 
iiioic  to  111' (Ifsircd.      Itiit  it;  was  iiut    Imiy;  until  tlir   laiiiit'i'  loimd  tliat  \vi    i 
tin-  didivcrv  of  six  tons  (if  straw  \»'\-  lamr  it  was  lit-avy  work  Inr  six  lucn  i  . 
build  tlu'  stuck,  iiiid  tliat  it  was  tin-  imist   disaxi'»'t'al)lo  work  iilxiul:  llic  in 
cliiiif  JH'causc  of  tlic  dust.      Aiioiir  iN'.tO,  soiii«'  iuvt'iitivc  j,M'iiius  ludduccd  ti,f 
•'  blower  ■■  to  take  tlic  place  of  the  stacker.      This  is  ii  loii^'  jointed  tulte.  soin,. 
aixteeii  or  eijj;hteeii  iiiuhes  in  dianu'ter,  mounted  at  the  rear  of  tlie  evliuil  r 
throu,y;h  which  the  straw  is  forced  In  couipressed  air  which  is  furnished  l,\ 
tlie  iiKudiiiie.      It  can  he  raised  lU'  lowered,  turned  ♦^o  the  rij^dit  or  to  the  hit, 
sous  to  (hdiver  the  sti.iw  ut  uiiy  desired  jioiiit  on  u.ck.      It  is  niana'.;.  i| 

by  a  man  standing  on  top  of  the  separator   near   me   rear  end.  does  auu 
iMitirely  witli  any  liands  on  the  stuck,  and  thus  reduces  the  force  alMnil  >i\ 


'1'J'l-Jr'Tl*-(o.(fQ. 


DISK    ilAlilioW. 


lupn.  Some  othor  improvemonts  whicli  have  been  added  ure  the  puttiii.^ ut 
knives  in  the  cylinder  to  cut  the  bands,  thus  saving  one  or  two  hands.  Inr 
often  it  was  necessary  to  liave  a  man  on  eacdi  sidt;  for  cutting  the  bauds  wlun 
the  Avheat  was  dry  and  the  work  was  clone  with  the  greatest  rajiidity.  'I'Ihu 
a  revolving  platform,  called  a  self-feeder,  was  added  in  front  of  the  cyliiMlii, 
on  which  platform  the  bundles  could  be  thrown  from  a  wagon  standin.;  hh 
each  side,  and  be  carried  aiitcmiatieally  and  dumped  into  the  cylinder,  dnin',' 
away  with  the  man  who  formerly  fed  the  bundles  to  the  machine.  'I'o  scinr 
machines  an  automatic  weigher  has  been  attiiched.  which  does  away  wiili  ii 
man  bir  meusiiiing  and  keeping  tally  of  the  wheat.  Compare  for  a  iiioini  ut 
this  modern  maidiinery  which,  with  a  force  of  twelve  or  fourteen  men,  v.  ill 
thresh  and  clean  for  market  from  IL'OU  to  KKIO  bushels  of  wheat  ]ier  liuv. 
with  the  man  with  the  Hail  laborioiisly  pounding  out  ten  bushels,  and  ynu 
will  get  a  vivid  idea  of  the  jirogress  in  agricultural  nuudiiuery.  One  stuih- 
■what  curious  fact  must  be  taken  into  iiccoinit  in  this,  which  is.  thai  with  sumi' 
of  these  most  W(Uiderful  machines  th  •  cost  of  labor  is  about  the  saiin  it 
formerly  was.  I'>ul  the  advantage  is  ,hat  the  work  can  be  done  in  ;i  t'W 
hours,  and    the    farmer's   crop  be   ready    for   market   to  take   advaiita.^    'i| 


m;;;,. 


1    !•!"' 


ir 


THE  cEsriHY's  rnoanKss  t\  Atnticri/n  fi^ 


\\v 


\]    , cased  iii'icics,  wliilf  l>\   tin'  oM  |i|{in  llir  wurk  uould  n-.ich  alumst  tliii>n_;li 
I:     \\  inter. 

11  llie  ciittiiiv;-  ami  hanillnij;  nt  liay  tlieic  liu.s  lifcii  ;is  j^ieat  iiupiovriin  ni 
;i  u  aiiv  |Miili(iii  (pI  tile  lai'iii.  A  tirst-elass  inowiiiji,'  inaeliiiie,  new  from  the 
>li  '\\.  euii  iiDW  he  boiiglit,  tor  S|(i  or  less,  iiiul  witli  it  tin-  tanner  can  drive 
tii  lie  tield  alter  supper,  in  tlie  eool  of  the  day.  aii<t  in  an  lionv  ent  nmi'e 
■  :    -s.  and  do  it  hetter,  than  a  man  eonid  with  a  sevtlie  hv  workint;  hard  all 


t! 


istoad  oi'  shakini;  out  the  swaths  shiwly  with  a  ini'k.  with  a  siiiLjle  linise 
In    iied  to  u  hay  tedder  about  two  acres  an  hour  can   Ik'  shaken  mi  and  lelt 


Ui. 


ill  such  shape  that  both  sun  and  wind  have  jierleet  iioeess  to  it  and  eause  it  to 
cure  rajiidly. 

Instead  of  rakiiii;'  the  hay  laboriously  by  hand,  a  steel  sulky  rake  does  the 
wdik  easily  and  i|uiekly,  doin.i;'  more  in  an  hour  than  was  possible  in  a  day 
with  the  hand  rake.  On  farms  where  the  aerea,i,M'  of  hay  is  lart^e.  a  st'lf- 
liiailcr  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  wagon  gathers  the  hay  from  the  windrow 
itml  delivers  it  on  the  wagon.  At  the  barn,  instead  of  the  slow  and  wearisome 
liaiiil  pitcdiing,  the  hay  fork  and  hay  carrier  (hdiver  it  in  the  top  of  the  higli- 
i'>l  iiariis. 

riir  invention  of  the  liay  baler  enaliles  the  farmer  now  to  condense  his  crop, 
.-ill  I  hat  one  third  of  the  room  tor  storage  formerly  required  for  hay  will  answer  ; 
Mild  it  also  enables  liim  to  ship  it  to  market  by  rail,  whore  formerly  it  was 
iioiM'ssary  that  it  should  be  takt  n  in  wagons. 

While  the   plough    has   not    been   imiiroved  to   the   extent  that   many  of 


:u('> 


TlULMrilS  AM>    WoyDEIiS   UF   THE   XJX'"   CEXTL'liV 


our  t'linu  iinplfiiit'iits  Ikivc  licni.  it  is  vastly  suiu'rior  to  those  used  liy  Ih, 
piout'i'is,  and  iiuKlitirs  soiiu'uiiat  tlio  adayv  of  "  I'oor  liirliard,"  wlio  wrote  ;  - 

••  111'  wild  liy  till'  |iliiii;,'li  woiiM  llnivi', 
Iliin^ilf  iiiii>l  rilliir  linlil  iir  ilrivi' ;  " 

for  till'  inoilcMi  plouij;liman  imist  not  only  hold  and  drive,  but  drive  tliii, 
horses  at  that,  and  turn  as  many  acres  in  a  day.  .Vnother  ailaj,'e  attrilmtrd  i, 
••  I'oor  Uiehard  "'  was  — 


'«- 


i    !• 


l'loll).'ll  (lll|l  «ll 


fiiriN  ~!ii|i. 


Anil  villi  >li;ill  luivc  riiiii  tii  sell  ainl  ki' 


lint  the  modern  farmer  has  K'arned  that  the  depth  to  wlueli  he  |ilou<;hs  nui>t 
he  ;j;overned  liy  the  nature  of  his  soil,  and  that^  det'ji  itl'iughini;'  on  heavy  cI.in 
lands,  or  lands  with  a  crude  subsoil,  is  often  the  cause  of  shoit  crops  ami 
jiermanent  injury  to  the  soil. 


it  is  doiditful  if  in  any  line  of  farm  implements  there  has  been  mor 


■e    Uii- 


]irovenient  than  in  that  of  harrows ;  and  yet  this  improvement  dati's  back  Imt 
about  a  quarter  of  a  century,  as  previous  to  tliat  tinu'  the  old  '•  A  "  harrow  m 
ilr.nj;.  which  was  hard  on  the  team  and  did  indifferent  w<m'1\.  was  the  oniv  om 
fouiul  (in  nuist  faiaus.      Moic  recently  the  cuttiui;'  ami  slicing;'  harrows   liavi 

mprovcd  harrows  ha\c  linn 

lU 


heen 


lar^ielv  introduced,  ami  manv  ot  her  forms  of  i 


put  on  the  market.     For  the  preparation  of  hard  land  for  a.  seed  \n'd.  es]ieciall\ 

for  small  itrain.  the  disk  harrow  cannot  be  excelled. 

Ibit    I'or  garden    use.  or   foi'  pulvcri/in,L;'  sod   laud  which  has  not   been  li» 
cii  compacted,  the  slicinj^'  .\cnu'  hariow  is  the  most  perl'ect  implemeni 


mn 


use.  1 


ni 


t  lieiuL;-  of  liu'ht  draft,  easilv  transferred  from  tield  to  lield,  and  eai 


of  niakint,'  the  finest  and  best  seed-bed. 

The  cultivattus  in  use  have  liccn  i^reatly  improved.  It  is  necessary  to  de- 
scribe but  two  of  them.  The  t wo-luusc  cnltivatiu- with  fenders. 'i\hich  enables 
tile  farmer  to  culti\ate  both  sides  id'  tlu'  row  at  onei',  drivint;'  two  hoiscs  in 
the  tield  instead  of  one.  as  by  the  old  method,  has  more  than  doubh  d  lln' 
capacity  .;•'  the  individual;  as  by  its  use  he  is  able  not  only  to  cultivate  heih 
sides  (d'  the  row  at  once,  but  to  dispen.se  entirtdy  with  the  man  who,  muU'r  the 
tdtl  rule,  was  oblii,'e(l  to  follow  the  cultivator  and  luicover  the  corn.  TIhn 
"'fender"'  is  exeeedin,i,dy  simide.  and  the  only  wonder  is  that  it  took  \\.r 
farmer  so  lou'j-  to  find  out  its  value.  ('ostin,u;  but  a  few  cents,  it  has  sawil 
the  farmers  millions  of  dollars,  as  previous  to  its  adoption  it  was  nccessarv  M 
have  oni'  man  t(dlow  eaidi  one-horse  plow  to  uncover  the  corn.  'I'here  arc  iwn 
forms  of  this  ••fender.'"  the  simplest  beinij;  a  lii^ht  ])iece  of  t:;al\ani/ed  sIimI 
iron  attached  to  the  cultivator  or  |(low  so  as  to  conu'  just  between  it  and  ilic 
row  of  corn;  the  other  is  in  the  fiu'in  (d'  a  rolling-  cidter.  aiul  attachcil  in 
the  same  wav.     With  cither  of  these  the  farmer  u:oes  into  the  lield  as  soon  ,i-> 


)W.  ami 


the  youui^  plants  can  be  seen  in  the  row.  drives  his  team  astride  the  n 
stirs  every  inch  of  the  soil,  pnttiuijj  a  little  fresh  earth  anmnd  each  hil!  "I 
('(wn  or  ])ot;does  without  coverintx  h  sinj^le  plant.  .\s  a  siuijle  State  i,nMi\> 
sonu'  millions  of  ;icres  of  corn,  it  <'an  be  seen  that  the  savim,'  from  iliis 
little  invention  to  the  farnu'rs  amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  in  a  sinul'' 
year. 


The  old  idea  of  deep  cultivation  of  most  crojis  has  been  pi'oveii  to  1 


le  w  1 


and  modern  imidements  are  made  to  cultivate  the  surface  to  a  tlepth  ol 


^1 


AT 

>vd  l>y  ti:. 
)  wrote  : 


InVf      tllltr 

triluitt'd  ii. 


luMVV  chi) 

crops  ami 

II  lliorr  ilii- 
I's  liack  lull 
harrow  lU' 
he  oulv  Hill 
rrows   lia\' 

S  lia\'i'  licrli 

1.  i'sin'i'iall\ 
lit   been  li'.i 

llilcilU'llI     ill 

and  I'aiialili- 
ary  to  dr- 

ll  ('lialilr> 

lioisr>  ill 

Ullilt  ll    11m' 

tivatt'  Im'IIi 

UIultT  till' 

orii.  I'liiN 
took   ill'' 

has  sa\i''l 
■(■t'ssar\  M 
■  re  ai't'  i\\" 
li/.t'il  sli<  rl 

it  aihl  ill'' 
ittachi''!  in 

as  sooii  ,l■^ 
it>  row.  iiii'l 
ach  hill  "1 
tat(>  i,M'iuvs 

from  lliis 

II  a  sii.^li' 

I  hi-  w  I    1.;. 
.til  ol   ;  •-" 


77//V  chLwrcuY's  I'jwaniiss  ix  .K.nicri/nin-: 


:»n 


I  ilin'O  iiu.'iu's  ratlicr  than  to  tear  no  the  roots  ol'  the  phiiits  ;  and  one  of  the 
I;  'St  perft'ct  of  all  iiniiltMiu'iits  tor  this  inirposc  is  the  ••  I'lanct  tlniiior  our- 
1;  I'sc  cultivator." 

{'crhajis  no  other  class  of  niacliincs  has  relieved  the  fanner  more  than  the 
Hiii'S  for  planting  the  ,y;iai  11 ;  and  with  a  iiioih'rii  two-iiorse  corn  ])lanter  two 
r  i.\s  can  he  planted  at  a  time  in  checkered  rows,  so  that  it  can  lie  cultivated 
Ih  ill  ''  .iVS  and  with  more  precision,  liotli  as  to  alignment  and  as  to  the  iiiim- 
li.  1'  of  iilants  in  a  hill,  than  by  the  old  hand  niethod  of  planting.  The  small 
uriin  is  sown  by  a  two-liorse  drill  arranged  lor  not  only  the  grain,  but  at  the 
same  time  to  deposit  commercial  fertilizer  along  the  rows  of  grain,  and  w  illi  a 
grass  se»'d  sower  attached,  in  the  garden  a  hand  drill  is  used,  it  is  easily 
ailjiistable  to  any  sized  seed,   from  that  oi   the  turnip  up  to  beans  and   peas. 


Doiiu.i;  coiiN  cri/rivATou 

mill  the  seed  is  periectly  distributed  in  straiglit    row.s.  while  the  garden  liaiul 
I'lillivator  does  away  largely  with  the  use  of  the  hoe. 

I  >iie  other  niodern  implement,  which  pr<iniises  to  be  very  useful,  is  "  tlio 
uci'iicr."  and  its  value  rests  on  two  facts  whiih  it  re(|nireil  the  farmer  many 
vi'ars  to  discover.  'I'lie  iiist  is  that  the  thorough  pnlvi'rizing  id'  the  surface, 
i'\ I'll  to  the  depth  oi  an  inch,  ineaks  the  capillaries  and  checks  the  evaporation 
"!  nioistiire  ;  imt  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  the  \\(U'k  be  done  just  as  soon 
;iller  a  rain  as  the  land  will  cm mlile.  and  since  often  if  a  di'\  iiig  wind  blow^  the 
laiiil  gets  dry  in  a  few  hours,  a  machine  is  needed  that  will  enable  the  farmer 
te  lints  stir  a  large  surface  in  a  short  time  ;  and  this  the  weeder  iloes.  as  it  is 
iiiaije  to  cover  the  width  of  threi'  rows  ,it  (Mice,  and  more  than  twd  acres  an 
lieiir  can  be  stirred  with  a  sin'4le  machine.  Thi'  other  fact  whicii  mikes 
lliis  iiuph'mciit  of  great  value  is  that  all  weeds  are  e.isily  exterminated 
"licii  in  ombryo.  and  this  stirring  of  the  soil  kills  every  one  tliat  i< 
starting. 


:   5 


!| 


'    Ui 


I ,;' 


% 


Il 


31S  TdlUMrilS   AM)    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTL'HY 

( ►iH'  otluT  iiiacliiiu'  which  lius  bctMi  ^M'i';itl_v  iiiiin'ovt'd  is  tlio  clovtM'  hull.  r. 
I'rt'vioiis  to  its  iiivi'iitit)ii,  iiinst  of  the  chivci'  seed  was  sown  in  the  cliiiH. 
anil  wlicn  clean  seed  was  rc(|uirc(l  it  look  several  tlays'  work  with  t'onr  Inn  .^ 
t(i  tramp  out  three  or  lour  Imshels,  and  tlu-n  much  of  the  seed  was  left  i 


n  i 


cu 


iiff. 


'I'he  modern  IndU'r  is  equipiJed  with  the  blower  and  self-feeder,  and  with  it 
from  twenty  to  fifty  bushels  can  lie  hulled  and  cleaned  in  a  day.  the  amoniit 
dejiendiui,'  on  how  well  tilled  the  heads  are  with  seed. 

it  is  (juite  recently  that  nuichiuery  has  been  in*  Mited  that  relieves  tin' 
farmer  of  the  liard  work  of  plantinj^  |iotatoi's  by  hand,  and  at  the  same  tiiur 
does  the  work  better  than  the  old  way.  as  tiie  machine  drops  the  seed  :it  ,i 
uniform  distance  ajiart  and  covers  it  perfectly.  A  man  witli  this  macli:!;r 
will  do  the  work  of  ei.u'lit  or  ten  men  droppim;'  by  hand.  Several  potato  ili,;. 
^ers,  operated  by  lau'se  power.  ha.\e  also  come  into  recent  use.  'I'hey  i,mc;ii1\ 
li!_ditcn  and  accelerate  the  work,  and  the  cost  of  i^rowin^  potatoes  has  lurn 
reduced  several  cents  a.  bushel  by  ■        ,'  iuveritions. 

III.      I  .\ii'i;ovr.Mi:\T  oi-  sron;. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  well  in  lici^iuning  to  write  on  this  subject  to  ask,  wli;it 
is  •■  pe(li'_;reed  stock'"'.'  .Many  people  have  the  idea,  that  ii(.'(ii,L;reein;^-  i>  ;i:i 
arbitrar\    rule  adoiiteil   b\-  stoik   i^rowers   to  mvstifv  the   bu\er  and   secmr 


ar,i;ei-  iirices 


tor  their  >lock.     Tlie  fact  is  that    it  is  intended  a^ 


lid  I 


a  protrci  :..ii 


s.  or  siiould  lie.  a  ■'uaranlec 


that   the  stock    h 


111  I  lie  purchaser,  and   i^ 

bri'il  alnii^;'  certain  Hues  foi'  a  sutlicicut  period  to  establish  the  desirabl 


ties  winch    It    IS  Wlshei 


1   to  perpetuate.      A  li^i 


e  l|U.n|- 

d  censorship  is  e\erci>eii  i.,,]' 


M-l 


till'  record   liiioks.  and  it  makes  every  one  recuriiiiiL;  stock,  in  a  certain  sri;-i 
a  detrcli\e  to  see  that  the  records  are  t  rut  liliil  and  represeiii  the  ;|niIll;|^ 
as  I  liey  are. 

it    is  douiitl'iil  if  aloii'4  any  line  of  farm  operations  there  has  been  -^ 
iiiuirovemeiit  than  in  the  iireediim- and  care  of  stock:  vet  iIut 


iv:.'.'i 
e  were  ,^iT:'h  r 


ilitiiciilties   to   overcome    in   iloiiin'   this  than    in    improviiii;-   the    imnleii 

'I'lii'se  ditliciiities  may  lie  classed  as  follows  :    firsi.  the  i 

in  the  opening;'  chapter,  to  wit.  the  eN|ieuse  of  importin.n'  and  the  conf- 


ine alreaiiv  alluileil  t. 


SCl|l|i'lll 

and  when  we  recall  that   this  wa.^  ,it  .1 
time  when   the   tarmers   wer<'  hewiii;,;  out  their  homes    from  the  forest,  innl 


ii;_;li  price  ol    I  horoiiLjhlireil  aiiinii 


con 


Id  not  obtain  larnc  prices  for 


heir  iirodiicts.  il  will  be  seen 


that 


lew  tai-; 


CIS  could  atford  to  i  III  prose  their  stock.      Second,  as  to  cattle  and  hoi.cs.  il 
I  breed  pure  stock  :  for  all  animals  were  allowed  to  rii 


almost  imiio>si 


ble  t 


lar.L;'e.  and  the  womis  were  lull  of  ••  tramp  males."  which  would  break  tlirniiJi 
the  leiices  and  invade  the  tiehls  where  the  improved  stock  was  kept.  'I'lr:'!. 
those  eiii,'a.i;iMl  in  breeiiiiiL;-  stock  biund  that  there  was  a  limit  which  u!'.ii 
reached  broiii^ht  barrenness  to  hi'^h-bred  animals,  and  in  many  other  cii- 
reduced  the  vitality  .so  as  to  invite  disease.  That  this  evil  was  a  real  .■".'{ 
serious  one  is  shown  from  the  i'act  that  lai'Lje  numbers  of  hi;j;h-priced  aiiiii;  ils 
failed  to  proilm  e  youiii;  amoiii;  cattle,  and  that  many  herds  of  pediuoiil 
swine  were  carried  off  by  epidemic  diseases.  l''oiirtli.  and  ]ierliaps  the  111-' 
serious  hindrance  to  im|irovement.  was  the  indifference  of  farmers  and  ''.i' 
wa 


nt  of  appreciation  of  ij:ood  stock,  and  of  course  the  farmer  who  did  not  w   nt 


it  would  not  eoiiperate  in  produeiu!.,'  it. 


I>.„ 

1|!' 

,M 

i 

i 

ivor  luili.  I'. 

the  cliiili. 

lour  li(M-i's 

i   Ici't    ill   1  :,!• 

iiml  wit  li  It 
the  aiuiiiiut 

relieves  tiic 
'  siime  tiinr 
le  seed  ;it  ;i 
lis    lllllrliilii' 

|)(it;ilii  ili'4- 
'hey  j,MT;itly 
'S   lias   lifi'ii 


(()  asl<,  wliiit 
•ei'ili;^'  i>  ati 
ami  Seclllr 
a  iPl'iiti-rt '."II 
•U     lias    ilirll 

aralile  i|ii.ili- 

(' reined  n\  IT 
I'Ttaitl   sr|;-c. 

iiiiiiial>  iii^l 

leen  l;1t;i!>'|' 
\ere  -iiMtrr 
lUlileliii'ii!-. 
V  aiiinlr.i  to 
•(ilisei|ili'iit 
IS  vv;|s  ,it  ,1 
nr.'>l.  :i';.l 
it,  lew  l;inu- 
llCil^'S.  il  w  :i^ 
•d  In  Vila  It 

k    tlllnlljll 


It.     Tl 


i;i' 


l\  Inch   w  I!'  II 


.tl 


otlier  !■ 


a   rea 


!  .'"A 


•ed  aiiM,:  iN 
|iedi:-:i' '  '1 
s  the  lli'-i 
■rs  and  '':'■ 
id  nut  w    lit 


THE   CENTUJ{Y\S   PIloaUESS   L\  AGIUCULTUltE  ai!) 

riio  dit'tereiice  between  \\w  ini|ir(ivenient  of  ini|ileiiieiits  and  stock  con- 
M  te<l  lai's^ely  in  the  liict  that  trained  nieehanies  were  resiionsihle  i'or  the 
ti/iiier,  and  they  wonld  perl'eet  the  ini]ilenients  until  th((  larniers  could  not 
;i:  ird  to  do  without  theni;  while  tlie  slipshod  iarnier  would  lie  satisfied  with 
li-;  eoiiimon  stock,  and  would  tail  to  accept  the  helji  ol'  tin'  men  who  were 
t!  1111,'  to  improve  it.  .\nother  lliin.i;  whicdi  larniers  learned  slowly  was  that 
i.'(  ill!  stock  requires  <^ood  care,  whi(di  not  only  means  shtdter  and  lilieral  I'eed- 
it  also  that  the  I'ood  he  ailapted  to  tiie  wants  oi'  the  animal.      More  tine 


It:  4'.  I>1 

aiiini 


ilh 


Ills  wtu'e    ruined    hy  over-reedini;  with  corn — a  lieatin;^'  and    latteiiiiii;' 
f  —  than   hv  iusutlicieiit  food  and   exposure    to  cold  and  storm.      It    took 


many  years 

iii'rcssar\'. 


to  tea(di  the  Iarnier  what  a  balanced  ration  was.  and  whv  it    wi 


would  be  iiiterestiie,,;  to  take  u[)  each  separate  breed  of  cattle  and  trace 


il^    -iilirrc.    oi\ill'4'    rreilll     to    llie    IlH'll    wlin    ilu|iro\('d    and     deVilnpcd     it.     alM 


til''  ualc  ot    cacli  unpiirlalioii  :    hut  tiie  liiiiital  loiis  ol    tins  ariicle   It 


irliid  anv- 


t!iiii'4'  more  tliaii  luict  iiiciitiou  ol  tli"  more  promiiieiit  luccds.  and  many 
wliii'li  possess  Lfreat  merit  eaniiol  liee\eii  iiieiit iiiiied.  'I'lie  improved  cattle  ol 
the  (iiiied  States  may  lie  i^roupi'd  iiuiier  tliiee  lieads.  —  iieel. dairy,  and  i^eii- 
'■f.il   piiroosi'.      I  If  tlie  lirst  tile  Short-liorn    liolds.   perhaos.  the  lii;4liest  idaci'. 


■itaitiU   did  lor  a  lot 


I'j  series   ol    \ cars. 


'I'hes..   I 


or  main   \'ears  were 


bred 


Mii'ier  the  name  of  ••  I  )urliam.'"  but  about  a  i^eiieration  at^o  th<'  name  be^aii  to 
uiiiiiiL;'!!  a  clian'.,'e  to  Sjiort-horii. 

riiese  animals,  wiiile  es|iecially  adatiteil  to  the  block,  are  fairly  i^Mod  milk- 
li-.  and  some  strains  of  them  are  superior  dairy  cows.  They  have  the  ipiality 
"I  '  Illy  maturity  and  pi'odiice  a  larL;er  per  cent  of  tine  cuts  of  meat  t  han  most, 
il  lint  any.  otlii'r  bi'ceds.     'I'licse  cattle  w  ere  tiist   imjiorted  into  America   in 


m 


:i!t',i,., 


?i   f;, 


:32() 


TltlUMPllS   AM)    noXDKUS    OF   THE   XIX'"   CESTUIiV 


]7".>7,  and  luitiiv  DtluT  iiii}inrt!iti(ins  were   nuule  iluriiii,'  the  first  li;ilt  dl'  i 
invsciit;  (•cntiirv. 

Aiiolhcr  l)rci'il  wiiicli   cIdscIv  vcscmhlcs  tlic  Sliort-liorii  is   the  JJcrcl.. 
TlifSf  ciittlf  ai'i'  usiiiiliy  of  a  iinitdnii  color  —  a  i)ah'  red — witli  wliiti-   l;i 
liit.'ast.  and  tiaidis.  and  drooiiini;'  liorns.     They  were  first  introduced  1)\  Jlc; 
Clay  in  IMT.     Another  iniiiortatiou  was  made  in  1S|(>,  Init  it  was  not  luni 
iSCid  and  suliseciuently  that  they  were  iniported  lari^cly  and  a  '•  lierd  lio..;, 
established  lor  them.     Since  that  time  they  have  ninltiiilied  hirj,'ely. 

The  lust  of  the  three  distinctly  heel'  breeds  is  a  liornless  race  originalin.;  i:i 
Scotland,  and  -known  by  the  name  of  .Vberdeen  Any:ns,  tialloway,  or  I'olir'i 
cattle.  Tliese  cattle  have  the  distinctive  quality  of  hai'diness.  ami  as  ihcv 
have  very  thick,  close   hair  they  are   able   to   subsist  on   the  ran^e  witlii.m 


'NiS^ 


I      ! 


ilia!i:i-oi!n  row. 


T.xnv  i.AT-nr.i,. 


r>  :^ 


'! 


IPIM 


shelter  better  than  iierhajis  any  other  breed.     The  males  have  a  remarkiililt 


ii'eiioreiicv.  and  the    (Mdss-bred   animals   vcrv  lareh  show   horns. 


I 


ikr    the 


llerefords.  they  are  poor  milkers;  bir  while  their  milk  is  rich,  the  (|iiantii\  i- 
small,  and  they  usually  ,i,'o  dry  for  sevi'ral  months  of  the  year.  They  vmiv 
first  inqiorteil  into  tiiis  country  aliout  1S."»0,  and  in  1SS.">  nine  huiiilied  vciv 
im|iorted  and  distributed  amoii!:;'  the  cattle  breeders  (d'  the  jihiins.  1' 
cattle  are  beeomin 


|iil!l 


If  more  ]io|iular  tivery  year,  and  many   iarmers  now  del 
the  cattle  of  other  bri'eds  :  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  horned  \-\\\\W 
will  be  the  ex<'e|itioii  and  not  the  rule. 

The  Channel  Nlaiid  ifroup  —  the  Jerseys,  .Mderneys.  and  (luertiscN-  — 
emliraces  nni|uestionably  the  Ix-st  butter  animals  of  the  world  :  and  if  wc  ■■•'■ 
■to  judye  by  their  wide  distribution  and  j^reat  pojiidarity.  the  .lerseys  h'ad  i!i'- 
list.  Tiiey  were  first  introduced  into  the  rnited  States  in  iSL'd.  and  in  I'-"'" 
lar!,'e  im|iortations  were  made:  but  it  was  diirin.y;  ^lie  decade  from  1n7'  '" 
1SN(»  that  ureati'st  interest  in  the  breed  was  awakened  and  hir,i;e  and  Ire.     iit 


<)« 


Till-:   riCSTUllY'S  PUOGIIKSS   IS  AfilllCLLTlJiE 


;$•_'! 


i    nortatiuiis  WL'Tf  uuidc     TlitTO  liiis  hi-t'ii  ii  strong  and  bitter  ojiposition  to 
I     sf  cattlu  by  nuiiiy  lariners  on  account  of  their  small  si/.e,  but  they  have  won 

t 


ir  way  until  tlicy  arc  more  universally  distributed,  and  are  to  l)e  found  on 
1  re  farms  than  any  otlicr  l)reeil.  iienuirkable  yiidds  of  butter  from  the  indi- 
\  ual  have  been  recorded,  ujany  of  them  running  fri>m  I'J  to  18  pounds  2)er 
■,      k  under  high  feeding  aiul  extra  care. 

A'hih!  the  Ayrshire  jiossesses  great  merit,  so  few  of  them  have  been  im- 
I  ted  into  this  country  that  it  seems  scarcely  worth  while  to  more  than 
i:i  ution  them. 

I'nder  the  head  of  general-) mrjiose  animals  eoine  the  Ilolsteins.  Devon,  and 


OltOLI'   OF    AIU;IU)I.1:N  A.N(iLS   1  ATTl.K. 

li'ril  I'olls.  All  of  these  breeds  possess  tine  qualities.  The  Ilolsteins  were 
|iiiili;il)ly  not  introduced  into  tiiis  country  until  tiie  last  half  id'  the  century, 
iiml  the  "Jlolstein  Heril-l'.ook."  ])id»lislied  in  ISSL'.  shows  that  about  .'.(MKt 
I,. Mistered  animals  were  in  this  country  at  that  date.  ^N'liile  fair  beid' cattle. 
rill'  Ilolsteins  are  dec|i  milkers,  and  show  a  record  >>['  tlie  largest  iniantity  of 
iMiH;  nt  any  breed  in  .Vmcrica.  —  some  cows  giving  over  IL'. <•()((  pounds  of  milk 
ill  ;i  year.  The  milk,  however,  is  not  as  rich  in  butter  fat  as  that  oi'  the  ,Ier- 
M'\,  but  ]ir()bably  they  are  the  best  breed  of  dairy  cows  for  tiie  cheese  factory 
111  tiie  ruited  States. 
Tlie  Devons  are  beautiful  retl  cattle.  They  do  not  raidv  as  large  milkers. 
•-•1 


liir 


...      f  .  Ill  Myfl 


i 


i$m 


'  ii»  '■ 


I'  h'^m 


iftjol 


k 


f  «.l 


»2-2 


riuuMi'iis  AM)  wosDicns  OF  THE  xix'"  vESTrny 


l)iit  inodurr  ;i  Mi|)t'ii()r  (|iiiilit_v  of  milk,  and  aiv  luiexccUcil  in  this    rcsj];  ,  i 
liy    iiiiy  l)r('t;(l   IjiiI   tlic  .Ifisey.      One    iieciiliarity  altciiit    the   breed    is   ii 
(•(>iii|iavative  siiialliiess   ol'   tlie   cow;  for  wliile    the    steer    will  wei;^li  inia 
1  |(»0  to   JCtOn  pounds,  tht!  cows  will  avera,i;('  only  from  .SOO  to  1(M)(»  jioiin  i^ 
each. 

The  importation  <d'  Ked  I'olls  from  England  is  comparatively  recent,  ;ii,,l 
they  come  nearer  tilliiij,'  tlie  idea  of  a  .uenertil  i)Ui;:ose  animal  than  any  otli.  r 
breed  ill  America.  The  first  importation  was  made  in  1S7.'!.  and  consistc(i  ,.[ 
only  four  animals.  Two  years  later  four  more  weri'  imported,  and  in  1^^L' 
twenty-live,  <  dlier  iiinxu'iatioiis  soon  i'oUowed.  They  are  of  a  uniforn  iv 
cherry-red  color,  with  occasionally  the  tip  of  the  tail  white  or  a  little  wlm,. 
about  the  udder.     Ninety  percent  of  the  graih's  are  hornless.     They  air  nt 


.ii,um;v  (<)W.     id.\  ok  st.   i..\MHi;in. 


r.. 


. !; 


if  ill 


lar^o  size,  mature  bulls  weii,'hiii,i,'  from  ISOOto  2200  pounds,  and  oecasioii;illy 
one  will  ex(.'eed  L'."»00  pounds,  ("ows  wei^h  from  1100  to  KJOO  iioinids.  aiid 
^viu  averai,'e  iL'Od.  That  they  mature  early  the  followin<i:  ■weights,  cnpnd 
from  the  report  id'  the  Smithtield  Cluli.  of  England,  will  show:  — 

Steer,  twenty-two  and  one  half  months  old,  weii,d>ed  l."!90  lbs. 

Heifer,  twi'iityone  and  three  (piarters  months  old,  weighed  iL'oS  lbs. 

Steer,  twenty-three  and  one  half  months  old,  weighed  lijOO  lbs. 

Steer,  twenty-two  months  old.  weighed  V6'M\  lbs. 

.\t  the  same  show  a  mature  cow  was  exhibited  that  weighed  I'.Xt.'!  poiimls. 
As  dairy  cattle  they  show  good  records,  giving  an  average  of  o.lOO  ]miuiiiN  it 
milk  |)er  year,  and  some  have  t;xeeeded  oOO  ]ioun(ls  of  butter  in  a  year,  irilk- 
iiig  over  .'{00  days. 

Wliile  the  I'nited  .States  can  show  as  good  horses  as  any  other  couiiIia  in 
the  world,  they  are  not  as  generally  distributed  among  the  farmers  a-  ;iiv 
animals  of  other  breeds  id'  stock.  This  perhaps  can  l)e  aceounted  for.  !:i-t. 
from  the  fact  tliat  a  horse  must  be  mature,  and  not  less  than  six  year-  'M. 
before  it  can  be  put  on  the  market ;  and  that  the  low  price  of  the  ser\  • 


i|«  I 


.)•  coiuil'v  111 

I'inors  ;i"  ;iiv 

Itcd  for.  first. 

lix  year-  "I'l- 

lilt;  SOW' 


TIIK   CEMUllY'S   I'lWGllESS   IX  AalilrULTURE 


3-J3 


of  ''ni(U 


am 


I  scrub  stallions  —  is  too  yrcat   a  tfiii])tation  to  the  farmer 


\.  lO  is  in  (Ifht  ami  short  of  money.     Still,  our  stamlanl  lias  lieeii  atlvam;in;j;^ 
;,    l  tliere  is  a  sure  but  slow  betteriuLC  of  the  workiii.u'  stock  (>t  the  coimtiy. 

In  the  draft  class  we  have  the  Norman,  rerclieroii.  Clydesdale,  and  r>elj;ian, 
;i  d  iiossibly  some  others,  while  the  ( 'Icvidand  iSiiy  conies  as  near  the  general- 
ly ,|iose  horst!  as  any  other  breed.  The  iin[iortations  that  have  given  us  the 
11.  giiitieeiit  horses  whitdi  are  being 
11  d  in  this  country  have  been  made 
^■;  ctly  from  France,  Kngland.  I>td- 
i;i  m.  and  (lermany.  I'he  blood  of 
tl:  •  Knglish  thoroiighi)ifd  and  of  the 
Ai.ib  has  also  contrilmted  to  the  de- 


iient  of  tilt'  Miialities  desired 


In  no  utn* 


th 


ass  ( 


if   St. 


II'0( 


bleed 


ill  iliis  oountry  has  the  im|)nivemeiit 
111  I  11  more  marked  than  in  the  swine, 
;iiid  while  there  are  probably  half  a 
score  of  breeds  in  the  country,  a  look  through  the  markets  shows  that  |iro- 
liaMy  l)(l  per  cent  of  tlieiii  are  of  the  three  following  breeds:  l'idaud-< 'liiiia 
(tdiinerly  called  Magie),  l>erksliire.  and  |)uroc  or  .Jersey  K'ed  ;  althou;_;li  it 
is  i|iiite  possible  that  the  Ciiester  White  might  take  the  third  place.  With 
tiic  exception  of  the  ISerkshire,  thest;  may  be  called  distinctiv.dy  .\nierican 

and    improved  as  to 


liricds.  and  even    the    Berkshire 


has   1 


leen    so   mo 


litieil 


almost  lay  (daim  to  American  origin.      A  few  other  inceds  are  kept  jture  in 
tills  country,  particularly  the   i'iSsex,  \'orkshii-e.  and  X'ictorias:  but  they  are 


IllIM 


to  but  a  limited  extent  and  then   for  a  special  pur 


nni"  thing  that 


luaUcs 


it  easv  and  rapid  to  iniiirove  swine   is  the   fact  that  thev  mat 


lire  so 


early.  an<l  that  a  new  cross  may  be  made  every  year  if  ilesired.  The  writer, 
living  in  that  })art  of  Miami  N'alley.  in  (Miio.  where  the  I'oland-Cliiiia  swine 
(irigiiiated,  has  seen,  in  a  (piarter  (d'  a  I'entury.  these  hogs  (diaiige  in  form 
and  color  and  general  characteristics,  and  these  fixed  so  thoroughly  that  they 
cimld  be  (h'pended  on  to  re])roduce  them.  .\s  this  Vireed  existed  in  the  fifties, 
tlicy  were  ooarse  in  form,  mongrtd  in  color,  and  slow  in  maturing,  re(|uiring 
from  eighteen  inontlis  to  two  years  to  be  made  ready  for  market.  Uiit  to-day 
tlii'V  are  early  maturing,  can  be  put  on  the  market  at  six  months  id'  age, 
weighing  from  2(M>  to  L'.">0  pounds,  and  are  of  uniform  shajie  and  color.  'I'h''y 
arc  still  the  leading  breed  throughout  the  great  corn  belt  of  the  I'liited  States, 
and  the  henl-books  have  registered  V)reeding  sto.dv  to  the  luimber  of  many 
tliMiisaiid. 

Tlie  l>erkshire  hog  was  first  introduced  into  this  country  in  IS'J.'].  ami  a 
second  importation  was  made  in  IS.'JL'.  but  there  was  no  .systematic  breeding 
and  care  to  |»reserve  their  purity,  and  grades  were  sidtl  for  pure-bred  until 
till'  iireed  fell  into  disrepute;  but  in  ISCt')  new  importations  were  made  of 
the  tinest  animals  to  be  fo\ind  in  Kngland,  and  the  merits  of  the  breed  became 
universally  known.  Though  called  a  small  breed,  they  are  b\it  little  below 
the  Toland-China  in  weight,  and  grades  from  ISerkshire  males  on  larg<'  rangey 
Miws  will  give  the  tinest  possible  hogs  for  the  block  ;  but  these  grades  must 
net  lie  used  for  breeding,  or  the  stock  will  deterioratt'. 

The  American  Chester  White  hog  originated  in  Chester  Countv.  I'ennsvl- 


1   h 


I    .!^ 


!{: 


3'Ji 


TlilCMrilS   AM)    ]V()M)EltS   OF   THE  .\L\"'   CEMrtn' 


LI:  I 


vaiiia;  l)Ut  it  is  believed  that  there  was  an  iiiiiioi'tation  of  white  h(if,'s  fic: 
KiiL,'hiii(l  ill  ISliS.  Tlie  lireed.  until  within  less  than  a  (luarter  of  a  eenliii  . 
was  coarse.  larj,'e  of  l)one.  and  slow  of  nuitui'ity.  and  soinetinie.s  woidd  attin  , 
enoiinons  weii^dit,  nearlv  KMMI  jiounds  ;  Imt  in  the  last  (luarter  of  a  ceutiiM 
tiiev  have  lieen  inipi'oved  until  they  are  a  close  rival  of  the  best  bri'eds  \vi 
have. 

'I'he  l)ni()c-.lersey  lied  seems  to  be  a  distinctly  American  breed,  havinv  ;i 
history  datiiii;  back  to  ISL'4,  but  it  is  less  than  a  half  century  since  they  caiin 
into  jiromineiice,  and  the  improvenu'nt  mad(!  in  them  in  that  time  has  ]iiii 
them  iH'ar  the  front  rank.  One  thin,i;'  which  caused  their  rapid  increii-r 
was  the  belief  that  they  were  proof  ayainst  swine-iila^'ue  and  hog-choh'i.i. 
and  thoy  were  boomed  on  that  idea.     r>ut  this  did  not  prove  true,  and  un: 

intelliijient  farmers  have  learned  that  it  is  not  in  the  breed  but  in  the  f 1 

and  care  that  immunity  from  disease  will  be  found.  These  lioj,^s  arc  ot  a 
beautiful  red  color,  and  of  good  form.  'I"he  mothers  are  pi'oliti  •  and  niM.ii 
nursers,  and  they  mature  early,  makint,'  the  choicest  of  jiig  jiork  at  an  earlv 


l:h 


i  i 


i«i,:, 


No  other  class  of  animals  has  been  subject  to  so  much  foreif^n  eom]petitiiiii 
or  has  figured  tt)  such  an  extent  as  a  jiolitical  factor  as  the  sheep,  and  llii^. 
for  more  than  a  g(Uieration  past,  has  ke]it  the  sheep  industry  tluctuatiiii; 
between  a  depression  which  destroyed  all  jjrotit  and  a  boom  which  plaiiil 
fictitious  values  on  them,  and  both  extrenu's  have  worked  harm  to  the  imliiv- 
try.  Vet  through  all  these  changes,  those  who  have  recogiuzed  the  intrin>ir 
value  of  the  sheep  and  stuck  to  the  work  id'  imjirovt'ineid.  Iiave  not  oiilv 
found  the  business  jirotitable  but  liave  ])revcnte(l  the  deterioration  of  the 
animals  which  threatened. 

Whili'  swine  are  of  no  value  until  killed,  the  sheep  gives  two  cou])ons  in 
a  year,  one  in  the  tieece  and  the  other  in  the  iiu'rease,  and  tlie  brecdir 
always  has  two  distinct  objects  before  him.  —  the  jiroduction  of  ivool  aiiii 
mutton.  'I'he  breeds  of  sheeji  ari"  almost  as  dissimilar  as  are  horses  iinm 
cattle,  and  some  are  suited  for  hot  arid  lands,  while  others  are  adapted  tn 
the  rich  lowlanils  with  their  abundant  and  succulent  herbage.  'I'he  lUdM 
ancient  of  all  breeds  is  the  .Merino;  and  those  who  have  studied  this  ipn - 
tion  trace  its  descent  back  in  direct  line.  iirol)ably.  to  the  Hocks  of  the  p.iiii- 
andis.  i'"or  ages  they  have  been  the  clothers  of  numkiiul.  first  ■with  the  .-km 
and  later  with  the  tieece.  and  still  they  maintain  a  higli.  if  not  first,  plmr 
among  different  breeds.  They  have  l)ecn  wonderfully  improved,  but  tin- 
improvement  has  been  along  the  line  of  increasing  the  value  of  the  tin  if 
rather  than  the  carcass,  and  it  has  been  changed  from  an  animal  that  wm.ld 
ju'oduce  two  or  three  ])ounds  (d'  wool,  and  one  which  had  bare  lielly  and  h--. 
to  one  whiidi  jirodnces  a  fleece  from  the  hoofs  t(>  very  near  the  nose.  It  i> 
within  bounds  to  say  the  weight  of  the  Heeee  has  been  doidiled. 

AN'ith  the  long-wool  breeds  the  im]irovement  has  betMi  designed  to  de\i!..]i 
the  carcass  and  nnitton  cpudities  rather  than  the  wool,  and  of  these  the  ivn 
typical  breeds  are  the  Shropshire  and  ("otswohl.  I'robahly  the  best  nuir"ii 
himlis  that  are  prodiUH'd  in  this  country  are  from  the  Shrojjshire  ram-  :  !iil 
^lerino  owes.  The  re])resentative  Cotswold  is  of  majestic  port  and  1;!'l;i' 
size.  The  wo(d  is  curly,  long,  and  lustrous  ;  not  dry  and  harsli  to  tin'  t'  ■  li. 
and  has  but  a  slight  amount  of  yolk  ;  at  nuiturity  it  ought  to  be  eight  iiv  !ic> 
hmg.     The  tieece  averages  six  or  seven  pounds. 


l^'lll 


V 

Otis  li'i  ; 

CL'lltUl   ,  . 

ill   iltUii,, 
L    ClMltUl} 

)n't'(\s  \si' 

liiiviuu  .1 
tlu'V  (.•aim- 

(•    hllS    \'\A 
I    illCllM-r 

)g-clioli'i,i. 
,e.  tuiil  I'Mi- 

U  tlu'   li""l 

s  arc  III  a 

iiml  Lt'ii"! 

at  ail  i'ai'i> 

;()lllliftiti"ii 
y.  ami  tin-. 
Unctiiatiii.; 
liicli  lilarni 
I)  tlic  imlii-- 
:1a'  iiitiiiisii' 
i,-t'  iKit  only 
ation  of  tin' 

I  ('()U]>(>n>  ill 
Ithf  brccilir 


)f 


liiirst'S 


il  ami 
trmu 


atlajili'il  ti 


1  lie    llH'M 

il  this  i|iii'- 

)f  thr  I'aiii- 

litli  tlic  ^l^"l 

first,  I'lai'f 

I'd.   Inil    t'l"' 

l)f    the   tlrirr 


that  \vt 
llv  anil  1 


iia 


lUiSf. 


1;  i~ 


|l  til  (IfVrl 

the  1' 
(best  m\V.' 
Ire  ram> 


lU'SC 


:!|ll 


It  ami  l;i'-'' 


tlir  t- 
ht  in 


M; 


'ly; 


THE   CENTUnrS  riiOGllLSS   IS   AOJiJCULTUJiE  325 

IV.    i.Mi'i!(ivi;.Mi;Nr   in   iaij.mimi   mi-.thods. 

I'lu'  iini)n»v('meiit  of  inethods  on  tin'  farm  lias  bot'ii  discussiHi  to  sonic 
I  cut  ill  spt.'iikiny  of  imploiiu'iits  ami  stork,  as  their  use  involves  better 
li.  tliods;  l)Ut  there  are  other  iioiiits  worthy  of  iiotiee.  One  of  the  most 
ii.iiortant  of  these  is  draiiia,!j;e.  The  first  attemitts  to  remove  surface  water 
I; nil  farni-laml  were  by  the  construction  of  open  ditches;  but  as  these  had 
i(  tdllow  the  natural  water-courses  which  often  /iyv.agged  throuj4h  the  fields, 
tiii'V  were  objectionable,  not  only  because  of  niakinj.j  bad  shaped  hinds  to  [ilow 
a;:l  cultivate,  but  also  because  they  <'aused  a  waste  of  land,  and  usually  had 
td  lie  brid;.,'ed  to  be  crossed  willi  the  wagons.  Other  objections  to  them  were 
that  they  iiroduced  croiis  (d'  weeds  to  give  trouble  in  the  fields,  and  there  was 
aiiiiistant  t<Mi(lcney  to  till  up,  which  soon  impaired  their  usefulness  ;  or,  if 
krjit  cleaned  out,  it  had  to  be  done  at 
liravy  expense,  'i'he  first  attempt  at 
iiihii'rdrains,  itv  '•  blind  ditches,"  as 
till  y  were  called,  was  iiy  making  an 
uii'lcrground  water-way  with  stono  or 
tiinbcr;but  both  these  materials  were 
tcimd  objectionable,  because  such 
iliaiiis  were  easily  damaged  by  the  ac- 
tion (d'  craw-tish  and  rarely  eoiiliniied 
td  ill)  good  work  for  more  than  a  lew 
years.  It  was  after  the  middle  of  the 
ii'iititry  that  drain  tiles  iiiaih'  of  burnt 
(•l;i\  were  introibiced,  reseniblinggood 
hard  brick  in  material ;  but  the  lirst 
iliaius  laid  were  usually  with  tiles  of  too  small  caliber,  two-inch  being 
lar.;cly  used,  which  were  not  only  easily  choked  but  failed  to  caiTV  the  water 
otf  ra]iidly  enough  in  a  wet  time.  Large  sections  id'  many  of  our  States  were 
mi.i^iiially  swampy  and  so  nearly  level  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  construct  o|ien 
iliiclics,  almost  like  canals,  as  an  outlet  for  the  water  flowing  into  them  from 
till'  drains.  These  could  not,  of  course,  lie  constructed  l)y  indi\iduals,  as  no 
man  had  a  right  to  go  on  his  neighbor's  land  to  open  a  ditidi  for  this  purpose ; 
>o.  in  many  eases,  this  was  made  a  matter  of  legislation,  and  the  large  open 
iliti'lies  were  built  liy  taxation  equitafdy  levied  on  the  lands,  i'.y  this  means 
till'  farmers  were  eiuibled  to  thoroughly  drain  large  areas  of  country  whieli 
iitlici  wise  would  have  been  iiciirly  worthless  for  agricultural  purposes,  in 
-nine  instances  the  earth  taken  from  these  large  ditches  was  graded  nji  sev- 
iial  feet  high  at  the  side,  and  on  the  top  of  this  levee  a  turnpike  road  was 
iiiii>tructeil,  thus  giving  a  double  iienetit  from  a  single  o]ieration.  'I'he  first 
'Iraiiiing  of  farms  was  in  the  wet  spots  where,  usually,  a  single  line  of  tiles, 
l;iiil  lor  a  moderate  distatice.  would  bring  the  parts  of  the  field  under  cultiva- 
tii'ii  that  otherwise  would  lie  waste;  but  gradually  the  farmers  learned  that 
:li(M('  were  other  valuable  elt'ects  from  drainage,  and  that  most  heavy  clay 
liimls  would  be  benefited  by  it  sufficiently  to  justify  the  ex])ense.  The  fol- 
Ii'wiiig  incidental  advantages  have  been  learned  ;  first,  drainage  deepens  the 
-nil;  second,  it  jirevents  the  killiuLr  out  of  grass  and  grains  during  a  wet 
-lii-i'ii;  thinl,  it  makes  the  land  warmer;   fourth,  it  improves  the  texture  of 


fm 


MKitiNo  sniajv 


I 


,  i 


!.! 


^r•t:a 


1 

i 

( 

i 

1 

' 

i\  Mffi 

m 


.,,.-,  •', 


:wo 


TIUUMrilS   AM)    noXDKUS   OF   THE   \J\"'   CESTVIIY 


W't 


till'  sdil  Miiil   iiiiiki's   it    possilili-   t(i  wnrk   ami   plant   it   railiiT  in   llir  .s|iiii' 
lillli.   it    |iir\riits    washing;   ami   wastr   of  maiimr;  sixth,    it    nlicii    jircvci, 
lailiiii'  lit  fiiips  ill  cxcr.ssivi'ly  wi't  si'a.siiiis.  ami  fiialiii's  tliciii  to  I'liiliiii'  ilnniv 
lictti.T  ill  ili'v  si'asoiis.     Altlniiii;li   ilraiiiap'   is  rxiinisivr  it    is  a   iirriiiam 
iiii|ir()V('im'iit,  ami   in   iiiaiiv  rasrs  tlir   imrrast*  ol   tlir  wlirat  ri'iip  in  a  sin 
yi'ar  lias  tli'lravril  tin-  rxiirnsi'  of  liliiii,'  tlir  lainl. 

AiiDtlicr  iiii|iri)Vi'iiit'iit.  wliicli  sfciiis  to  lie  tlif  t)|t|Misitr  nf  tJiis.  is  tlic  iii 
atimi  III  arid  laiiils  in  tlmsc  parts  ol'  tli*' roinilry  ulit'ir  tlif  annual  lainl  i 


is  small  ami  rvrrv  snniim'r  liriii'rs  a  ilrtiiiL'iit.      In   tlirs*>  ra? 


ics,  watiT  stdi. 


in  hiri,'i'  natural  or  artitit-ial  ii-siTvoirs,  or  tiial  liirnislinl  liy  snow  melt  ni- 
on  tilt'  iiionntaiiis,  is  utili/t!il  to  rarrv  tin- crops  tliroiiL;li  tlir  dry  srason  :iim{ 
to  I'liaiili'  till'  i'aniu'r  to  grow  lai'L,'r  crops  wIu'It  nothing  could  lie  prodm  i  ■] 
willioiit  this  aid. 

IVrliajis  in  no  other  line   have  the  nietlioils  changed   lor  the  better  iimi, 
than  in  tliu  care  ul'  domestic  animals,  and  this  includes  both  shelter  and  li-. .{. 


.»,) 


hi  t\  I, 


HM^i.' 


DOllil.K    COHN    n.ANIKII 


]*  .i 


ilj 


!  ;]l 


'f!ii 


ing.  In  the  lirst  half  of  the  century,  cattle  and  hogs  were  usually  ex|iii.i(l 
to  the  severe  weather  of  the  winter  with  no  other  shelter  than  that  affnninl 
by  a  straw-stack,  and  this  often  was  found  leveled  to  the  gnmnd  by  the  lii-i 
of  March,  leaving  them  entirely  without  shelter  at  that  changealile  m  :im>ii 
of  the  year.  'I'liey  were  allowed  at  all  seasons  to  roam  over  the  lariii  iiinl 
gather  their  own  living,  and  were  turned  into  the  coriitields  as  soon  ;i-  tin 
ears  were  removed,  where  they  lived  well  as  long  as  the  stalk  jiastiirc  l,i  tiil 
after  which  they  depended  on  straw  for  food  until  spring;  and  it  wa-  "in 
moll  to  have  the  rattle  so  poor,  as  spring  apjiroached,  that  many  ili'  '■  i' 
actual  starvation,  while  others  becanu'  so  feeble  that  they  would  have  i  ■  1m 
lifted   to  help  them   on   their  feet.     Then  the  stables  for  horses  weiv  run 


11  f 


lY 

Hi  spriii    . 

[•f  (Iriiiiv    ' 
|ii'niiiMi< 
in  a  sill 

is  lilt'  ill 
lal  laini  '  ■ 
iiti'V  slin.  .i 
i)\v  iMfil  111.: 
season  ;i ■!'! 
i>   protliu' 'i 

bcltvr  limiv 
IT  ami  ti''  '1- 


allv  t'Nl 


■a 


jliat  at't'"iVic!l 

Icaillc    ^.r:l■^"ll 

Itlic  farm  ;in>l 
SOnll    a-    ''I'' 


llSt\lVl' 


a 


|l  it  wa> 

liaiiy  il" 
|U1  liavr 

flCS  Wt'li 


ilU- 


lU- 


77//';  (7;a'/7  7;}-.s  ri;()<,L'i:ss  /a   .u.7,7   ci/rrnE 


wr, 


iiK'tt-d  a|i|iai'i'iitl,v  willi  llic  iilra  llial  vnil  ilal  inn  uns  tlir  ('liicl  lliiii'^',  ami 
■  linrscs  slddil  ami  sliivi'i't'd  in  thfii' stalls  IrDiii  t  iir  ijiat'ts  tlial,  lilfw  tlmaiuli 
:  ,!•  siilt'S  (if  lilt'  liarn  and  up  llir(iii;^'li  tlic  lloors  ul'  ihcir  stalls.  (iradnall\ 
•  isr  tliin^,'s  have  diani^'i'd,  nntil  tlic  lai'Ljrr  part  ui'  larni  stock  is  waindv  .slii'j- 
i'i\,  and  wi'll  led  uitli  a  variety  <d'  food,  SuiMMdent  fond  is  now  lai'i^'i  ■ 
I  niislii'd  I'iMMii  ciisilai^e  prt'scrvcd  in  silos,  from  hccts  and  otlici-  roots  i,'rn\\ n 
,,  d  stored  for  winter  nse,  and,  more  recently,  from  sori,dnini,  wliicli  lias 
1  ii  found  to  retain  its  snccnience  and  sweetness  dnrin.i;  the  entire  winter. 
I  rmers  have  learned  what  is  meant  liy  a  halaneed  ration,  which  is  a  condii- 
li.iioiiof  foods  that  will  ^^ive  the  proper  projinrt  ion  of  heat  and  tat  producers 
w.lh  those  wliicli  make  hum-  and  muscle,  and  that,  it   means  ItolJi  liealth  and 


irdiiomy  to  substitute  to  ;i  certain  extent  bran  and  oil   meid   for  corn,  ami 
(■lii\fi-  hay  for  hay  made  from  the  ^q'asses,  and  straw. 

.Viiotlu'r  ^reat  impi'ovement  lias  been  uloni,'  the  line  id'  fencinLc;  and,  in 
tliis  respt'ct,  tluf  most  economical  step  of  all  has  iieen  in  reducin,!,'  tlie  iinionnt 
111  division  fenc(i  on  the  farm,  keeping  only  a  portion  of  it  divided  into  titdds 
liir  pasture,  and  leaving  half  or  more  of  the  best  parts  to  In;  cnltivat(!<l  in  ;i 
>iii:^de  in(dosure  on  wiiich  stock  is  never  turned,  in  most  States,  law.s  have 
Imcii  passt-d  oblii,nu<^  each  farmer  to  fence  in  his  own  stock,  and  no  one  is 
•lied  to  fence  out  his  nei<rhboi'"s.     The  substitution  of  wii'c  for  wood  as 


mip 


a  ii'iicin^^  material  has  reduced  the  cost  of   fence  constiuctioii  about  one  half, 
ami  tlie  waste  of  land  occupied  by  fences  is  reduced  in  ;d)out  the  same  pro- 


|"irl  ion. 


V.    imi'i;ovi;mi:\t   i\   and   ai.-oim)  tiik  iiomk 


The  clian^e  in  this  direction  in  a  siu.ijle  ;.^(.ii(.|.;iti(i],  |i;is  been  most  marked. 


aint  IS 


one  of  the  surest  si<;;ns  of  pros]ierity.     The  loi,'  cabin  has  i^iven  ] 


ilace 


tn  a  substantial  and.  in  many  cases,  an  elenjint  home.     The  irrcifular  ami  ill- 
^liaiicil  yards,  fenced  with  rails.  whi(di  surrounded  both  house  and  barn,  and 


;t'_'s 


rniiMriis  asd  woshkhs  of  tue  a/.v"  cEMtuY 


11 


ii)if  ) 


II 


in  w  liii'li  lion's  iiiid  I'liltif  wt'i't'  Kept,  uilli  I'.o  slirltrr  Init.  a  mil  |ii'ii  \\\\\\  sh 
rnnl,  li:i\c  ilisa|i)i(':n'i'i|,  ami  n'rlaii;;iilar  luls  ciii'lnsnl  willi  iicat.  Iriii'i's  ;i:  i 
^11(1(1  liainsainl  |ii,!,'i,M'rics  lia\('  KiImii  t  licir  |ilacc.  Tim  \\iinil-|iili'  hiis  I'l'ln  | 
limn  lilt'  III  III  I  \  aid.  anil  is  iinw  slit'ltcrnl  in  a  \vnni|slit<il  ailjoiiiiii^'  tlir  kilcln  i  . 
ami  a  iical  lawn  wit  li  lluufis  and  .sliiiililicrv  is  iin  loii^rr  tin' i'mtjiI  imi,  j.  ,| 
till'  nilc.  A  l;o(m|  i;arilrii,  in  wliidi  liic  iH'wrrand  iiii|iniviMl  vri^ctalilfs  Im  • 
talu'ii  I  III'  |>la<'t'  nj  till'  iild  soils,  and  a  Imtin  jiali'li.  wi'll  rarrd  Inr,  al'lni'd  iim' 
luMirii's  wliii'li  tlu'v  altnii'  ran  ^;i\l■  lnr  a  iirriiul  ul'  many  wcrks  rarli  si'iimmi. 
Till'  waliT  is  no  lom^cr  caiiii'd  Iroiii  a  ii'iiiotr  s|iiiiii:.  Imt  qood  wells  and  i  i-. 
It' I'll  s  art'  |ilai'i'il  t'onvi'iiit'iit  ly,  many  ol  I  in 'in  so  thai  I  lir  |iiimi|i  is  in  tlif  Kililp  u 
t)i' iiiitltT  a  I'oi'i'li  allat'lit'il  tollic  lioiisi'.  'I'lif  I't'llai'  is  usually  lloiiit'il  uiih 
I'i'iiii'iit.  ami  tlii'slairs  li'adin^  to  it  arr  id  easy  L,'raili' ;  wliilf  ^^ootl  walks  ul 
plank  or  f'tnt'iil  makf  it  a  plt<asiin>  to  pass  Irtmi  I  In'  lioiisc  tti  tlif  siirrtnimiiiiL; 
oiilliiiiIdiiii;s. 

Aiioilii'r  lint'  ill  wliifii  vi'ry  i^rt'al  improvt'iin'iil  is  sliowii  is  in  maiiitainiiii,' 
tilt'  It'll  ilil  \  id'  till'  soil,  'IMii'  old  int't  liod  was  to  i'\liaiisl  tlir  It'll  i  lit  \  of  a  liiM 
and  1 1 II 'I I  rli'ar  a  iii'W  out' ;  ami  it  is  tloiilil  till  il  out'  lanin'r  in  a  liiiinlird  imilil 
iia\t'  aiiswi'ifd  tilt'  ipifslioii.  "  W'liy  dot's  land  lii't'oint'  slnili'  altiT  loii^'  imIii 
\  at  ion 
soil   writ'  wliiili   all'   nrt'i'ssai\'  to    its    It'ililiU.     'I'll 


lor  tlit'y  Ii;itl  no  roiii'i'pl  ion  of  wliat    llif  t'lii'iiiiral  t'lrint'iils  ul    il 


ITl'     ail'     two     tllforirs    oj 

ii'i'lili/iiiLj  ami  I'l'i'lilily:  oiii',  tlial  tlir  soil  is  a  miiir  to  lit'  workfil  out,  .iml 
wliii'li  will  iiifv  italily  lii't'oim'  iiiiproiliii'tivf  in  Hit-  prori'ss;  tin' otlifi.  that  ii 
is  a  lalioiatory  111  w  liirh,  iintltT  I  lit' intfllii^t'iit  maiia^i'iiiriit  id  iiiaii,  toiri'>  r:iii 
III' sit  at  work  wliifli  will  iiiaiiitain  ami  drvi'lop  a  pi'ipi'tiial  I'tTtilitv.  M:il 
tlius,  moll'  tliaii  a  ri'iitnry  aLjo,  aiiiioiiiifril  that  tlif  tiiiii'  would  I'omi'  liiriiic 
loiii;  w  lii'ii  tlif  pi'oplf  oi'  till' I'artli  would  starvf  hfi'aiisf  tlifv  liad  oiit;^iiiuii 
till'  Ifitilily  ol'  tlif  soil  and  its  prodiii'tivi'  faparity  ;  Init  altfr  Ion;; nilt  ival  pin. 
\\f  tind  it  possililf  to  proiliii't'on  Ifss  lliaii  liall'  llif  i-iiMi\alali!i'  land  riioii'^ii 
not    oul\   to   Ifi'd    oiir  own   nation.    Imt    llif    world  at    lai'^f.  and   llifi'i'   is  ii" 


i|iif  st  idiiiiiLj  llif  affiiiali'iifss  of  llif  lalioiatory  thfory  ;is  o|i|iosi'd  lo  llif  ii 

tllfOI  V. 


iil:i' 


Tlif  tirst  improNf nifiil    aluii','  this   liiif  was  in  llif  liftlfr  sa\ini,'and  iilili/ 

lint  wlifii  it    was   foiiml  tliat  llifsf  wi'if  insiillicMi  ni. 


111^  ol    animal    inaniirfs  ; 
Sfif  lift'  faiiif  lot  111'  lif  Ip 


if  lilt'  faniifi'.     Tlif  I'lit'inist  aiiah /I'd  Imtlii-i 


oil      .|M 


soils.  asfiTtaiiiiiiij;  wliat    was    iiffdfil,  and    llifii   llif  unrld    was  sfari'lifii    I'li 
tlif  mati'rials  ncffssary.      Tlif  I'lfiiifiits  wliii-li  i'oriiifd  mir  plants  wfif  IhiuhI 


was  iifi't'ssarv   in 


to  111'  liltffu   in  niiiiilifr.  Imt    of  tlifSf  il    was' found    tliat 

tiiniisli  only  tliiff.  —  nilioi^i'ii,   pliosplmrif  acid,  and   potask.      Nitro.nfii 

known    to    fxist     in    iiif  xliaiist  iltlf    ijiiantitifs    in    tlif    atiiiosplif  re.    foil 


II  III',' 


sfvi-ntv-six  jif r  ff n 


t  of  its  I'oiiiposit  ion  ;  Imt   tlf 


Can  Lrrowiiii;  plants  appropria 


1  was  llim;^  iiii.- 

tf  atiiiosj,      li'      iirniffii '.'■'    i''iiiallv.  it  w 


.\    —of  wliii  'i   flovf r  is  till'  1"  -^t 
tlif  I'ariiif  I  ould   appropi  i  il<' 


ari'f 


111  ifsfai'i'li.  with  tlif  aid  f 


iiil 


I'ovfri'd  that  plants  of  tlif  l-f,i;iiniim 
typf  and  of  y;rfati'st  valiif  lor  this  pii 
iiitro;4fii  from  tlif  atmosplifrf ;  ami  al 
mifrosfo]i(\  it  was  disfovf rcil  that  this  ,i|i|  ,opi  iioii  faiiif  aliimt,  thnm.^li  'In' 
ai^fni'v  of  liac'tfi'ia  in  tlif  roots.  This  fact  foiiiifrtcd  witli  tlif  floviT  pl;i'  '  is 
oiif  of  immt'ii.sf  impoi'tauff  to  tlif  larmtT.  liccaiisn  iiitroj,'fii  is  nut  '  '1\  ilio 
most  fX]ioiisivo  (dfuifiit  of  ffrtility  to  imridiaso,  Imt  is  likely  to  In-  h'si  'tli 
throui^di  evaporation  and  If  aching.     So  it,  can  be  .seen  tliut  clover  is  one  r  .In' 


W 


',? 


vitli  Hll, 

cliffs     111     I 
HIS    I'l'l  II      I 

ir  Uid'lii  I   . 

'|ll  lull,    I'  .1 

ill.lrs  Im  •■ 
nllnril  I  Im' 
irli  si';i  "11, 
lis  :ii>'l  <  i 
llir  Uilrii>  II 
llMII'fll    u  i<  li 

III  wiilks  h| 

iirri'iiinliii  ' 

iiiiiiil;iiiiiii.; 
il  \  (it  :i  lii'M 
mlrt'il  ciHiM 
r  Imi;,'  cuili- 

IClltS    (l|      till' 

llirtirii'^  nt 
.I'll  mil .  ami 
llirr,  tll.il  II 
II,  jorct's  rail 
(ilit\.      Mai- 

CdllH'    llfjlijl' 
.1(1    nllt'41n\MI 
IlltlVall'ill. 

ml   riiiiiiuli 

hrrr    W    11" 
I.  tlir  llin;i' 

ami  III  ili/- 

IllSlltlii'lrlll. 
itll  crnji  •ll'l 
arclifil    li'V 

WlTI'     flMlllll 

iici'cssarv  1" 
;i(ru;4i'li  vva- 
re,     InlliHii',' 
LJ   lllisnhnl  ; 
y.  it  wa^  ilis- 
V  is  I  111'  !"^l 
ajiiiri'l'i '  i''' 
i(>  iiiil  <•     '"' 
tlii'iiiii^li  '111' 
(ViT  pla'  '  is 
Kit,  ■    -In  ill" 
I,..  l...t    ■   '111 
is  ((111'  I      II'' 


/•///•;  cHMi'iiy's  rno(ii{i:ss  /,v  Af.iti'ii.n  i;i: 


;w<,» 


I,  I  \aliliililc  |iliilils  wliirli  (Mil  III-  ^I'liuii  nil  till'  liuiii,  till'  till-  ira.iih  llial  iIk' 
,1  1 1  I'll  II  Im>  III  ili/.nl  lis  till  II I  1 1 II'  stiM'k,  wliili'  still  ^'rnit,  liriii<lil,  iiiiii'rs  tn  tin'  soil, 
.1  III-  Iritility  is  iiirp-ly  stmiil  in  llir  ninis,  wliirli  riiiiiinl  lie  iisnl  Im my 
i>  I  r  |iiir|ii)si',  iiml  as  liy  tin*  art  mil  hI  tlirsf  nmts  tin*  iiii'riiaiiiriil  rniiilitiiui  nt 
Ih  siiil  is^i'i'ally  iiii|iruvril.  I''iirtlii'r,  llii>  ilnisi' sliiiilr  Ilir  pliiiit.  iitlnnl.-.  in 
ill  I'sclicniical  iirlinniii  tlir  sml,  wliirli  iiiakrs  planl  Inml  iiviiiliilili' lliiil.  wmilil 
Ml  ''iwis)'  irliiain  ilirl't.  nm-  nj  thr  must  wnmlrl'tlll  tliilii^s  riinnrrti'ii  with 
|i  MJitA'  is  that.  (Jiiil  liiis  sii  liii'kfil  it  ii|)  in  tin'  raitli  that  im  '.sni'ily  ^,'i'iirra- 
ih  .ran  fxliaiist  it,  mih!  that,  tin'  KiTiitcst,  si  nnrf  ul  li'itility  is  tin'  atiiins|»lii'ii', 
Ui    i^r  srrl'i'ts  al'i'   just    lirili^;  ijisnis  rrril. 

\ii  l'",ii^;lish  srii'iitist,  hiis  ii'ci'iitly  aiimninrnl  that,  li\  tlif  an!  ul drrl  i  inly, 
|i,i  iiisiii'il  liy  i'lii'a|>  uatrr  |in\vi'i'.  nitrati'sran  lir  maiiiilartiiitil  ilm  ri  |y  liniii 
iIm  atiiiiis|ilirri'  SII  as  In  ii'ilnri'  t  licir  cost,  tn  Icsslhiin  one  toiiith  what  it  lias 
In  irlotoi'i'   lici'ii.       \;,'aiii.  the  iiiti'lli^,'i'iit,  use  ol' clover  will   cnalile  the  liiiiner 

III   I'i'illice    tint    I'ost,    of    chcliiical     li'l'tili/ci's    to 


III    {lI'OI 


III 


ce   his   own    nitio'-eii   ai 


hall  what  it  usually  in  when  coiitainiiivc  nitio^'cn.  This  liriii^;s  ns  to  the 
.|iii'slion  itl  coiiimeicial  leit  ili/eis.  With  the  siiii,'li'  exi'i'|.t  inn  ol  ^'iiaiio,  they 
ai'c  a  |iroilimt,  of  the  last  tliini  of  the  ccntiiiy.  'I"he  liisl  step  tnwanl  tin 
(i|  rciiiiliiei'cial  lertili/eis  Wiis  li\  .inalv/iii'^  niir  liainsanl  maiiiires.      \\  hfi 


'II    llie 


rjniiiist,  iliscoveleil  t  hat  a  ton  or  niolc  u  Inch  the  rainicl'  illew  mil,  lalinl'imi-,|y 
Willi  twn  hni'scs  to  the  tie|i|  cniil;iinci|  lull  twenty  or  thirty  |ioiimls  of  actual 
liiiit    loorl.   —  the  remaimler  licin;4  water,   saml,  ami  nl  her  ileail  iiiattci,  —  I  lie 

lir\l    sti'|»  was  In  cnlllliilie    the    tlil'i Ii'liients   essential    to  a    lieilect    lel't  lli/i'l' 

III     iicli  |iro|ini'tiniis  that  a  -  iii;^le  sack  umilil  iioiil  eiimi^'h  manure  lor  an  anc 
(>l  '^11  III  III  I  :   anil  in  tens  ot  t  hmisamls  ol   cases.  I  he  a|i|ilii'al  inn  ol    I  Ins  .iimiiinl 
111  Icrtili/'i'i'  has  incicaseij  the  wheat  ei'n|i  tioin  li\'e  to  lilleen  liiishel-,  |iii  ai-ie. 
I  lull  III  in  I,'  the  .i,'rass  i'rn|>  which  Inllowcil,  whi.'li  in  tiini.  ;iiiil,l  lirmi^'h  I  he  iii"ii 
iiice  of  the   lei'tilizer,  loi'ineil  a   swni'd    which,  liy  it„s  lieciiy,  reitili/ed  a  thii'l 


•liiji  w 


hen  it,  was  tiiincil  iimlei'  in  the  mlatinn 


T 


•iiieiit,   in   I'ei'tili/ers  ol   next    i 


iii|iorlaiici«   to   iiitrnf^'eii    is    |ilins|ihorii 


iiiiiii 


il,   ami   the  lirsl.  sniirce    Irmii  which    this  was  ohtaineil    was    the    liones   nl 
lais.     lint,  the  sii|i|ily  Irom  animals  ^laie^hlcrerl  was  entiiely   iii-aitlicicni  ; 


ami  SII  thi'Lji'eal,  [ilaiiis  of  t he  West  were  'gleaned,  ami    tens  ot    tlmnsamls  ol 
liiiis  iif  linllaln   lioiies  well'   u'athcieil  ami  -^hiiiiicil   l'",ast  to  feit  ili/e  mir  larms. 

I'lill   >nn|i   tllissniirce   liCLrailto   Walie;     then   I  W  n  ot  her  son  ice>,   |  iiact  ic;i  1 1  \     iliex- 
-tilile,    of    tills    il|(|is|ii'lisalile    eli'iiient    were    i|  iscnvereil,  —  the     lilio^iihatl! 


Iiail 


|lllO>|l 

iiiilis  of  the  Smith  ami  the  irnn  sla'4  Irnin  furnaces,  each  nf  whicli  is  fmiml  to 
inlllaillil  liir.Lfc  |M'|' cent  nf  |i||iis|iliorii' aciil  ;  iiiiil  when  the  mck  is  i|issnl\ei|  Ky 
iii'iils  ami  the  ski'^  i;rminil  loan  iiii|)al|i;ililc  |inw(|i'r  liy  iiiiichinery  ,  the  fert  ili/- 
iii,^  eleiiienls  in   lintli  are  iniiml  In  he  as  availal»le  ami  valnalile  iis  that,   from 


Hies.      'I'lie   siijijih'    of   ootiish   was  ohtaiiieil  at  first    Irnin  wnod  ;islic 


s.   Wlileli 


till'  I'IcariiiL;' of  t  he  i'ariiis  :iml  the  nni\crsal  use  ol  wood  ns  fuel  iii.'idc  alain- 
'laiit.  Iiiit  later,  when  these  sources  were  no  lniiL,'er  snfJicienf.  |iotasli  salts 
ui'i'c  foiiiid  ill  lai'Lje  (|naiitities 'where  they  cmild  lie  mined  from  the  earth,  so 
tli,il   now  there  >i'eiiis  to  lie  in  si'^ht   an  incxlianstilile  su|i|ily  of  the  elinicnts 


IlI'lM 


led   for  Jiliilit    fnnij.       i,ike  almost.  e\e|'V   reform,  the  use  nf  cninlliercial    te 


r- 


tili/crs  was  o|)|insed  liittcrly  hy  many  farmers,  and  statements  were  'iiade  \>v 
'lii'Mi  that  flieir  effects  on  the  soil  "err'  like  those  of  whiskey  or  other  stimii- 
laiils  on  the  hodv.  and  that  the  ultimate  result  of  their  use  would   he  that  tjie 


In 


i.ii 


I 


t 


rm 


■  •  I 


330 


TlilUMPIlS   AND    WONDKliS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CEXTUUY 


J 


% 


'M 


soil  would  lii'fomc  l)iirn'ii.     .Many  n'tuscd  to  use  thcui  at  all  ;  otluTs.  afti 
siugU'  trial  made  without  hitt'lligiMicc,  dcuouuced  tlicni  as  llund)U^^s.      llui 
tlu'V  saw  ou  the  t'aruis  (d'  their  ui'iyhlMirs  the  woiuh-rlul  results  t'runi  their  i; 
they  have  heeu  j,M'adually  led  to  adopt  tiieui.  uutil  now,  with  uiosf  i'aruiers,  i    . 
question  no  loujj;er  is,  ''('au  I  aflord  to  use  coniniercial  I'ertili/ers  ',' "  hut  rath'  . 
"Can  I  aft'ord  to  do  witiu)ut  them  '.'  " 

VI.      I.MI'l!OVi;.Mi:\T     IN     A<il;i(  1   l,Tl   IIAI,     i:iH  (  ATIOX. 

To  one  who  has  followed  the  writer  to  this  point,  it  must  lie  apiiarent  thj 
tlu'  farmer  of  to-day  has  ma<le  ]trot,'ress  in  the  knowledj;e  of  Ids  ealliui;  In  ii 
least  as  great  an  e.xh'ut  as  he  has  improvt'd  in  his  nietluids,  and  that  ih, 
tei'ins  "farm  ilrudi,'e "  and  "elodhopper "  are  misapplied  and  sho\Uii  In 
obsolete.  There  is  no  other  industrial  cidlini,'  in  which  one  touches  uatiin 
and  seiem-e  at  so  nutny  points,  or  which  tj;i\('s  such  good  oiiportunit 
develop  the    perfect    man,  - 


ICS     1( 


the    sound   mind   in  the  sound    Itodx, 


that  of  the  iarmer.  .VdnuttiuL;  that  not  all  farmers  understand  tin- 
and  live  up  to  their  jirivilencs.  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  the  farm  oltn- 
a  y:reat  ojiportunity  to  develop  and  hroath'U  tin-  mind  ;  that  the  last  (|n;ii- 
tcr  of  the  century  has  l)rou;.iht  into  active  ojieration  fiu'ces  which  li;i\i 
touched  and  influenced  a  larp'  ]ier  cent  id'  the  tillers  of  the  soil;  and  tlin 
the  leaven  of  education  is  working,'  nughtily.  The  intellijj;ent,  studimi- 
I'armer  lu'comos  a  practical  botanist  as  he  studies  the  i,frowth  and  halpii> 
of  jtlauts.  As  he  is  (U'pendent  more  than  any  other  man  ujion  the  weatlin 
and  must  chaui^t'  his  ]ilans  frecpiently  to  correspond  with  climatic  ciiani;i>, 
he  hecomes  a  me.teorolot,'ist.  .Myriads  of  insects,  which  include  both  cin'- 
ii\ies  and  friends,  make  him  a  student  (d'  entomolo;j:y  ;  ami  l)ie  wondnlul 
1    Itv   which    offensive  and   iioisonous  nmtters  are  tran- 


alchemy    of    the   soi 
muted   into  LTolden 


irrain,  luscious   fruits,   vesic 


tall). 


iml 


11 


owers.  calls  Im 


a   knowledi^e  ot   cheiuist'y.     'I'lie    use    of    modern    machinery  develop 

mechanical   powers:  and  the  man  on   the  farm   develops  in   more  direct 

am 

who  earns    his    liviu''   hv   his  own    labor. 


i"ii- 


1   has  an  opportunity  to  acipiire  a   broailer  education   than  any  other  ii 


To  sustain  this  statement,  it  i- 
only  necessary  to  enumerate  the  educational  opportunities  and  privile-c- 
now  o|ien  to  the  fai'mer  ami  which  are,  to  a  ;j;ieat  extent,  utilized  by  liii!. 
First,  what  tin-  tjovernment  is  doinj,'  for  him.  No  otlier  callin.i;  is  n|'i' 
sented  in  the  cabinet  of  the  I'lesident,  and  time  and  expericce  have  ilr 
monstrated  the  wisilom  'd  a  Secri'tary  ol  Ai^'ricultiire.  Mot  only  arc  wr 
♦  listinctively  an  airricultural  people,  but  the  piosperity  of  the  nation  n,- 
jiciids  on  the  intelli;.,''''!''''  ""d  prosperity  (d'  the  iarmer  more  than  on  !, 
other  classes  conibiiicd.  Not  only  must  the  food  supply  of  our  people  \<r 
furnished,  but  the  tbreii^Mi  demand  must  be  met:  and  this  j;ives  to  thr 
farmers  money  to  spend,  so  that  the  industries  whi.h  contribute  to  lliu 
wants  shall  share  in  the  ufcneral  prosperity.  While  there  are  many  lioiinr- 
able  and  useful  caliin.i,'s,  ai,'riculture  seems  to  lie  the  only  om*  which  ton«  i  ■  - 
and  alfects  all  others.  'I"he  iinancial  importaiK-e  ol  aij;rii'iilliire  is  sin 
by  the  fai-t  that,  after  the  wants  of  the  nation  were  supplied,  in  the  \  n 
iS'.t?  we  exporti'd  in  round  numbers  .•!!«( I'.Mt.Ot It i.(»(M)  worth  of  au'iicultural  ; 


ducts,  (U'  nearly  (»7  per  I'cnt  (d'  the 
enormous  increase  of  imitorts  <d'  W( 


en 


tire  exports;  and  notwitiislandiii 


iml  su''; 


ir,  in  iinticipation  ot  incn 


Wi 


lilt 


77//1  CEyruiiY's  i'iiO(mi-:ss  i\  a(;i:icultui{E 


WM 


If    Wdllili'ltUl 


tt'lllt'lll.    U 


(,  tit's,  tilt!  iKiliincf!  of  tratlf  on  a^'riciilliinil  products  lur  tlic  yrav  \v:is 
,<  S'.».(HH>.(M)(».  and  the  t-xiiort  of  at^ricultural  products  lor  the  oirrciit  fiscal 
J    w  woidd  sliow  still  lar,y:('r  tii,niics. 

! 'onsidiM'iny;  the    spocitic,   educational    iuHucnccs   which  arc   eh-vatiui,'  the 
1     uuT  and  his  calling,  we  enumerate  the  I'ollowing :   Agiicultnral  literature. 


iiiers    organizations. 


includiii''   i'arniers"  chilis,   lariners"  institutes,  and 


t       (i  range, 


jricultnral   experiment    stations,   and  agricultural   colleges, 


a'!  (if  which  have  eontrilnited 
t!  'ir  sjiare  to  the  intelligence 
ad  prosperity  »d'  the  farmer, 
a'd  all  arc!  products  of  the  last 
liilf  of  the  ceiiturv.  To  give  an 
iididligent  idea  of  the  help  which 
tlirse  intluences  have  brought  to 
tlic  farmer,  it  is  necessarv  to  treat 
tliciii  to  some  extent  in  iletail. 
Kiist.  agricultural  literature.  .Ml 
that  is  necessarv  to  an  under- 
si.inding  of  the  progress  in  this 
iliicction  is  to  get  one  of  the  verv 


Iti 


li\\  so-called  agricultural  papi'r.s 

(i|  tifty  years  ago  and  compare  it 

Willi  those  of  to-day.     Not  only 

ii.ne  they  multiplied  a  hundreillold,  hut  while  the  ioriuer  largely  contained 

>liltcd  arti(des   writti'ii   Ity   theorists,   to-day   every  page  is   full  id'  jiractical 


III 


>truction   written    Itv    farmers,  and   often    liv 


specialists    w 


ho   1 


iav(v  s] 


lent 


\cars  in  improving  some  line  of  iarniiiig  or  stock  lirecding.  Most  of  our 
ic^riciiltiiral  papers  h;ive  a  staff  of  paid  emit lihutors,  nearly  all  td  whom 
lia\c  made  a  success  in  some  lirancli  of  fariiiing  ;  and  so  mixious  are  tiie 
|iiililishcrs  of  these  papers  to  give  their  readers  all  the  help  possible,  that 
llic\  seaitdi  out  I  he  men  who  nc  prospering  on  the  farm  and  engage  llieir 
.services  as  instructors   lor  their  reailers.     The   journals  devoteil  to  iigriciil- 


liiif  lire  numbered  bv  hundreds,  some  of  them  devoted  to 


a  siiiiTle 


line.  — 


Miih  as  sheep,  poultry,  or  gardening.  —  and  others  with  wtdl  classified  de- 
|urimcnts  which  give  instruct  ion  on  all  points.  In  addition  to  this,  nearly 
all  of  lilt!  weeklies  have  a  page  id'  agriculture,  usually  conducted  by  a  farmer 
III-  Mime  one  with  |iiactical  knowledge  of  I'arii;  work.  'I'liere  are  no  secrets  in 
a',Miciiltuie.  and  every  farmer  is  remly  to  impart  to  all  any  valuable  informa- 
timi   he   acipiiii's.      limners  ajipreciate   the  value   of  these   helps  and   make 


use  of  them,  and  the  ciicidalioii  of  the 


papers  is  enormous. 


r>\   l-'armers' ( 'liibs  we  mean  those  orgatii/ations  of  farmers,  governed  by 


ci'iistitutioiis  an 


to|ii( 


d  I 


il  ii\-laws.  w 


lio  meet    at    stated    times   for  the  discussion  of 


connected  with  the  imiirovemeiit  of  their  calling.  'I'here  are  no  sta- 
tistics available  from  which  can  be  gathered  the  extent  of  this  movement,  but 
t 'liiiireports  lifly  idubs  and   has  formed  a  state  organization.      In   Michigan. 


\\\\ryv   the   clubs    are    oryani/ed    mi    a  different    basis.    .'!(>.(I(M»   nicml 


lers   are 


I'lUtcd;  Ihev   havi    also  formed  ;i   state  organization,  which  was  attended 


.'(M»  tlelegates  at    the  lasl    meeting.      India 


iia    IS 


but    littii 


aiiv.  heliiinl 


■sc  two  States,  and  the  cluli  idea  is  rapidly  s]ireailing  through  the  Norlli- 


ij 


V\ 


'   i.n 


W% 


M 


il 


:l  I 


II 


■XVI       Tiur.Mrns   i.v/)  ]\().\i>i:h's  or  the  mx'"  cExrih')' 

oni  States.  I'litM'c  arc  two  t'oriiis  (if  tlicsi'  chilis,  oih'  n|'  wliicli  limits  i 
iiii-iiilu'i's]ii|i  to  Iwclvf  I'aiiiilics,  and  the  in<'i>tiii!i;s  arc  all  licM  at  llicjinih 
ol  llic  mciiilicrs,  oin*  cadi  moiilli.  The  ail\aiila,y;cs  o|'  this  plan  arc  scmi 
First,  witli  llic  chili  thus  iiniitcil.  the  horses  can  lie  stahh'd  and  cared  lor  di 
iii;^'  inclcmcut  weather  ol'  winter.  Second,  tin-  wives  need  |ire|iare  lint  m 
meal   in  the  year  Toi'  the  chih;   while  with  the  Imj^c  clnli  it  is  neccssarv  I 


III 

!•  II 


each  slionld  eontriliiile  to  a  hasUct  dinner  for  every  niectin^.  which  n| 
causes  as  much  troiihle  as  to  |ire|iare  tin-  meal  lor  the  entire  chili  oik  !•  i 
year.  Third,  the  attendance  is  sure  to  he  more  re,i;nlar  in  the  small  clnh,  ;iiii| 
one  condition  of  meiiilicrshi|i  is  that,  every  niemhcr  shall  he  |iresenl  a! 
iiicctimj;   unless   iirovidentially    detained.      l''onitli.   with   a    clnh  of   this 


e.ii  h 


li'.Tr 


every  mcinlier  can  take  part  in  the  discussion,  ami  there  w  ill  he  less  da 
of  a  few  ••talkers"  monopoli/.in.L(  the  time.  l''il'tli.  the  socinl  fealiircs  m 
the  small  chih  are  very  inncli  licttcr  than  in  the  lar,L;e.  Most  of  the  clnh. 
ill  Ohio  and  Indiana  are  ori^ani/iMl  on  this  hasis.  while  in  Micliii;an  it  is  \>\n\,. 


alile  that  most   of  the  chilis  have  an  iinliinited  nieiiihershi|i.     'j'l 


e     Oll{CC'l  lull 


is  soinctinics    iiri^ed   that   the   small    clnh  seems  scllish.   lint   as  anv   twiK 


or  even  six    laniilies  are  at    lilierlv  to  orj'ani/.e  a   clnh  this  ohicct 


jcciion   IS  iim1 


valid. 

.\s  many  farmers  who  would    like  tn  or^ani/e  may  nol    he  ahle  to  lin 
form  of  constitution  and  liy-laws.  il  seems  projier  to  ■4i\e  one  here. 


rrii  III 


hir. 


I{ecoi,Mii/int;  the  fact  that  fanners  need  ;in  opportunity  to  compare  inctliuiU 
and  to  cultivate  their  social  qualities,  and  considering;  that  ••  As  iron  slmip 
eiietli  iron,  so  a  man  sharpeneth  the  connlenance  (d'  his  friend."  in  order  ili.ii 
we  may  he  mutually  helpful  to  each  other  in  matters  rdatiie^  to  hnsliaudi\. 
home  comfort,  and  econoni\.  we  do  form  oiiisehes  into  an  association  known 
as  the  — - 


l''ariuers'  Clnh  ( lill   the  hlaiik  with   the  name  you  wish  to  i 

tor  \our  cluh  |.  and  ailo]il  for  onr  .i;o\crnmi'nl  I  he  follow  in;;- :  — 

(  iiiisfll iiI'khi. 
Artlilr  1.   The  oMiccrs  shall   he  j'resident.  \'ice  I'rcsideiit.  Secretarv, 'I' 


l^c 


surer,  am 


I  lal 


iiarian.  w  ho  slia 


II  he  elected  aniiuallv   ill  Novi'inher.  and  a 


SSIIIIir 


their  duties  in  .laniiarv  (d'  the  foil 


owiiil;-  vear. 


. I /•//</(■  '_'.   The  duties  (d'  these  ollicers  shall  he  such  as  pertain  to  the  olli. ,  , 
in  other  <H'i,'aiii/atioiis  and  are  indicated  liy  the  name  ol  the  ollicc 

Arlii'lr  .'!.   Theai'tive  iiiemhers  of  this  cliili  shall  he  ein,'ai;cd  in  a.nricull  in  il 
pursuits,  lint  honorary  iiiemhers  may  he  elected  hy  unanimous  vote.      lloii'>i 
ary  lui'inhers  are  uol  ohlii;cd  to  attend  all  the  mcclini^s.  hut  will  he  wclcim  '  i 
to  anv. 


Art!i/c  \.   .Vpplicatioii   for  meiuhersliip  must   he  snhmitted  at   11 


le  niecl i 


previous 


to  their  lieiiii;  hallot.ed  for,  and  mcmliers  will  he  admitted  on  r> 


U'^  a  twd-tiiirds  vote  hy  hall  of ;  hut-  the  memhership  sliall  he  limited  to  I ' 


families. 


Arfir/r  ."i.    ,\mendnieiifs  may  he   made  at  any  re^'iilar  meeting'  hy   a 
thirds  vote  of  the  active  iiiemhers. 


Iiniils  iliM 

the  llniHc  ; 
iii'i'  st'\ n  il, 
red  lor  ili;i 
irr  lull  mil' 
'(•ss;irv  lli.M 
k'liicli  nlii  n 
'liil)  diii'i'  I 
ill  clllli,  :iii>l 
<^'\\\  :il  iMi  II 

ll'     tllis     M/C 

less  iliiii'. MT 
rciilurcs  III 
it'  llir  I'liil.. 
II  it  is  |iii>li. 

|l<     IlltjCI'l  ll  III 

iiiiy  IwrKi' 
I'lidli    IS   imt 


ill'C   llll'l  linils 

<  iron  sli;ii|i 

M   cil'lli'l'   I  ll.il 

I  linsiiiiiiili  \ . 
it  idii  l\iii>\\  ll 


mill    llSSIIIIir 


77//-;  r/':\Tri{)'s  i'i:o(.i:i:ss  /.v  MiUicri.rruE 


lUi-l 


\\x\ 


il-liiirs. 

1.    'I'Ik^  ('lull  sliail   niccl   ;||    |Ih>  rrsnli'licc  nl   (ilir  ol   till'   illi'llllii'is  nil  till'  llillrj 
I    iirsiliiy  III' iMi'li  iiiiiiilli,  ill  ti'ii  iM'liirk.  iiivitMt  inns  tn  wliii-li  sliiill  Ih'  liiiiili'il 

1       I  111-   llllSll'SH  ol'  till'  llilA  . 

.'.   'I"lu'  club  sliiili    In-  i';illril    to  onlrr  liy  tlir  |nrsii|i'nt.  ;iltrr  ,'iii   lioiii  s|ii'iil 


III   -III 


iiil  iiilrn'iiiirsc.  iiini  tlir  oiiIit  ol  rxcrcisi-s  sliiill  lir  ;i  <  loll 

lii'inliii.^'  iiiiil  :i|i|iroviiiL;  niiiiiitrs  ol  l:ist  i tiip^. 

Moiitlilv  riM'ord  of  I'liiii'iit  rvnils. 


oU.-i 


iSc 


linns,  rrrltill  ions,  rssiivs. 


ll.    All joiirniiii'iil,  lor  (liniH'r  ;iii(l  sorinl  inli'iroiirsi'  iintii  two  d'clock. 


hisi'iissinii ;  so  I'onijnctril    us   to:i\oii|  nil  i|iirstioiis  ol    |iolil  irs  iniij  the 


ci|'"-CV. 

/'.   (,*iii'slioii  ilrjiwiT. 

'/.    Misi'i'llimi'iiiis  liKsiiirss. 

Ill  onliT  lliiit.  I  III'  work  III  III)'  rliili  iii;iy  In'  sysli'iiiiit  ir  iiml  Mi"  linn-  Inlly 
III  rii|iiril,  ;i  |irii^riiiiiiiir  rovi'iiiii;  t  lir  I'lit  iir  \  r;ir  is  |iri'|ijiiT(l  iiiiil  |iiiiilt'(l  so  us 
|o  111'  ri'iiily  lor  ilisliiliiition  ;it  IIh'  I  (rrriiilirr  iihtI  iii;,^  ol  riii-li  yi'iir.  Tlifit  tlic 
ri'MiliT  iiiiiy  iiiiilrrsti'Uiil  Ilii-  workiiiLC  ol  lliis  |iliiii,  ;i  Irw  liipics  will  lir  .!,Mvt'n, 
t.ikrii  Iroiii  IIk'  |iroi,r|';iniiiir  ol  llir  I'liili  nl  wliicli  tlir  wiitiT  is  ;i  nii'iiilirr :  — 


.1 


iiiniii'v . 


Tllf  ('lull  will   llH'i't   III    llir  liollir  ol    Ml'. 


'i'liiirsiliiN.  till'  I'.Mli 


'lion 


Ml 


Ml 


7'iifiir  :    A   i('\  lew  III  till'  |iii'\  inns  \i';ir. 

I'liirii  iiiriiilifi'  will  nivi'  in  wiilin.L,'  :i  st,;itriin'iit,  nl    |irolils  iinil  Inssrs  lor  tin 
yi'iii'  iimli'i'  till-  Inllnwin^  Ih'iiiIs  :  — 

I.  (irlii'l'lll  rrnps  },'l'nwii  iUlil  !l('rcil},'i'  .'Mill   vii'M  t  ln'lii  il'. 

'J.  W'liiit  s|M'i'i,'il  ri'n|is  liiiM'  lii'i'ii  r;iisi'il. 

.'I.  Stnck  I'liisi'il  nr  liiinilli-il. 

I.  W'liiit  i'X|ii'iiini'nts  Imivc  Iiitii  inmli'  nn  tin'  r;niii. 

r».  W'li.'il  losses  III  slock,  or  cioiis.  iiinl  tlic  I'lin^c  llii'ii'iil'. 


line 


'I'lie  cinl)  will  iiiect  ;it  the  hoiiie  ol   Mr. 
'riiiirsii;iy,  the  irdh. 
Select  inn M  r- 


l'ii|i('r:    '•  I  liiiilriiiices  to  sliei'|i  niisiie,'  ;niil  how  to  ;ivniil  tlieiii. 


Ml 


'/'iifiir  :    'I'lie   i'';i  liner's   i'.lirii. 


1.    K'ellltive  si/e  tn  rariii. 

'_'.    Kni'iitinii  anil  L;i'niiii(l  |ilaii. 

.").    .Xiraii'^eiiient  n|  staliliir^.  leeilin,'.  ami  wafer  ennvetiiniices. 


\.   I'laii  Inr  saviic'  man 


lire 


li 


i 


f  I 


i 


ll 


I 

i 


I 


'I 


i 


\'  1 


!ii 


iiii 


:m       TinrMi'iis  .i.\7>  no\in:iis  or  ri/i-:  a/.v"  <i:.\ti m 

I'.itlii'i'  ;i  ^t'litlciiiiin  or  :i  l;iil_v  is  ;i,|(|i(iiiit,('(l  to  ()|i(mi  fiicli  t(i|iic.  iit'tcr  w  1 
till'  siilijcct  is  (i|M'iH'(|  Inr  i|iii'sl  ion  or  ilisciissioii  liy  ;iiiv  iiiriiilirr  of  llic  < 
I'uriiiL,'  one  iiionlli  of  llic  smiiiiici'.  iisiiiillv  fliily  or  Aii^Mist,  a  [liiMiic  l;iki'> 
|i|;ii('  ol  till-  n';4iil;ir  iiicci iiiy;.  at  wliirli  a  liaskcl  ilimicr  is  scrvcil. 

l'":M'iii<'rs'  i  list  it  111  rs  air,  in  t  lie  hrst  sense  ol'  (lie  word,  a  I'arnieis'  seliool. 


wliile  it  i> 


an  tweiitv  vears  siiiee   their  lirsl  or.i,Mni/a(ion.  iiearlv  all     t 


tlie  Slates,  at    ii'asi    in   tiie   Norlli 


eoiidiiet  in''  llieiii   to  a   yi'eater 


or 


exleiil.      As  ( )liio  elainis   tlie  liotmr  ol    inaiiL^iirat  in,u   tliis   niovenienl.  ami  1 1 
writiT  is  more  laniiliar  willi   tlie  plan  of  or;_Miii/at  ion  ami    tin'  woiU  of  i 


ii 


lutes  ill  tlial  Slate  tiiaii  an\  oilier,  some  Jaets  eoneerniiiL;'  tl 


leiii  will  he  ''\\ 


I  l> 


le   Inst    attemp 


■|'l 

the  seM'li 


I     to    teaell    tlie    fanners    h\    leetUI 


e  eoiirses  w as  niaile  laii    n 


ties  at  tlie  Ohio  Slate  Ai;rieiilt  iiral  ( 'ollei;!'.  when  a  course  of  ei'_;l 


ilV 


h'etiires   on    sil 


neeis    eo 


iiiieeledwith    faiiii    interests  wei'e    f^iveii,  all   of 


III  ;i^ 


li\    I  professors  ol    t  lie  eolle'^e.        Tiiis    lilst    eoilise    oeeiipied    live  weeks  ;   ai 
it  was    ionnd  that  Imt  a  limited  iiumlter  of  farmers  eoiild    he  imlneed  to  li  ;i 
their  liomes  and  eare  of  I  heir  stock    in    the  winter,  and    tliaf  liie  atlcndan 


was  o 


nlv  aliont   forts,  the  nest    two   \ears   the  conrse 


was  shortened  in  In 


thai  a  larger  attendance  mi'^ht  result,  luil  such  was  not  the 


case 


Til 


en  sdii 


one  sll'4j;'ested.  "  If  the  fanners  will  not  come  to  the  leelnres.  wli\  Hot  l;il.r 
the  leelnres  to  I  he  farmers'.'"  ami  the  oiilcoiiie  of  this  siiL;;.;est  ion  has  iicrn  a 
woiidi-rlnl  success;  t!ie  State  hohliie^  t  hree  hnndred  inslitntes  in  the  winlri 
of  |S<,I7  and  IS'.IS.  under  a  law  |iro\idin'_;  a  fund  for  that  |iiir|iose,  and  o\ri 
a  hundred  inde|ieiident  institutes  in  addition,  hy  which  is  ineanl  inslilniis 
in  whiidi  the  local  oii^ani/al  ion  pays  its  own  expenses  and  chooses  its  own 
lecturers  and  snlijects. 

The  work  in  most  id  oiir  Stales  is  tlioi'iiii;lil\  or.L^.nii/ed,  a  fund  pro\  ii|i  li 
to  meet  the  espeiises  id  the  wiirk,  ]ilaced  in  some  States  under  the  tdiai^i  fj 
the  Secretary  of  Ai^ricultnre.  and  in  otliers  in  eliar,i,'e  id'  a  siiperiiitcmjini 
«d  instiliites.  'I'lie  farmers  liave  met  this  effort  for  t  heir  improvement  wuli 
i;reat  eiitliiisiasiii.  and  the  atlemlance  is  usually  limited  liy  the  size  oj  ilir 
hall  provided.  .Ml  jiartisan  and  sectarian  i|iicsl ions  are  ris^'inously  cxchidcil 
from  the  discussions.      .\  luilletin  is  issued  in  the  fail,  whiidi  irives  the  naims 


iri,'c  CO 


rps  of  lecturers  and  a    list   of  snliieets,  and   these  are  sent  toil 


oHicers  id    liie  heal   or;4aiii/.al ions,  from  which   lliey  can  scdect  smdi  topic-  :i- 

Half  of  the    time  of  each   session    is   allotted    to  ili> 


ti 


lev    Wlsli    (liscusseil 


stale  lecturers,  while  local  talent  is  expected  to  fill  the  other  half.  flu' 
.greatest  pussilile  freedom  is  allowed  in  askini;  (|iiest  ions  and  discnssiic,;  i  lie 
work  of  the  speakers,  and  no  oilier  ediicalional  inlliieiiee  which  has  conn  \,, 
tlie  farmer  has  eip-aled  tiial  offered  hy  these  iiieeliiit^s.  .\1.  the  (dose  of  c.u  li 
year  the  liest  papers  and  discussions  are  printed  in  a  Itiilletin  for  free  di--iii- 
hutioii  ainoui^'  the  farmers,  and  are  !j;iveii  out  at  the  mecliiii,'  the  ensuiii!,'  vcn, 
or  are  mailed  from  the  otiice  of  the  Secretary  id'  the  Stale  Itoard  of  .\i;iii  m1- 
tnre  on  application. 

Tiie  (ii'ant;e  was  ort,Mni/ed  at  Washinj^toii,  l>.  < '.,  in  \Si\7.  hut  existed  m  !\ 
on  pajier  until  .laiiuary,  IS7.'!.  when  the  first  lueetiiii;  (d'  the  National  <li:ni;r 
convened  at  (ieor^etown,  !>.  ('.,  with  d(dej,'ates  from  ten  States.  It  v  i- 
started  as  a  seer<'t  society,  with  a  ritual  and  dei^rces.  and  seemed  to  c  ii  li 
the  popular  fancy  amoiiji;  the  i'anuers.  ,\l  the  iiicetiiif^  (d'  the  Nati"  il 
(Jran-^'e  in  1S74,  thirty-two  States  were  represented. 


■filltrliili  III 


hsiiiii;j:  \tii. 


'/'///•;  (7<;.V77  7.')  •>■  /'/,'of,7.'/.;.s',s  /y  Atiuicri/rrnE  :i:ir. 

I'idliiihly  111!  oilier  iiri^aiii/iitiiiii  Ims  nmtlt' so  r;i|(i(l  \\  ^'ni\vlli;is  tliis.  A  l;iri,'r 
,  iiiciit,  lidWt'ViT.  ul' till' im'iiilM'rslii|i  was  ;iMrii('tc(|  tn  il  li\  llic  lallv  iii^^ nv  ol 
'  )(i\vii  will)  till'  iiiiildlt'Miaii  ! "  ami  liail  lillli- or  nn  conci'itl  imi  <>t  its  nliira- 
I,  iial  pnssiliilitit's.  liit.tlr  cniml  ry  stcircs  with  vci'v  small  rapital.  and  maiiav^'ril 
li  iiicii  wit  II  mi  hiisim'ss  Iriniiiiii.L^,  sprang  up  at  fvciy  crnss  ruail,  w  liicli.  ('(nil  raiy 
ti  !  lie  ('\|M'ctat.i(Mi  nl' |. heir  IdiiiKlcrs,  (lid  not.  save  monry,  liiil  rrsidli'd  in  snnii' 
V,  liable  liiisiiiess  cdiieatioii  tnr  wliieli  a  ^'ood  tuition  I'ee  was  paid.  'I'lie  reae- 
li  11  wliieli  set  ill  made  il.  seem  for 
;i    ime  as  t  lioii.i^li  t.lie  eiit  ire  order 


U-lll(l      (ll-ill 


II.  le    » 


tl 


ileLi'ialc ;    lint,    loilii- 
lers 


lere    wel'i'    wise    lea( 


w  io  liad  eaii,L,dil.  tlie  true  idea, 
lli.il  tlic  ornaiii/alion  must,  he 
on  an  ediicat  i<ina.l  basis  to 
it  I'ldiii  extinction,  and 
lliiiiiitili   tlieir  en'ort.s   it    lias   lie- 


I' 


lie  a  power   loi"  !^<io(|  in   most. 


jlM'.lll 


ties,  and  has  iieen  ol    L;reai. 


VSIMNWAI.I,    l>ol  \|(i    I'l.Wliai. 


SITV 


iiM'  t.o  the  I'ariiiers.     ( 'oiiiit\-, 


sliite.  and  national  sorielies  have  been  ori^aiiized,  and  im  other  la i.^e  bodies 
oj  laiiiiers  ean  so  ipiiekly  and  tlioidii,i,dily  eoiiperate  in  measiiies  pertainiiiL; 
III  I  he  interests  ol  the  larmer  as  those  beloie^inn  'o  this  order. 

\iiother  eiliieational   i'oree  of  imnii'nse  value  tu  ihe  larmeis  is  ioimil  in  the 
.•Mperimeiit  stations,  w  liieh  are  established  in  i'ver\  ."^tate  oj  t  he  I  nion.    This 


WolU    w 

;i-  ihe  ' 


as  stai'ted  by  an  aet  ol'  ('(ingress,  approved    Mandi  '_'.  ISST.  and  ki 


lown 


llateh   ,\(t.""      I'.v  this  aet   the  sum  ol    ^Sl.'i.lMHt  per  ai m 


was  appro- 


|ir:,ited  lor  eaeh  State  in  the  I'nion.  to  be  specially  provided  by  Coie^ress  in 
ill'  appmpriat ions  I'mm  year  to  year.  In  addition  to  this  sum.  most  nl'  the 
.>l;itcs  have  made  l.ar'^e  appropriat  ions  lor  the  piirehase  (d  suitable  i^fionnds 
;iiii|  t he  erect i<in  til  biiildiie^'s.  ami  to  cover  the  expense  of  printing'  the  le- 
|Miits  and   pamphlets  wlii(di  are  sent.  out.  jree  to  the   larmers  who  apply  lor 


liirlll. 


To  ;4o  a  little  larlher,  the  (piestions  re(|iiiriiij4:  invest  i^at  ion  by  ihe  a.L,'iicid- 
liiial  cNperimeiit  stations  may  be  divided  inln  three  principal  'groups,  accord- 
iiii,'  as  they  ar<'  rehit.cd  to  I  he  soil,  to  t  he  ^^rowt  h  of  cid|is  and  ve^^'cial  ion,  or  to 
ileiiiestic  animals  and  tlieir  prodncts. 

I.     The  soil  is  studied  — 

il)   In   its    varieties,  as   lonnd    in  dill'erent    parts  n|'  the   rarni  and  ol'  tlie 


.Stall 


{-)   In  its   physical    properties,  as  alTeeted   by  tillai,^',  draiiia,i,'e,  inii^Mlion, 

I'tc. 

(.">)    In  its  cli'Miiical  properties,  as  related  to  the  inaintcnaiice  of  Fertility  by 

till'  iisc  of  lertilizers  and  otherwise. 

II.    In  \ciictat  ion  and  crop  jirodiicf  ion  s<ini('  of  Die  objects  of  stiid\  are  ;  — 
il)   N'aricties.   inc|iidinf.j  the  selection  and  dissemination  of  new  sorts  ;  the 

■1 1  III  illation  ot  synonyms  ;  the  comparison  ol'  strains  ol'  varieties ;   the  prodmv 

ii"ii  of  improved  varii-ties.  etc..  etc 

'.')   Ve^'etablc  iiatiioloj^y,  in<:hiding  studies  of  nists,  smuts,  bli^lits.   rots. 

iiiildcws,  etc;. 


lis 


.»  'n 


'II  ^: 


iff 
III 


l?i  ' 


I 


>i 


":;  i  ,  (,  - 


33G 


TllIUMI'IIS  AND   WOMjEHS  OF  THE  A/A"'  CENTURY 


(.'!)  Control  of  injurious  insects. 

(I)  Forcstrv.  t'liiliracin;,'  tlu;  cultuiv  of  t'oivst  trees  lor  wind-breaks,  tor  l.  ,. 
ber,  ior  nuts  and  incidental  products. 

1 II.     In  the  stuilv  of  animals  some  of  the  |)roblems  are  :  —    , 

(1 )  IJreeds  and  their  comparative  values  lor  different  jjurposes. 

(L')   Foods  and  feeding;,  for  j,Mo\vth,  for  meat,  for  milk  and  wool, 

(.'»)  The  diseases  of  animals,  esjieciallx  those  of  contagious,  epizootif.  ■[ 
l)arasiti(;  nature. 

The  stations  have  done  most  valuable  work  along  tlie.se  different  lines.  ,i:h1 
have  contributed  in  a  large  measure  to  the  introduction  of  imi)roved  variiti.  s 
of  cereals,  forage  crops,  and  fruits.  In  the  ease  of  wheat  especially,  tin  iv 
can  be  Jio  doidit  that  the  work  ui  the  stations  has  been  a  factor  of  great  im- 
portance  in  producing  large  yields,  by  stimulating  tlie  farmers  to  a  more  ihk- 
ful  comparison  of  varieties  and  of  methods  of  culture. 

.V  jilan  of  jMirchasing  and  testing  most  of  the  so-called  new  varictio  i.| 
fruits  and  grains  has  been  lollowc.'d  by  some  of  the  stations,  thus  enablin.;  iln' 
farmers  and  fruit  growers  to  judge  whether  such  varieties  are  likely  tn  li, 
su[perior  t(j  sorts  already  eidtivated.  It  has  been  part  of  the  work  of  the  si:i- 
tions  to  expo.se  fraudulent  .sales  of  fruit,  stock,  and  fertilizers.  Much  ollit  r 
work  has  been  and  is  being  done,  but  the  instances  given  .sliow  the  value  nt 
the  investigations  madf;.  As  has  already  bet-n  stated  under  another  heailiiiL;. 
the  otlicers  of  the  exjieriment  .stations  take  an  active  ])art  in*  the  woik  ot 
the  institutes,  and  by  the  frerpu'iit  issuing  t)f  bulletins  ami  their  annual 
'reports  convey  valuable  information  to  the  farmer  in  every  depart nieiit  ^l 
Ills  work.  In  many  States  they  liave  established  reading  courses  for  \\w 
study  of  Nature,  which  are  comlucted  sinnlarly  to  those  in  the  Chautiiui|Ua 
courses. 

In  the  .same  connection  the  work  of  the  IJureau  of  Animal  Industry  slionld 
be  noticed.  I'ossildy  no  other  organization  <d'  the  government  is  doing  s(p 
much  to  save  farmers  from  loss  through  disease  of  stock  and  educating  tiniu 
to  the  same  extent  as  this.  The  orgaidzation  is  made  up  of  men  of  the  higlii>t 
scientific  traiidng,  whose  lives  are  devoted  to  the  study  of  diseases  of  (liiiiir> 
tic  animals  and  whose  w((rk  extends  to  the  testing  of  remedies,  the  inspect  luii 
of  meats,  the  study  of  foreign  nuirkets,  and  everything  that  pertains  tc  ilir 
interest  of  the  stock  growers.  No  disease  can  break  out  in  the  herds  of  livi' 
stock  in  any  ]iart  of  the  country  without  this  bureau  being  at  once  notificil  ol 
it.  and  trained  officials  are  .sent  to  study  all  the  circumstances  connected  wiili 
it  and  to  prevent,  if  possible,  such  disea.se  from  becoming  ejtidemic.  Sumc 
years  ag<i.  when  contagious  iileuro-pm'umonia  had  .secured  a  foothold  in  llii> 
country,  the  I'lureau  of  .\nimal  Industry  set  to  work  to  stamp  it  out.  ThcOlii 
World  was  paralyzed  by  the  euornuty  of  the  undertaking.  Veterinarian>  in 
I'ligland  and  Continental  Kurope  laughed  at  us  and  considered  us  tit  subjii  t> 
for  lunatic  asylums.  ••Hadn't  they  always  had  it?  It  cost  them  niilln'ii- 
of  dollars  annually  in  cattle,  yet  thrii  had  lieeii  unable  to  stamp  it  out.  ami 
most  assuredly  wt;  could  not  do  what  European  veterinarians  could  n "t." 
They  forgot  that  we  were  Yankees.  It  cost  us  many  good  hard  <lcil'  n- 
that  were  lepresentcd  by  large  figures;  but  we  stamped  it  out,  ami  it  i- 
now  been  years  since  "Uncle  Sam"  otticially  declared  the  country  .'<■>■ 
from  it. 


;aks,  tor  t . 


epizootif.  "I 

Mit  liiit's.  ami 
ivtMl  viiri't  11  s 
ccially.  Ill'  ir 
(if  great  iiii- 
)  a  nion'  i  aic- 

,v  viirictio  111 
s  cuiililiii:-;  lilt' 

'    likrlv   tn    lir 

ii'k  oi  tilt'  sta- 

Much  nlhcl 

V  tht'  value  >A 
Dther  lieatliie^. 
\'  the  woiK  el 
I  their  annual 
departnienl  'it 
)urses  Inr  tin' 
lie  Chautaui|ua 

ustry  shoiilil 
is  tl()iii,u  s" 
Heating  tlieiu 
)tthehiglieM 
ises  of  (luiiii>- 
the  insiiL'cii'iii 
rtaius  tn  lln' 
herds  of  liv.' 
lee  iiotilic'l  "t 
)uneeteil  Willi 

(Icillic!.       SnllU' 

ithohl  ill  'lii^ 
nit.  The  I  >l'i 
teriiiarian>  iu 

VIS  tit   suhji't- 

:hem  milli 'U^ 

up  it  nut.  aii'i 

eouhl  II  ' 


(InlMl- 


hard 


lit,  ami  It      1- 


et 


mntrv 


THE   CKXTUIiys   I'l{()(niKSS   IX  AalilcrLTUlU': 


337 


Vuotlier  work  which  this  Iturcau  umlertook  was  tlic  regulation  of  vessels 
ii.  \hicli  cattle  were  exported,  and  they  n-duced  the  losses  so  as  to  save  from 
i\\"  to  thri'c  luillioii  (hdlars  annually  in  the  insurance  of  export  cattle. 
T  ■  greatest  ))ossilile  care  is  taken  to  disinfect  vessels  in  which  iMttle 
li     e   lieen   shi]iped.  and    strict     regulations    arc    estahlished    regulating  the 


f  stalls,  veiitihition.  tiie  nun 


dier  of  cattle   to  li 


le  carried  un  anv  single 


-el.  and  ever\'  point  which  has  a  beariic^  on  the  hi-alth  and  cuiiifort  of  the 
h 


ai    iiiais 


It  was  not  until  alter  I  ho  Civil  War  that  such  a  thing  as  an  agricultural  eid- 
Ii  .''  was  known  in  this  country,  hiil  through  the  action  <d  ( 'oiigiess  very  liheral 
ai  !'ropriati<ins  were  made,  which  in  most  States  were  supplenuMitcd  hy  the  ac- 
•f  the  State  l.egislatures,  and  an  agricultural  college  was  started  in  every 


ii-ii  ( 

Si. lie  of  the  Inion.  In  the  lieginiiing  there  was  much  criticism,  and  without 
(I'l  lilt  many  mistakes  were  made  liy  thoso  to  whom  the  work  was  assigned  ;  hut 
in  A  that  a  geiieiatioii  has  passed,  the  fariiiers  have  come  tn  understand  het- 
i(  1  the  ohjeets  of  these  schools,  and  scieiititic  men  have  heeii  trained  to  do  the 
uiiik;  and  these  men  have  gone  out  into  other  (h'partments.  such  as  those 
ah' ady  described,  and  have  made  possiblu  the  splendid  achievements  wliieh 
lia\c  already  l)cen  hinted  at  iu  what  has  been  written.  The  teachers  and 
ntli'ials  of  these  colleges  have  been  exceedingly  friendly  to  everything  that 
I'lild  help  the  farmers,  and  are  iu  chise  touch  with  tiieni:  aiding  in  the  work 
iif  local,  state,  and  national  organi/.ations.  and,  in  most  States,  carrying  on 
ilii'  work  of  the  expeiiiuent  stations  through  their  professors  and  graduates; 
au'l  in  many  of  them  courses  of  leeturcs  by  ]iiactii'al  tarniers  liave  been  estab- 
li-lieil.  Witlioiit  ipiestioii  they  are  becoming  more  and  more  hc'pful  as  the 
Mar-i  go  by.  and  their  power  for  good  is  cuu.stantly  increasiii'r 

A    SI   MMINfi     II". 

What  has  agriculture  gained,  or  ratiicr  along  what   lines,  in  the  centurv's 


H-ii'^l 


I'ss  ?      .\  brief  snmmarv  Wduld  seem  a  fitting  close  of  lliis  chapter : 


il)  The  marvi'loiis  advance  in  methtids  and  means  of  transportation,  and 
till'  (•oiise(pient  opening  of  the  markets  of  the  world. 

(!')  The  knowledge  of  the  ciiemical  constituents  of  the  soil  and  its  nianage- 
iiii'iit  in  the  line  of  maintaining  fertility. 

o">)  The  appliances  to  lighten  hibor  and  shorten  i)rocesses  in  the  pr.Hlueti;Mi 
and  harvesting  of  crops. 

y\)   Increased   knowledge   of   plants,  as  to   their  growth   and   cnltivatic 


>n. 


llieir 


'111'  I 


feeding  iiualities,   and   tlie  coniliinatiou   of  these  (piaiitics   in   feeiling 
Inmestic  animals,  by  which  we  are  able  to  reduce  the  cost  nf  |iroductiou 
tln'iiigh  the  earlv  maturitv  of  the  animals  and  the  maintainiii!,'  of  vigorous 

lira  1th. 

•->i  Imu'cased  knowh'dge  of  the  value  and  power  of  organization  and  of 
a'.,Micultural  literature  in  helping  to  a  practical  education  for  the  duties  of  tlie 
lann. 

ii'u  In  an  increase  of  home  comforts  and  a  higher  ideal  of  living.  ;ind  an 
ai'iueciation  of  the  fact  that  the  work  of  the  larm  should  be  subservient  to 
'III'  life  on  the  farm,  as  •■The  life  is  more  than  meat,  and  the  body  than 
lainient." 

i7i   In  no  other  countrv  on  the  globe  are  there  so  mauv  tillers  nf  the  soil 


I  ! 


V 


It 


II 


M 


I'  «1 


3a8       TuiuMriis  AM)  \i(>\i)i:iis  or  riiic  xix'"  crxTLny 


;m  i 


wild  nw  11  llicir  lioiiirs.  ami.  ;is  iM'HiiM'i|iiciicc,  tlicri' is  iiu  ciiiiiitry  where  il 


is  so  imicli  <it  iiatrintisiu. 


When  MllUlieW  Alllnid  visilcil  the  riiiteilSti 


not hiii|L;  thai  he  saw  iteli^hted  him  more  than  the  lieanlit'ul  larms.  wiih   ij,. 
niml'orlable  ilwellin,i;s  ami  (intlinihlinLjs  ami  llii'  evidenees  nf  jiii^h  cnlliMii 

ami  rei'tility.      Ihit  one  tliiiii;'  |in//ieii  him, ami  that  was  the  alisem I' ten  .    ' 

llon>es.  ami  he  asked.    ••\\''i,ere  do  the  men   lisc  who  eultivati'  tlie-e    lilllM- 
W'hen  lold   that  in  uiosl  eases  the  larmeis  were  iheir  own  tenants,  he  em     i 
<(Mii'ei\  express  his  astonishment. 

I'rinee  l\  ro|ioti<in.  <d'   llnssia.  who  has  traveled  in  this  eoiintry  and   |.,. 
jpartienlar  attention  to  the  condition  ol'  a.ui'ii'iiltnre.  says  in  his  slimming;  ;, 
••  A  niirican  a'^rieiiltnre  ol't'ers  an  im|iosin'4-  sii^iit  ;  not  in  the  w  heal  lields  o|  i  i,r 
tar  \\  e>t.  whieh  w 

of  rational  aLrriiMiltiire  and  of  the  f'orees  whiidi  promote  it.  iJead  ihedex- 
tioii  ol'  an  a;4iienltiiral  exhiliitioii  in  a.  small  town  in  Iowa,  with  70.(MI(»  rariii 
cainjiinL;  w  itli  their  t'amilies  in  tents  dnrinic  the  lair  week,  simh  inj^.  leariii 


ill  soon  lioeome  a  tliiie^-  of  the  past,  luit  liy  the  developn 


liuyiiiL!'  and  M'Uin.L;'.  and  enjoy  im^-  lile.  ^'on  see  a  nat  ional  tete,  and  yon  leel  t  iiit 
yon  deal  with  a  nation  in  which  aLcriciiltiire  is  held  in  respect.  Or  read  Um 
jiuhlicatioiis  of  the  scores  of  exi>ei'iiiit'iit  stal  ions,  whose  reports  are  pnlili-lii  li 
Itv  tlionsaiids  and  scattered  hi'oadcast  over  the  eonntry.  and  are  read  li\  iIm 
tanners  and  discussed  at  countless  I'armers'  nmetinj^s.  and  yon  will  I'eel  ilui 
American  aL;ricultiiit>  is  a  real  lorce,  imlnied  with  lile.  which  no  loie^cr  I- n- 
inamnioth  larms.  and  needs  not.  like  a  child,  cry  tor  protection." 

'I'he  Intnre  oj'  au'ricnlture  in  this  country  seems  safe,  and  no  class  of  m.h 
can  look  the  future  in 
the  soil. 


the   1; 


with  more  ol    coiitidence  than  thosi 


wl 


111  II 


AV.VLiM)  F.  r.ijow  N 


il! 


a 


•liISS  nl    !,|(il 
(IS(>  \vln'   'ill 


PUOGIIESS   IN   CIVIL   KNGINKKIIINC 


I.      AN     INTliiilM   iTdlJV     Vli:".V. 

i  K  \vi'  l>iii;icllv  ilrliiif  civil  i'iii,Miii'i'iiii,i^  as  tlic  ait  ul' coiisti'iicl  imi.  tlifii  tin- 
In  ill  i)f  tlic  ait  is  as  njd  as  I  lie  ciiH'r^ciicc  {>[  inaii  Imiii  sava-ci'N.  'I'lu- 
s;i .  a;-;t'  wiio  liullnw  s  nut  a  \i>\i  d  u  mid  in  onlcr  In  tcmsl  iiiri  a  iMimr  has  lakrii 
tl  lirst  sti'|i  in  the  art  uf  slii|il)iiililiii;^- ;  ami  ulicii  lie  has  ^'niistriK'Icd  a  hiil, 
li.'AcvtM'  nidt'.  to  laUt'  tlic  |ilaci>,  as  an  aliiMJc.  cd'  tlic  ca\c  Imllnwcd  nut  liy 
ii.iiii'c,  he  has  iiinvcil  niic  step  iicanT  tn  ihnsc  triiiiii|ilis  id  liiiildinj^'  const  nu-- 
l;  11  which  satisfy  man's  m-ccssilics,  comrorls.  and  a'sthclic  ih-sifcs.  I*'idiii 
ilii>  staiid|ioiiib  civil  ciij,dnt'criiii,'  is  as  old  as  the  oldest  ot  tlu!  ails  and 
xiciici's.  Not  only  is  (Mvil  eii,i,'inecrin,i,'  an  ancient  ail.  lait  when  Ihearcha'- 
M|i'.;ist  points  to  some  (d'  the  masterpieces  (d  linildiii'^  const riicl ion  whi  li 
Ii;ne  Iteeii  literally  liiddcn  Iroiii  s  iew  hy  the  dtdnis  ol  ceiiluries.  and  desciilies 
llh  I  lid  rnads  which  t  he  disi  lit  ei^rat  ini,'  loices  id'  naliii-c.  work  in  ^c  lor  ceiitiirics, 
li;nc  not   lieeii  alile  to  destio\.  il   is  natural  to  assume  that  in  niaii\'  jeatiires 


llic    I 


isil  en,i,dnecriii,!^' oi'  the  present  day  is   Imt    a   copy  of  ancient  work 


ill  least,  thai  there  has  lieeii  comparativcdv  little  real  pro;,fress.  It  may  lie 
i-l;iiiiied  that  lirid,L,'es  are  very  old,  that  canals,  lii^htlioiiscs.  and  roads  aiite- 
liiitc  the  Cliristiaii  era,  and  that  even  the  ancient  l\i,'ypt iaiis  know  that  the 
larlli  is  round,  and  had  made  a  roii;.i:h  enmpiitation  <d'  its  diameter.  i!iit  it 
will  lie  shown  that  even  in  these  cases  there  has  lieeii  an  ciioriiinus  ;id\aiice. 
iiei  only  ill  the  (diaracler  and  maifiiitudc  nf  the  work  done,  Inii  alsn  in  aii- 
ntlicr  feature  ol'  civil  en,L;iiieeriii;^'  wliiidi  is  I'reipieiitly  overlnoked.  namely, 
the  «•(•/(//((///// ol'  lalior  ami  material,  ("ivil  eii;,,dneeriii'4'  has  lieen  detined  as  the 
all  nf  doiiiL;'  well  with  one  dnlhir  what  any  liuiiLjier  can  do  sniuchow  with 
twii  dollars.  This  didiiiition.  althoie^h  very  loose  and  one-sided.  iii'\ertheless 
iniiiaius  a  very  important  t  ruth.  If  liy  inipid\ed  met  hmls  a  canal  or  a  Itrid'^'c 
can  lie  coiistriicti'd  for  one  half  In  niie  third  of  what  it  wniild  have  oust  liy 
elder  methods,  then  the  world  has  advanced,  in  that  it  may  have  two  or  three 
laiiids  nr  lirid'41's  at  the  same  cost  <if  lalior  as  would   lia\e  lieeii   previoiislv 


rrcjllll 


ed  lor  the  const  ruction  of  one.      W 


icn  we  add   In  this  a  vast    iiujirovi 


imui  in  i[iialitv.  an  improvement  that  would  have  liceii  previously  impossihle 
at  any  cost,  the  world's  ailvanee  is  hardly  nicasiiraltle  liy  any  stantl.ird.  It 
i>  a  W(dl-kiio\vii  fact  that  many  en.i,'iiieerin,n'  works,  jiislh  considered  master- 


lilci'CS 


at  the  time  of  their  construction,  could   m 


iw  lie  ri'iilacei 


I  b\ 


lUUi'll 


liflicr  structure  lor  a  comparatively  small  part  of  their  (uii,dnal  eost.  'i'liis 
staleiueiit  not  only  applies  to  very  oM  const  ructions,  hut  e\eii  to  some  of  the 
^'ivat  eni,'ineeriiij.,'  works  of  the  latter  hall  of  this  century.  Some  of  these 
iiciiiistriictions  have  actually  occurred,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  Victoria  tiiliii- 
!;ii  liiidf^e  at  Montreal,  oi'  tin-  IJoidiliiii.;  suspension  liridi^'c  at  Niai^ara  l-'alls, 
—  descrihed  later.  In  fart,  the  proj,'ress  in  idvil  cntjiTieerinj.;  duriii;j;  the  tiiiie- 
'iiiith  century  is  chietiy  made  up  of  the  ennriiKuis  advances  whiidi  have  iieen 


m 


n 


1  ? 


!i 


:iiu 


ritiiMi'iis  AM)  \\i).\hi:iis  or  riii-:  a/.v"  ckstuuv 


■I '  ii 


m:i(ir  (liiiili;,'  tlic  iiitlt'i-  liiiir  (it   til iitiir\.      It    >hiiiilil    imi    hr   iiii^ucil 

tlicsc  ii'i'i'iil  fiiiistlilctioiis  ;in'  clitMiMT.  liccMiisi-  -tn  civ  tlilli.u  i^  rln'ii|ici   n 


Tl 


II'  yt'lH'lllI   sc 


ill'   (if   WlI'M's   liiis  ;ii| 


\;niri'il.  ;iiiil   Mm'  tutiil  cnst  ul    I'nnstnii 


IS  clii'iilK'l'.  Hilly   liri 


aiisr    iiiiiiiiix  I'll   iiii'IIiimI-.  Ill    wiiik    lia\<-  ii'diiri'il   tl 


n'i|iiiri'il  til  |>n>iliii'i'   liiiislifil   liiiililiii'u   iiiiilrriiil   li'niii  tlic  riiw  |ii'iii|urt  {iim  ' 
ciTi't    tli;it    iiiiiiiTiiil   iiitii  ii  stMii'tiiri'.      'I'lirrrinrc  in  coii^iili'riii;,'  in  ilrtail  t :  . 
cnlistrilrtiiill   111    till'    ;4li'at     liiasti'l|iir('i'S    111    tlli>    ri'lltlllN  .   \\i'    >liiilili|    in, I     !• 
si,:;liL  ul'  tlif  ciinriiiiHis  aiUaiii'i'  in  ^^riicral   nii'tliiMls  ul  wmis.  uliii'h  lia>  i^ 
(Irifil  it  [lussihli'  to   have  all  nf   tlu'Si'   stiiifturrs  wliii'li   sii  minister  to  \..< 
]ir()S|H'rity  ttt'  vlir  wmld.  at  Mirli  a  rriliici'il  cnst  in  lalim-. 

A  cniiiiilctc  (lisciissiiin  nt  till'  rcntiirv's  |ii'(i,i;i'i'>s  in  civil  cn.i^nMccrini,'  wm,;. 
it'i|iiirc  a  treatise  tin  all  nn'iliin  inactice  as  well  as  a  (leseri|itiiin  ul  le-.iil; 
all  (if  the  ,i,'i'e;it  enj^ineeriic,'  niastei'iiicces  in  existence,  lint  tin-  liniitatimi-  <■[ 
tills  article  utterly  ]irecliiile  the  iinssiliilily  nt  even  a  slmrt  (liseiissinn  nt  ,i. 
the  lii'anch(>s  of  the  science,  tn  say  iinlhin.n  ul  ;i  delaileil  (h'seri|ititiii  nt  all  i>\ 
the  eNaiii|iles.  'I"he  loliowiiii,'  (liscussiini  will  therelnre  lie  ennlineil  tn  tli"-. 
liranclies  in  which  the  ailvance  has  lieeii  iimst  nutiilile.  even  tn  the  niiM'iii; 
titic  leader,  the  iirii;,qess  heiii;.;  illustrated  hy  lniel  statements  retail  I  iii;^  tin 
must  ty|iical  I'onstiiictiuns. 


'IMH 


lilt 


•If   I  I 


I  ,» 


w 


II.    iiiti  mil's. 


Nut  iiiily  i.s  there  eviileiice  that  luidnes  id'  the  siiii]ili'st  lurnis  have  lur 
used  tinm  iii'eliisinric  times,  lint  the  eie^ineeriiij;  wurld  has  iieeii  t'iei|Uiiir, 
sui'iuised  at  the  disenvery.  in  semi-liarliarnus  lands  where  there  was  eviili'iiii 
11(1  scieiitilic  kimwled'^e  of  lii'id,!.;e  cdiist  riictinii.  (if  ii  liiidy;!'  which,  in  its  im 
cliaiiiciil  iinalysis.  is  a  rude  exam|ile  (if  sdiiie  luie  nf  the  iiKire  cdiiiiilir.it. 
t\|MS  iidw  in  use.      Hut  these  liiidj^^'s  are  always  small,  and  are  cdnstnici. 

with  all  utter  disregard  (if  that  ( iidiiiy  of  cuiistructidii  which  is  nne  ul  tl 

'.^reat  1  liiiniphs  nf  nidilern  briih^^i'  eni;iiieeriii,Li'.  Iteiii;,'  uselessly  stnui.t;'  in  m'H 


parts.  I'diisidenii','  their  weaUness    in 


dthels.       .\t    the   \)v\x\\ 


mill''-  di    tlii.~ 


liirv  there  was  imt  a  wrnuiiht-irdii  nr  steel  liridi;'e  in  existence.  Disreiianliu. 
stniie  arches  fnr  the  present,  all  dllier  lirid,i;es  were  made  of  Wdud  —  with  t!  ■ 
exceptidii  III  a  lew  liridi,'es  (if  cast  irmi.  which  were  constriicted  diiriic^  lin 
latter  part  of  the  eii^liteeiith  century.  Kut  cast-iron  is  unsuiralile  fdr  pii n 
reijiiiriicj;  tensile  strcuiith  :  it  is  alsd  ditliciilt  td  cast  very  lar,t,M'  piei'i'>  wii 
aiiv  assurance  of  imiforiiiity.  The  best  existiic^'  examiiles  of  cast-iron  Inidu'-. 
are.  therefore,  those  nf  the  arch  type;  Imt  these  are  \-ery  le-avy  in  jirojioi' 


I  mil 


to  their  real   streii'^'tli.  and  would   now  lie  niiieh  more  cos 


tlv  tl 


laii.  as 


well 


inferior  to.  Steel   lirid'^es  of  e(|ual  streic^th.     'I'lierefore  the  i^'reat  advanc   : 
lirid'^c  work  duriiii;'  this  century  consists  in  the  ilevel(i]iiiient  of  steel  IhI'Il; 


cons 


tructioii.  and  a   brief  deseriiitioii   will   he    niveii  of  a    few  luid'^cs  ul 


represent  the  chief  ty]i 


i'.ii 


OOM.VN      I.KIIiiii; 


r 


le    susiM 


iision    liridue    lietweeii    New    ^'drl 


lirooklyii  is  tlus  largest  luiih^e  of  its  kind  in  existence,  and.  until  the  fA\- 
striiction  of  the  "Forth"  liridi^e.  was  the  longest  clear  s|ian  ever  hinlt. 
I'^very  one  is  so  familiar  with  this  stii|ienilous  structure  that  only  a  N'' 
statements  will  lie  made,  which  may  i^ive  a  lietter  idea  af  the  ma,i,niitiiM  n' 
the  unprecedented  prolilcm  which  ediifroiited  the  i^reat  eiiijfiueer,  .loli:  A, 
llocliliny.      When   lookiii'^-  at    the  exceediii'^lv  .u'raccful  desiiiii  of  thetd\\:v 


I    tlir  l.M.l 

liict   ;iiHi  1.. 

I  ilrlail  llu' 
1,1   iml    1,... 
■li   li;i>   I'l'ii- 
stfl   tu   I;,.' 

■riiii,'  wniiid 

II  111   U''.nl\ 

llitiltinli>  111 
issinli  (it  111! 

itiii  (it  iili  111 

UCil   tn  t  llii-.' 
till'   UllMMrll- 

'"'iii'ilinu  '!"■ 


IIS    IlllVr  !irr;i 

II  lrf(|ui'iiil\ 

,;iS  cvilli'lltlV 

rh.  ill  it-  1II1-- 
(■iiiiililiiMti''i 
enlist  rnc'ii'> 

(IllC   III    til' 

(iio-  in  si'iii' 
it  tlii.-  ''Ill 
isn'i;';ii'<liiiu 
—  with  til.' 
(Ini'iir^  ill'' 
.  jnr  piiTi' 
|,irci-.  w  lt!i 

iriiii  liiiil.:'-- 
1  iinnidi'i  1"!! 
1.  ;is  Wi'll  .'- 
t  ;|(lvaili-''  !•■ 
StCI'!   lili'i:;' 

id'j-t's  w  li!'  ii 

•     Vnvk     

Ititil   till'  '■:  • 

1    I'M't'   l"i;!t. 

(iiily   a    !''^'' 

inimiiitU'i'   "' 

.,.f'.    .Inl,'       \ 

f  the  tiiv.    •- 


iH 


M    ,»W 


m 


;u-' 


mil  Mi'/is  AMI  nn.\hi:ns  or  iiii:  .v/.v"  <i:.\ii  nv 


1?  i 


1 1 


r*i. 


I  .i. 


MM' 


it 


nlK'    i>   ;||i|    III    |iil''^i't    tllllt     a    lal','i'    |iarl    "if  llii'   >1  nirllllC  nl    rarll   InWcl    l>    111. I 

Ii..iu    \ii'U.      Till'    li'illiHii    III    iIk'    liiiiiiilatii)h   III    till'    jiii'i'.  nil    till'    .Ni'\\    \ 
.-iili'.  i-.  7S  li'i'l  lii'lnu   iiH'ait  lii'^li  tiih'.  ami   >|iri'ailM  n\t'i' an  aira  I"!.'  Irii  I. 
ami   JO'J  li'it   wiiii'.      'I'lir    |i|i'>>uii'  iM'iti'il    li\    till'  i'ai>>nii  I'll  its  liii>i'  l^  al^ 
II  I. (Mill  lull-,  nr  ('il,   lii|i>   |ii'l    >i|l|alr   liinl.       Tlll-^  ;^'li'at   alra..'i"t|    li'i'l    lirinw   I 

a     ■^lirlari'    cnll^i-^l  in  .;     |iartl\    d     liril-rnrk  allil    [m; 


araiirl   nl    I  In'    tnw  rl>.   IS 


a  iiiatrrial    mi   i'i'iii|i.irl    tint    il   was  IuiiihI   tn  Id- aliiiii>t   iiii|in>.sili|i-  t 


II  ill 


an    ii'iiii    li.ir  iiiln   ii.      I>ii\^n    lii'Inu    the   iiiinl,  l>i'lii\\    all   ilaii'^rr  n|    scniu',  i 

lirliiW    I  111'   ilrlit  II    wIliTi'    I  111'   illraili'il     hri'la    lliir.i/1.1    rail    ili'>I|n\     I  III'   I  I  In  I  ir| 


III! 


ll>-n||^,    I  llI'M'    IlllT-    |l'.-l    nil 


an    iiiiiiiii\  alilc    Iminilat  mn.  ami  arc  an  in 

^lllllll■     imuinnii'llt     nl     man'-    >kill.         Tlir   llnnr  nl     tlir    li|-ii|;('    is    Sl||>|in|li' 


Imir  ralili' 


I'ai'ii    rniilainim^  ii.'llMt  v\  iii'>. 


ai'il    \\  nr    Is    >ll|i|in-i'i|     III    hi'    ^i|i,. 


•li'i 


I    III  a    -lii'ss  iif  aliniil    .'Mtt   |iniiml>.  ami   In   iia\i'  an  iiltiniali'  sticn-ln  ..i 


I  It'll  |iiiiiiii|>.      T 


that 


aril  calih'  I-  imlli'il  li\  a  Imri' 


.1  .•;.,V.U.iMUt  hum 


I'lillliM  ' 


(•n||\  l'\ 


ml    hull'    ii'ai    im|iii'->iiin    In    llir    miml — a-    lilllr  as    In  >a\    tiiai  ii 


ill    rci|iiii'i'  a    jiiil 


isiT  'Jl.tKiu.lMlii  iinumU   In  Ini'ak  il.      Ami  ll 


ii'ii'  an 


I  III  II'  >iirli  ialilr>  !  Tiir  Ilia  in  -ji  an.  im'imlinLj  tin'  \M'i,L;lil  n|  i  lir  caWli'.-.  wi'i-ii 
illmiit  "ilMMt  lulls.  Sniur  i  lili'li'Sl  ill'^'  t'ai'ls  I'lilifi'l'll  i  ll;^'  llir  I'aissnlls  limlcllii 
|iii'is  III  ilii>  Iniii-v  u  ill  III'  •j;\\i 


II    llinlrl'  1  llf   licaillll'^   nl    ••  (  'aissnli- 


N I  \i.  \i!  \  I;  \  1 1  u  \s  A  m  II.  —  r 


ic   I'ailwav   sii>|ii'n> 


l.\    Mr.   .Inlin    A,   K 


ii'lihll'.;    .'irrii-S 


till-    Nia-; 


ira   ''i< 


inn    lil'iil; 
•;.,',•    in    IS.V;-. 


,'l'.    I'lMI-l  nil|r.| 

')."'•.  was    in-!  \ 


cnii-nli'ri'il    a    mniiiiiiirn 


I      tn     Ihr     -kill    nl' 


a  ''rrat  i'n'.;inri'f.  a  ninniinn'Ml 


wmlil's  |irn;.,'ri',-s  : 


ami  \i't    sn  raimi   ha-  I n  llic  aihanrr  in  Mir  a 


I'l  111  Ini.l 


i'n'4iiii'i'rim.i.  Ilial    tins   ^ical    -I  nidiiri'  i-  aii'i'ailv  a  Ilini',' nT  I  In-  |iasl.  ami  i  i 
imw     1 11     ri'iii.inil     li\     alinllii'r     Iniii'^r     w  iiicli     lu'llrr     llllliiis     tlir     ilii'lia-ii 


ri'i|iiii'i'im'iil- 


11  wa-  m 


il    liiat    llnrliiiii'4"-  lifiil'^c  was  all  i'!i'4ini'rriii'4  railiin 


liiit  llial   till'  iar'^c  iiirrra-i'  in  llir  wrn^lit   ami    li'iimlli  n|  train-  imw    ri'i| 


niiv,   :i 


iiiiicli    -Irnm'rr 


liriii'. 


I' 


Irll'    Wrll'     -I'Vi'la 


I    rnriiiiilalilr  ciiiiilit  iiiii- 


mil  [[■•  'II 


lli'4    till'    ili'^llii'i'l-    Willi 
.-ll-|h'll-inll    Iniiiji'.         I'' 


•si''m'il    till'   -li'i'l   an-ii    wliirli    ha-    m 


lU   ri'|iiari'il   1 1 


If  niir    tllllr. 


Iit'a\\    lailinail   Iratlii'  was  ii-in'.'.  iIii'mIiI 


liiiil'^i'.       Till    iiiti'rni|i|  inn  nl    railinaii   Iratlic    rnii'vcn  a  IVw  ila\ -^  is  a 
iiialliT.      I'.xtrini    till'   tinii'   In   -i'\iTai    iiiniit  ll-.  ami    lli 


-iTlMth 


I'    rii|isri|ni'nrr-    a|i 


-I'limi-    Inr   inli'ial  mil.      .\ml   thus    it    lu'iaiin'  ni'ri'--iir\'   ti 


jilan   ami  r^n- 


>lrm'l  till'  airli  lli;it  Imiii  -i  iiiri  inr-  ^\nnlil  iii'rii|i\'  tin-  saim'  -ilr.  imt  inn 


iili  rarli  niiiiT.  ;iiiii  Imt   ;  I  ll . 'ili  ir  with  till'  riiniiiii'^  'll  trains. 


It  i 


s  an  aiii.i/- 


niLj.  al  im  '-t    llirnliri 


i'i\  alili'.  I  rininiili   nt    mn-t  nirl  ivi 


I' 


-lli'il    -n    thai 


l/ill     ll     sill 


mill    irii> 


ilrl.iuril. 


Innl'    wa-    -ll-lil'l 


nli'ii     n|||\     Inr  alinlll    I 


skill  lliat  tliis  was  ai'i'"!ii- 
ami   t  rallii"  nn  tin'  hi,':;li  '  w 
h'th 


wn  li.iiii's  t'.ii'li  iia\ .  w  lull'  till'  iiiijH'r  li""i 


sNsti'in  was  i.riii'4  iiiil  in,"  Tin'  -•■rnml  li'^iil  ri'iiniri'inrnt  was  tin'  ni'('i'--iiv 
Ini' rniisl  nii'l  iiiLt  I  111'  airli  \\illinni  ;i!i\  "  I  alsi'  w  iifk  -  "  n  mlriiiral  ll.  (Minn:-i' 
il   was    imt    prart  icalih'    In   -ii-|irnii    lln'   \aiinii-    iin'inliris   nl    tin'  arrii   iliii'ii',- 


iii-t  rnrt  inii.  I  mill  i  h* 


liriil'..;r.  as  It  wa-  lint  ili'-i','iiril  Inr  siirli  a  inail 


Wnlllil      ll      lia\('     lit'cn     lins-llili'     ll 


riirri'iit 


nit     lalsi'    Willi 


III    till'    il'i'ii    ami 


till'    Nia','ara    IJivi'i.      Ami    sn    il    1 aim'    iicrrssai'V    In    mak 


llii'    liriiii,'!'  si'lr--ii|i|i 


Htiii;,'.  as    it    hiin'4   mil    n\i'r  Inr  ra^iii!,'  tniii'il  u 


istain-r  lit'  a  I  mill   L'"."'  ti'it    I  mni  tin'  almt  iiiriils.  iinl  il  lln'  I' 


'I'tiii'.; 


cliri'  I 


ilil  III'  jnini'il  in  tin'  rnilri'.       Tin'  iliiisi  rat  inn  ilnfs   iint    slmw   tin-  imii'i  ' 
'I    till'  aii'li    tiniii  tlii'iilil  liriil'^f.      ll    tlii'iiM   iniii'^r  hail  imt  Im'i'h  t 


(: 


IS  was   virtiialiv  tin-  cast',  s 


tar   a-   sin 


i|i(iil    ;.,'i\i'n    hy  il    is  ciinrrrni 


lil'il 


111 


!'!■ 


;) 


1^  hill 
ScU     \ 

(•  !>.  ;ili' 
Im'Imw  : 
ml  I'.ii 

(■    111   ill       r 

^I'liiir.  !  ,1- 

I I  III  I II' I    1 1 

all  iiiij"  I 
i|iiirti''i  '■\ 
til   III'  ~iii- 
.triii','lii  "t 
iiHt  |.iim>'l- 

n;1\  lll.ll  II 
1  tlirli'  111' 
ll'S.  w  rl  :i  - 

iimli'i   '' 

•nll^l  nil  ii-'l 

\\a.'>  jn-l:\ 

Ili'Ml    111    I  ill' 

I'l     111     llllll'^V 

i^t.  ami  i.a- 

■    mcri'a^iil 

iir4  tailiiii'. 

ri'iiuin-^  '1 

,    rnlllri'lil- 
|il; 1     llii' 

.ill'.',  t 111'  ■■M 
li-^  a  ^iTii'M^ 

irt'-.    ail-  '"> 

III  ainl   I'i'ii- 

liil    illlrl  li'li' 

is  ail  aiiia/- 
Iwas  ari'i'iii- 
kii'  lii^lr''  IV 
Ulipi'l'  ll""i' 
iii'('i'^--'i  \' 

(  If  run  :'~i' 
hell    iliir"i',- 


ami 


;    tnlli"  I   :i 
•lillU   ''"'1^ 


null' 


•II    1:       V. 


•il'iii 


'    Rl 


,  \'  m 


■  •«  I 


l;  \: 


l;'-!,i| 


Irllli- 


'*jii, ' 


::'^.,i 


ni 


iMv 


t«3l.i 


il  I. 

fitil!  I  r 

'If  I     ■ 


J|i;' 


"ilri* 


:n|| 


ii 


ij 


^ 


■M{       17.7 r.u /'//>•  .i.v/>  \\<>.\i)h:iis  or  iiiE  xix'"  <'i:.\rLi;y 

iii(lc|ii'iii|i'iic('  (it    tlinsc   ;iiiii>    iiMcliiii^'   mil    iivcf  tin'    river   wdiild    li;ivi'  li. 
iiiort'   iiii|i;iii'iit.       Add    to   ;dl    tlicsc   ii!j;(irnus   cniiditiniis   tlu-   iiiiii'vcluii^    ; 
lli;il    tlif  iTi'i'tioii  n|    tliis   '4ro;it    ;indi  wiis   lit'j,'iiii   on   Sr|itriidM'r  17.  IMMI. 
tliiit    tin-  l>ridi;f  \v;is  ti'stcd  du   .Inly  '_".•.  1S'.»7  (oulv  ."M."*  days  aftfrwiiid  i,  .    , 
we   liavo   licii'   niic  nt'  I  lie   ^Mcalc^t,    Iriumplis  of  i'M;j;iiii'i'riii,i;'   uldcli   cdul.; 
ii.ia;4iiicd. 

I'i'.i  IIS  l!i\i:i;  \'i.vi>i  rr. —  Tlic  (nij^iiial  Idcalitni  of  the  ( iidvcstmi.  II  n 
lull;,',  and  Sail  Aiitdiiio  liailway  included  a  seetidii  ni'  alidut  L'.'i  iiiile^  \\li.;. 
was  \ery  ditlieiilt  tn  dperate.  on  accdiint  dt'  its  very  lieavy  i;rades  and  sliii|, 
i-ur\atiire.  Alter  sdine  years  dl  stiid\  and  surveying,',  a  line  was  tdiind  wjn.-li 
Wdiilil  save  11.1.*  miles  in  distain-e.  .'ITS  feet  df  rise  ami  tall,  and  l'.».".."!  de',ir,> 
df  c'liivatiire.  lie>ides   lieiii;.,'  free  fidin   land   slides  wliieh   tliieatened  the  .   ,: 

line  at  many  iidints.      Itiit  the  ij:ieat  Hidinie  ad\aiila.ut's  in   the  ex|ieiise~  ,,| 

<<|ii'ratin'4  eoiild  didy  lie  diiiaiiied  at  the  enst  df  an  alnidst  iiii|ireeediiii.  i 
structure,  —a  viaduct  I'lM'  feel  Inliu.  which  sliduhl  cniss  the  I'ecds  liive;  .11 
an  t'levatidu  nl  .'tl'M  leet  |il.|,  inches  alidve  the  water  surfacf.  Tliere  are  iw,, 
luidj^t's  ill  l'aini|ie  which  span  \er\  deep  Ljiiii^es  l>y  nn/irs,  which  are  iiii^ln  r 
aiidve   the  water  than  this  viailuci,  luit  in   such  cases  the  di'pth  of  .uor^e  iv  ,,: 

mi  eii^i, iiii;4  impiirtance.      There  is  alsd  a  viaduct    fdi- a  iiaridw-i^aiii,'e  imiI 

way  in  Hdlivia.  S(»0  feet  Idii;;  and  with  a  hei'4lit  nf  .'•.'•(i  feet  IVdiii  the  ndK  '•■ 
the  water.  I'liit  till'  I'i'cds  viaduct  is  liuill  to  carry  staiidard-'j;am;e  railw.is 
trallic  d\  er  a  valley  iiearh  hall  a  mile  wide,  and  at  such  a  liei-ht  that  a  ti,i;:i 
nidviie^-  dver  it  appears  diiuinut  i\  e.  Tjie  -.111110  towius  in  the  iiliist  i;iii.", 
a|ipe;ir -luail.  Init    tlie\   are  cdiist  riictcil    Ida    hei'^ht   n|    d\  er  .'lOleet  aluivr  th, 

dldinaiA    le\el   df  the  water,  td  .llidW    jdl-  pd»ilile  tl<.  .ds.      The  Icill-cst    ••Ihlil" 
have  a   hei'4;lit    df   "JII     feet    (>•'{   imdies.       Nd    ••  lidse  wiiiKs"  were  Used   m  el    ,1 
iiiu;'  the  lirid'^c.      The   ••  traxelei."  slmw  n    in   the  illustratidn.  had   an   arm  I'J  1 

lei't   I'l    imdii's    Idli'^'.        .\lter    ccimplet  ilr^'    the    eillisl  rild  idli    dll    dlie    side    III     tlh' 

il\er  (imdudiii;;'  diie  half  of  the  ■•suspended"  spall  iiiiiiiedi,ilel\  nvei  tli 
riven,  the  traveler  was  lalieii  apart,  loaded  dii  ais  :iiiil  t  rans|poiteil  li\  i;i', 
a  distance  of  iie.i''l\  |(l  miles,  in  order  to  reach  the  other  side  of  the  \;dli\ 
Then  the  eoiisiruct  ion  was  c.iiiied  on  as  iieloii'.  until  the  two  halves  ot  tin- 
suspended  span  met  in  the  centre.  The  wnik  nl  ereetidii  heij^aii  Nd\,-iiii'i: 
.'!.  iS'.M.aiid  dll    |''eliiiiar\   L'lt.   JS'.t'J   innlv     lOS  i|,i\s    l.iiei  1.  the   twn   haUe-.ii 

the    sUSpeli        .    spun   were    cdliliecled.        A     portion    e\en    ol    this    time   was    ]..-• 


li\'    iiiideiiiciit    weather    ami    iiiia\  oidaMc    dela\' 

hl-l 


This    h.Jii 


ililel  -U  111 


liietliocj    III    construction    im-   ciossni'^    very    Iiil;Ii    valle\s    was    orp^inatcil 

American     ele^ineers.    the     tirst     milalile     il|s|;|||re    nl     11     lieiie,;     the    cn||s|  nirl  ! 


dl  till 


Kii 


i/iia      \  ladnci .  i>n 


the    N.    \  .    I..    1:.   \    W.    1;.    1;..    W 


iii'ii  lias  a  leii:i  li 


of  '_'0.'»n    feet    and   a    liei'^hl   of  ."iHL'   leet    aliove   ihe  water — liuurcs  which 
«inl\  siiudith   1 


t  liaii  I  he  aliiiv  e 


l''oi.-Tii    r>i;iiH.i: 


111 


l|e\t     i\ 


o|     hriil'^i'    to    he    .  olisuleleil     jias 


for 


■\am| 


lie    tl 


ir'.;est     hriil'^e     III    the    Uorl 


t  he    ••  cant  lle\  er        clossllej 


l'"ii'li  of  l'"diili.  in  Scntlaiid.  The  eediinmic  desi.411  d|  liridui's  dT  t  his  I  \ 
on  the  liasis  dl  the  iiiech.iniial  principles  invulved.  is  umI  duiy  an  achi' 
nieiit  of  this  cell  1 11  r\ ,  lull  o|  the  latter  jiart  ol  tlie  century.  Nevei  lliele-- . 
Ill  i\   timl  illust  rat  iciiis  nl  the  liiiiil.iment,il  iiiiiiciple  in  the  stiuie  lintels  in 

■ted  liy    I  ndiaiis  in  t '  n, 
id  in  a  hridue  erecled  . 


!•: 


i^y  pt  lan   temple  :    m   a   loic. 


Il   w Ii-ii  oriil 


near  the  line  nf  the  Canadian  I'acitic  Kailioad  ;  ai 


7,' )' 

luiVl'    li.       1 

.  ISUC.  :  ,i 
•wiinli,  I  .1 
•h   ('(iiil.l  1"' 

nil,  II  ii  i  ;  .- 
ililr>  w  hi.'li 
■i  mill  sli  ii|. 
nlllul  W  lil.-li 
!».".;{  llr,l,,  ^ 
..■(!    tlir  ..!,! 

I'X|M'II>"-  "I 
lirt'CCllclllr.i 

•OS  l>i\  !•:  ,ii 

liTi'   ill!'   \\\'> 

I  lire  iiiL;liri 
■-!4;i11l;i'    IMll- 

llir  niiN  tn 

ii;4''  raiiu.iv 

IIimI  a  I  lain 

illii>tr:iUii!i 

el    iiImiV.'  til.- 

,(■-1  ■•  ll'llt  -■■ 

[M'll    111    iM     it 

III   aim  r.'l 

~i.lr    i>\  til.' 

iiViT  ll:.' 

it  I'll    1>>  fali 

the  valli\ 

lvf>   (.1    til.- 

Niis  .-iiii..  1 

liaUi-  ..t 

lie  w  a-    l..~' 

ijilrl    W  rii  " 

ij^iiiati'.l    i.\ 

.11^1  1  II. ■til. !l 

IN  a   In  I  .'ill 
w  liirh   ai.' 

lias    idi    i!» 
ni-ssiirj   ;!'v 
till--  t\  I'l . 
all   ai-liii    ' 
.tli.'l.--.     I 

lltrls    Itl       'I 
ill   (  'll.i  1  I. 
l-rcti'il    ' 


I 


r,    f 


iiiJuJ  ■ 


g  1  ^f  ji 

J" 

111 

j'jio(nii:ss  IX  CIVIL  i:y(;L\i:/:ii/.\ti 


'MS 


t 


imiilri'(l   \i'iirs   ii'^n  in    IIiiIh'I.   :ni 


1(1  (lis(Mi\iM'('il  jii    ITS.",   liv    l.iciitciiiiiit 


I'lvis.   lit"  the    l']ii,t,'lisli   ciiibussy    to    tlir  cniirt    of  tin'   'ri'>li(i(i    I. hum.     'I"I 
Y    iiiM|il»'  111'  tlu'sc  Iniilijcs  is  vci'v  i,M';iipliic;illy  slmwii   liy  ;i  jdmldj^iiijili  nun 


III!' 


time  of  lilt'  I'linslrnction  n|  the  I'ni'lli  l)iiil''r 


I'liis  liritli,'!'  joins  two  src-tiims  of  Scntliiinl  wliicli  iiinl  hccn  pifvinnsly 
>•  I'liratfil  Ity  nn  iirni  of  the  sen.  wliicii  cnniil  imiy  lie  i-mssi'il  by  a  ti'dinns 
I'MV.  Mvi-n  tliis  Icri'y  was  t'i'tM|uciitly  tii'ii  \i\)  iiy  i'nij;  nr  by  thi'  striinj^  j,'ah's 
u 'iU'li  si>  dIIiii  IiIdw  uptlic  cliannfl.  The  jin'vah'ncr  of  heavy  wiinl  ]irt'ssni'i' 
(It  iiiiiiKlt'd  that  s|icci;il  atrcntinn  slioiild  be  -jjivcn  to  tliis  I'cntiiro.  and  tlic  most 
I'l.ilioi'atc  tests  evei-  made  of  tin'  ell'ect  of  wind  on  a  lirid^'c  structure  tornn'd  a 


M 


i;ii 


I'lios  iii\r:i!  viAniTT. 


iit   (if  tin'   int'liniinaiv  wmk.     'I'lie   (■>fnar\'.  I 


oi'  a   (li>lani-i'  nl    ni'arU    lill  \ 


iiiilc>.  is  never  less  than    two  i 
tl 


i;'  utile  nmre  than  one  mile  wnn-.  wi 


idles  wide,  execjil  at  tids  one  |iiacc.  W  Iuti'  It   i- 
h  the  added  advanla.;-e  of  havin''-  tin 


i.i;id  of  Ineh'^arvie   nearly   in   the  centre  of  the  channel.     Thi' channel  on 
■t'l  ^il'.es  is  aliont  two  hundreil    feet  deeii.  wiiicli  would    forbid  the  location 


'ier  at  anv  place  excchl  on  this  island,  which.  1 


M'lll'J'    CO 


miiosed  of  ba>all  ii 


'i.io  rock,  lui'iiished  a  siiliiciciit  foundation  at  a  com|iaral  ivtdy  sli'^hl  dciilli 
i"!ii\v  the  surface.    To  secure  the  maximum  ri'^idity  consistent  with  ecoiioniy 

III  nciLjht.tl vertical  coliiiiiiis  "  of  the  towers  were  spaced  I'-'O  feet  aparl  at 

tlic  iiase.  but  Old V  .">;!  !ect  apart  at  the  top.  The  towers  ai;e  .".,'!(!  feet  liiuli.  A-- 
"liiiwii  in  the  illustration,  the  cross-sectional  dimensions  of  the  cantile\ers 
'liiiiiiiish  rapidly  liotli  in  widili  and  lieie-lil.  -o  that  althoie^ii  tic  wci'^ht  of 
ill'  -Icel  jier  riinniie.^  foot  at  the  towers  is  L'.'l  tons,  it  becomes  mih  a  little 
c'l'i  two  tons  per  loot  at  the.  centre.     'I'lie  structure  is  execpt  ionalU   ri'.^id. 


(ii 


"i 

I 


ii  m  It 


I'.t 


:n»>       rinr.\ir/is  ami  \\u.\ni-:i!s  or  the  xix'"  (i:\TLjn 


;il.. 


I!  I 


'I'lic  jiii'tmc  III  ;iii\  '^i'^aiiUc  >t  iiu't  iiii'.  oiirciall  v  wliiMi  wi'U  ]irn|Miii  in 
iitli  rlv  l;iils  Id  '^ivr  :iii  :itifi|uat c  iilca  ol  the  ^i/c  nl  its  coiiiiiiMK'nt  iiai'l-. 
i>  ililliciilt  to  ifali/c  Innii  tlir  illii>l  ration  that  the  lom'  tiilnilar  ••vciiiral 

iiiiiii>  "  on  ca^li  main  |iiiT  aif  t  \\ri\i'  ti-ct  .-ai'li  in  (liainctcr  at  tlif  liaM' 1 

cnon^li    lor  ••  a  loai-li  ami  lonr  "  to  driv  !•  luio.   illlicv    wcr 


<■  lanl  hori/ontal 


( i\  cr  .id.dOU  ton>  ol    -tfil  wcri'   ii-cil    in  tlif   main   .s|iiins.     'I'lic   lot:ii   (•o>i 
llic  wliojf  .■striifliif'  \\a>  ovrr   C.'!.L'"tl.tMMi  ( S  ICi.Udd.tldti). 


.m:    a 


i;i  iii:>, 


—  I' 


M'  niiK'ti'i'iil  li  ri'iitur\    lia>  lint    little  I' 


claim  a-  to  i 


(|i'\  i'lo|iiai'iit  ol  >loiic  airhc^.     'I'iii'  mci'lianiral  theory 
hai'.>  lieiiei'  iimler.>too(l   now  than  i-vri.  ami  the   lar'^est    ii 


ol    I  lieir  St  res.se>  1-.   |. 


lasonrv  aieli   in 


l>leliiT    (  I  lie  (  'aoili 


.lol 


111   aivii.  imvin 


■-;  :i  .s|'an  ol  L'L'd  feet,  carrv  in-,'  the  W 


iii'^loii   ai|iieiini't    ci\er  a  ereek  )  IS  a  [neee  ol    Ameiiean    work   of   thi- 
Hiii  11  should  not  lie  toruotieii  that  more  t  hall  live  linmlreil 


eeiitni 


\  ears  a;4o  t  lii'ii 


aivli 


eoii>i  riieiiil  at  'rrez/o.  ItaJN.a   ,i;r;inite  iireii  (ij   2.'>l   leet  s|paii,      'I'lii.- 

illllollllliatelv    lle^tro\e(l     III    1  IL'7.        OlU'ol'    thelllo^t    Ic   Ilia  ikalllc  ilfeiie-    ill     , 

i>ieme  was  i|i'~i-ne(|   ami   Imilt    liy  an  ••  iinedneaied  "  stone-iiiasoii   at   I'oiii 
i'rvild.  Wale^.  in  I7."»ii.      \  li.^rnroiis  analvNis  ol'  ii-  strain^  —  ol  wldeh  the  , 
Miller  proliaiilv    knew  imtliiii'^: — sliows  that  tiie--liiie  (d'  resistainc  "  ],a-^ 
almost  e\aetl\   ihronL;li   the  centre  of  tin'  ai 


ell     rili'4. 


'II 


le    mo>l     III 


-hi 


\     c 


cated  cii'^ii r  ol  l  he  present  da\  could  do  m.  hcttcr.      ( >ii  the  other  1 

de\elo]iment  o|  the  tl  eory  has  lieeli  shown  li\   t  he  Sllceosliil  einist  i  iicl 

e\eeeilin',d\    liohi  di'si'^ii  tor  a  liridu'e  oil  the  lloiirlpoiin.ii- 

The  >|ian   is   IL'I    leet.  and   the   rise  only  (l.'.IL'  jeet.       'I'lie  de-.i'^n 


ailw  :i\  .  Ill   !•  rai 


laml.  I 
ion  i.j  . 
|- 


\\a>   CI  il|s|,|r|  , 


ver\   liold  that  a  model  of  the   andi    was  tirst  eon><t  rm-lcd  and   toied  h 


t  111'   design  \\  a--    linall 


\    aitopteil 


Tiie   extension    of    ihc    il>e   of    >to|ir    a  r< 


e~|ieclall\    those  ol    \er\    lar^e   Sl/e.   is   doniilless    |ire\(nliil    liy   their    e\i 


initial  cost 


■r  the 


^t    of   a    stcrl    strnetnre  of  cijuai    span   and    >l  relet ! 


Since  a  >loiie  arch  is  ;.:eneially  consiiirred  more  iM-antilnl  ihaii   a   steel  hri 
the    a'^thctical    element     ollrli    ilemalld--    the    eon- '  met  ion    of    slolif    alchi 


I'lililie  jiai 


ks  in  siiuai  i 


lolls  w  In-re  a  nii'tal  stnietni'    woiild  he  nior 


lllOllll' 


The  '.;rear  reduction  in  the  cost  of  stei  1  diirinu  lli«'  past   lew  vears.  due  t' 


|iroved  |ii 


I  ICl'ssis     I  1 


I  maiiiil.icinre.  ','enerall\   renders  the  cost  of  a  sti 


el  iirmj' 


even  With  a  projier  alhiwaiice  lor  maiiitenaiice.  ie|iairs.  and  renewals,  cli 
than  a  stone  arch,  unless  the  snan  is  short. 


,1.  I 


iiti; 


III.     (    \|s>o\s. 


Tlie  use  (d  com|ires>eii  air  to  keep  hack  tiie  water  that  Would  iiatnrallv  li 
throuuh   the  soil   into  ;i  ueep  excavation    is  a  eompaiat  ively  I'eeeiil    id  a.      1 
IS.'I'.t  M.  Tri'^er.  a  fremdi  enviiieei.  cone,  jv  ed  the  idea  of  sink  iiie-  an  iron  c\  '  :i 
del-  thr(>n'.^li  twenty  metres  (d  ipiick^and    in  the  valle\  of  the  Loire  Ii'imm     i 


order  to  leaidi  a  valiial 


ileposll    w  li 


ich  was  known  to  he  locaied  h 


eh  as  Is  now  calleii  an  aii'  loci; .  w. 


the  river.  A  idiainlier  willi  doois.  sii 
st  rncted  at  t  lie  lop  ol  the  cylinder.  To  pa.'ss  into  the  e\  linder  t  he  lowei 
opeiiine'  dow  nward.  was  closed,  ami  w  hen  the  air  in  the  eiiamhei'  was  at 
s|iheiic  pre-siire,  the  npi'cr  door,  aiso  oi'eiiiii',Mlownward.  was  opened. 


eiiti'iiie^'  the  chaiiilier  t  he  n 


the   luessnre  eiilla 


led   t 


iiper  iloor  was  shut, 
le  tircssiire  in  1 1 \  liml 


and  air   was  pumped  in 
I'r  nnderneath.  w  hich  wa 


the   pressure    neecssarx   to   Ui'ep  hai-k    the   w.iier    from   the  exea\ation 


low  er  i|oi ir  1" 'Uh 


1  then   lie  oiielle  1  and   t 


II'  WolKll 


-chaml 


ler  elilered 


r 


!r  h' 


1!  y 

i]iiirl  i.'in 
;  imrl-.       ■ 

■(•ItiiMl   r  i   ■ 

;is('  —  1,,;  , 
Mri/inii.il.   . 

III  ;i--  li.  I  ;.■■ 

■ssc>  i^  I - 

iiri'li  ii!  1  \- 
;  til.'  W.i^ii 

li^  crli!  Ml  1  . 
;(i  tln'li'  w.i- 
lis  iirrli  w  ,(- 
irlio  ill  .A- 
II    III    I'l'lil   \- 

llicll    till'   (ir- 

Ui'i'  '  |i;i-^i- 
lil'^lllv  I'uli- 
I'l'  Ii.'MhI.  till' 
Mi't  inn  III  .III 
, .  ill  l''r;iii'r, 
>  i-i>li-«M|rli'ii 

Ol  I'll  llllnlr 
■  tmir  IIIi-Ih  -. 
I'lr  l'\ri->-.|M- 
^.1  I'l'ir^tli. 
tri'l  lniii'j', 
;in-lii'>  III 
•i'iiiiiiliiii':i'. 
ilili'  t..  :ii.- 
ti'i'l  liiii'i.:", 
;il>.  flii'iii"  r 


1ur;ill\  ti-  V 
I  i.l';'i.  !■ 
iloii  1  \  '■:!• 
II'  lliv  rl  ^  'li 
1  ril  111  111-  '  ii 
k  .  \v;i~.  t  ■  ■■:■ 
InWcr  il       '■■ 

r.\--  at  11'       ■• 

IM'ii.        I 

ii'il  in   li    '  ■'• 


1 1  wa- 
III  i"ii 


'I 


j'n(j(iiu:ss  /.v  cn/L  /■:.\(,iM:/:i;i\(i 


;ui 


liif  1 


t'\  ('I'M'  |ilurcs-    III    IliVclsr  (ilijt'l'  was    li 


ri'rss;ii 


\  .       'I'ili>    W  a>    tlir    til-t 


iiiiatii'   rai>Miii  I'MT   Mink.  altliiiii'.;ii   siirh    iihiiis    iiai 


lii'i'ii    priipiix'ii  aim 


i-i 


|iiit,t'iit,i'ii  in  llii;..;laiiil  si'vnal  vt-ars  lii'liur.      Tin'  iilra  was  cssi'iitially  tin- 
t   plan,  liiit  the  iHiici'ss  lias  liri'ii  uii|irii\  m  ami  riilai'^cil.       Tin'  ri'i|iiir''(l 
■iil'.--laiit  iall\   llial  iliir  I  n  1  lir  w  ri'^lit  "\   a  I'l  il  1 1  iiiii  <  if  w  at  t'T  as  II  i'^ii 


-HIT  1^ 


;i        III'  III'   ' 


til  III'  till'  liasr  111  the  raissmi  lit'inw  till'  waliT  sinrai'f.      In  tl 


II,      ic: 


lilts    111 


Si.  l.iiills  Iniil'^i'.  thr  iiiittnlll  iif  tlic  i':il>Mili  w  a>  -link  tn  !'•'.•  Icrt  SI, 
lirlnw  tlif  water  siirlaci'.  wliirli  ri'i|iiiiTil  an  air  |irt's>nri' nt  aiimu  17 
r  si|iiaii'  iiu'li  in  llir  wurkiiiy  cliaiiilicr.     Siirh  a  iHrssnii'  is  (langei- 


X 


l'ii|{M\l.    nl'I.MMI    <>l'    SI)/    IWM 


fV..ii'"ii' 


III   I  lliisi'   W  nrklll'^    III   It. 


if  Sliiii-  ill  <'aii:il.  N..\fiiili.i    HI.   \X'<'.i. 


lllrll   lltcrallV   ••  llVi'   la 


-1."       ( iri'ai  rM'iinni  i- 


il\    iiiaili'.  Will    i-.   Iiilliiwfil   li\   rnrrrsiiiiniiin'^   i'\liaii>i  imi  altfr  Iraxiii'^   tin' 


III.     I' 


iiisf  lia\  111''  lii-ai'l  ilisca-.! .  nr  w 


liii  liavc  iii'cii  ilflnlilah'il  li,\   pri'V  ii'i>- 
ii'f  lialili'  In  111'  >i'i'iiiM«h  :irt>'<-ti'il  —  '4i'iii'iall\  liv  a  Iniiii  III   |iaral\  -i> 


lias  liccii  s|M'ritii-all\    iia;niil    liv  |ili\  siriaii>  t  li 


r    ••  i',ll-.-ii|l    ill-casr 


\\ 


ill.  Si.  I.iiiiis  liriil'ic  u  iicn  wi.rkin'4'al  t  lir  ■4ii'ali'--t  i|i'|itlis.  I  lir  ii  wrrr  mil* 

Ui'lki'il    tiiMl'  llnlll'-    ]irl'  >\[l\  .    Ill    I  Wiilliilir   -lliri>.        l''arrillli'-    Wi'lr   iiki'W  i-i'    jil'i- 

\  iili'il  111  liavi-  I  lu'ii;  I  111  till'.  iTst.  .iiiil  laki'  Im^  cnlTi'i-  mi  ininiii'^  niit  nl  i  in'  umk- 
!',  .•Ii.iiiilii'r.  ili'a,ili\  ini'ii.  w  Im  i.liscrvi'il  ilir-i'  ami  -iiiiilar  |.ri'faiil  imi-.  wm- 
'i"i  iiiTiiiani'iit  1\   alli'i'l'"!  li\    iln'Wnik. 

Till'  .'aissiin-.  Ill  tin'  Ni'«  Nurk  ami  r.iiinklsii  siis|i|.nsiiin  lnnlui'  air  tin' 
i.ii^i'st  I'Vrr  riili-.tl'lli'li''l.  ami  a  liahl  arrmilit  nl  s.um'  nl  tin'  i'\l  n'Mnlli'i'-  rli- 
1"   iitcft'il  is  faiih   iliani.itii'.      rmli'r  siirh  ,iir  iiiv->.iii'-  lli''  llaiin'  nl  a  lamiiO 


"Kk 


H\ 


\A  I' 


■  ■  ',  i'itfi= 


,*>.' 


»i-i'3)'i 


'0 


W%i 


i:i  ?>'« 


h'i 


Pf 


m 


S-M- 


.US  TIUIJMI'IIS   AM)    \\(K\/>/:i!S   OF   Till-:   XIX'"  CEMIUY 

will  rctuiii  when  lilown  out.  and  sn  tlu'  danger  ol'  tin;  inside  tiie  wodden  i ,, 
sniis  liecimn'  very  (seridiis.     Hue  t'venini,'  a  tire  was  diseuvert'd  \\\  n\\v  u[   i,  . 
caissons,   ransed    presuniaiily    iiy   a   workman    lidldinj;   a    candle  teni|inrai  i 
against  tlie  wooden  nud  while  M-areJiing  for  his  dinner  pail.    W  hen  discovii. 
it  was  apMartMit  tiiat  tlie  lire  had  Imrned  out  a  cavity  in  the  solid  timlier  i... 
and  the  supply  of  compressed  air  was  fast  turning  those  tindiers  into  a  m,,- 
<d'  living  coal.     Tw(»  pipes  eajiable  of  throwing  one  and  one  lialf  iindi  slreaiu 
had   Iteeii   |»rovidi'd   for  this  express  contingency,  and   the  two  streams  \\.|. 
turned  on  as  (pdckly  as  jiossihle.      All  idght  tlie  light  went  on.     At  I  a. 
wln'ii  the  water  was  pouring  out  of  the  oritiee  (d'  the  cavity  as  fast  as  it 
sent   in  Ity  the  hose,  it  seemed  as   if  the  cavity   must  have  heen  tliiu'ou'.;li!\ 
tioo(h'd  and  the  lire  out.     To  make  sure  of  the  alisolute  extinction  of  the  Hi.'. 
l)orin;4s  weic  made.  whi(di  showed  that  the  tire  liad  worked  its  way  along 
dividual  timhei's,  especially  those  wldch  were  '•  fat"  with  resin,  and  that  ll 
fourtii  roof  course  was  still  a  mass  of  burning  timber.      It  was  tlu-n  deciil 


III- 


cil 


tliat  the  caisson  must  be  Hooded,  which  was  (h)ne  by  iiumjiing  in  I..">.1(i.oihi 
gallons  of  water,    .\fter  Hooding  tlie  caisson  for  two  and  one  half  days,  it  u.i- 
]iumped  out  ami   tlie  wcuk  examined,      it  re(]uired  the  services  of  eightc.ii 
carjienters.  working  day  and  night  for  two  months,   to  repair  the  ilaiiiii-. 
caused  by  that  fire. 

When  the  iSrooklyii  caisson  was  twenly-tive  feet  below  the  water  level,  fli. 
boulders  encountered  became  so  large  that  bhisting  liecame  necessary,  le/ 
bla>ting  inside  of  ;i  eaisson  was  hitherto  an  untried  experiment.  It  u;l^ 
feared  that  the  m<'n  wouhl  be  injured;  that  their  ear-drums  -Adiild  break  ii\ 
a  sudden  ex|ilosion  in  that  confined  space  under  heavy  air  ]ue>sure ;  tli;ii  , 
••blow  out"  might  occur,  i.  c.  that  the  compressed  air  might  suildenlv  cmm|h. 
]iast  the  edges,  and  that  an  inflow  of  water  would  then  didwn  the  men.  \i 
first  a  pistol  was  tired,  gradually  using  heavier  (diarges ;  then  a  small  bhi-i 
was  set  off.  Kneoiiraged  by  their  freedom  from  resulting  eomplieations.  ijie 
blasts  were  i^'radually  increased,  until  they  Hiially  used  as  heavy  itlasls  as  u.is 
desired,  till'  men  simply  stepping  into  an  :idjoiiiing  idiamber  to  avoid  Hniul; 
fragments:  ami  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  progress  was  at  once  apparent,  ilir 
caisson  being  lowereil  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  ratln-r  than  onlv  ^v 
inches,  per  ueck. 


The  caissons  of  the  bi'id<_re  across  the   l-'irth  d    i'"orth.  Scotland. 


are  e\;ili 


])les  of  the  great  development  of  the  caisso 


n  iilea. 


he  pneumatic  caisson  ..| 
T'riger.  ill  IN.'!'.*,  hail  but  one  air  locdi.  through  which  must  pass  men.  exeavai.n 
material,  and  constructive  material  for  liniie^s.  etc  'I'liis  plan  meani  -je;. 
and  expensive  work.  The  caissons  of  the  I'liooklyn  bridi^e  were  ,i  \a>l  iih 
proveiiieiil  oscrthis  plan,  both  on  the  score  of  economy  and  ^aletv.  In  ili. 
forth  bridge  the  caissons  were  maile  almost  w  holh'  (d  iron,  t  bus  av nidinv  iiii 


aii'.;er  oj  t  he  llii'  w  liieh  so  iiearlv  wri'cked  i  he  caisson  o 


t  the  jlrookh  II  l'ii( 


ri 


le  careless  or  lileiiiat  lire  oim 


'iiiii'j'  of  the  diMU's  of  air  locks,  w  liich  m 


lee  liiMi  i\ 


caiiseii 


Mioiis  accident  oil  the    hrooklvii  caisson,  was  rendered   impo 


by  a  very  elaborate  sy>teiii  uf  inteilockiii'^-.     The  elli<'iency  id'  the  app:i 
removing  excavated    maleri.il   from  the  compres.sed  air  idiamber  w  i- 


nii'i- 


lor 


atl\   increased.      Klectrie   lights  were  used  instead  of  gas  <ir  candh 


IM.KZ 


NO    I'll 


Ol  i:ss. 


Tl 


lis  process  is  mentioned  here  on  accoiiui 


an 


ilouv  oi'  its  object  to  t  hat  of  pneumatic  caissons  —  sinkiiiLt  a  shalt   1 1 


I     I    !  «« 


•(KmU'M  c.ii  •. 
(Mir    (it     1  1  .■ 

tfUiii(ir:irii\ 
1  (liscov  I'l  1  ,| 

lllllln'l'    llH'!. 

into  a  iiiii^- 

iich  str(Min- 

rcaiiis   \\.-ii' 

At   I  A,   M  . 

■it    MS    il    \\:i^ 

tliomuuli!) 

1   (ll    tile   lllv. 

ly  a'.dii;^'  in- 
iiid  tlial  III'- 

licll   (It'Cldni 

in  l.;!.'iO.(MMi 
(lavs,  it  u,i- 
di'  cii^liti'.'ii 
tlic    (laiii:i.;v 

IT  level,  th.- 
'ssai'V.  Hut 
'lit.  It  \\:i^ 
1(1  l.icak  Ir, 
^urc;   tliai   -i 

(■lll\  C-CMl"' 
ic   MICH.        \l 

iiiali  l.la^i 
icat  imi--.  '  111' 

asis  a>  v\  .IV 
a\(iiil  tl\  mu 

i|iariiii.  I  111' 

III  nlil\  M\ 
ll.  arc  c\;iln 

|c  caissiiii  111 
|i.  c\ca vali'ii 
lliicaiil  -1" 
a  \a>t  iiii 
\  .  In  lllr 
Mijilinu  till' 
kl\  II  l.iiii^i'- 

|(I||CC  lie, II  i) 

iiii|iiiv>ili|i- 
!•  ajili:ii:i'  ;~ 
Icr  w  i>  ai>ii 

lldll-. 

Imiit  111   ■ ' 
I   ilii.'i.jli 


I'liOiilillSS    L\    CIVIL    K.\(iIMCEIU.\(i 


aist 


I      cssivcly  s(»l't  wet  soil.    'I'lic  jUdecsv  is  vci\   recent,  it  lia\  iii.i,'  lieeii  iiivciilcii 

I  l>r.  ]■'.  II.  I'lietscli.  i.t  I'liissia.  in  ISS."..  It  lias  iiceii  used  diily  ilia  \er\ 
|.  ,  cases  U|i  til  tlie  |iresciit  time,  lull  uhcic  ji  Ims  liccii  used  it  lias  aecimi- 
1,  -iieil  results  w  l.icli  Were  |iractically  iinattaiiiai'le  li,\  unliiiaiy  nietlidils.  .\ 
\.  \  liiict'  (Icscnptidii  dl  diie  iiislaiiee  dt  it^  use  will  ex|ilaiii  Iiic  ,i;('iieral  idea. 
I'  I    many  years  eiij,'iiieei's  had  Ween  hallled   in  tlieir  atteiii|its  lo  .sink  a  sliatt 

II  ■iii«.;li  1(17  feet  ot  (|iiicksaiid  at  tlie  Ccntriiiii  miiie.  near  jierliii.  (ieriiiaii_\. 
|ii  I'oetscii  sunk  si.xtecii  iiipes  in  a  circle  ardiiiid  the  iird|«ised  Idcaiidii  dl'  the 
>iidt.  and  in  tliiity-three  days  had  succeeded  in  jirodiiciiis,' a  trozeii  circular 
Willi  six  feet  thick,  within  wliiidi  the  c.\cavatidii  was  readily  made  and  the 
sliiiit  suitalilv  lined.  The  iree/iic,'  is  accdniiili.-<lie(l  hy  cii-culaiiii'.,'  a  treeziii;^' 
liniiid  (chloride  ui  eaieiiini)  tluinigii  the  tuijcs.     Alter  the  shatt  is  c(Uii[>leled 


AA^ 


m.\N(IIKsti:k  miii-  i  awi, 


llir  lUJies  ( 


an  be  thawed  lodse  trniii  the  wall  (d'  ice  li\-  siiniih  ciieiilat  iiiu  a  Imt 


iiiiuid  instead  nt  a 


Cdlil  line 


he  |ii|ies  can  then  lie  redrawn   iniiniiire(l.  at 


(I 


d  over  ai,Miii       a  I'diisideint  inn  dt  im  >mall  advaiitaye.     The  |ii'dcess  i>  not 


It    Wduli 


Mddniii.   il    e\er.   lie    Used    wlii're  the  llinr Illlildll   liiethiid 


a-iietiealile :   hut    lor   |iassiii;4    tlii'din^di  very  suit    and  wet    soil,-,   it    i>    Ire- 


•iillv 


the  only  |idssil>le  metli 


IV.    (   \\\i. 


History  records   the  cdiislruetidii  ol   a  >lii|i  canal  aoross  the  Sue/  Isthmus 
iiirlv  as  (ilKt  n.  i  .  ;   that   it  cdntiniied   in   use  tur  aliout   1  !(»•  vears  and  was 


IIm'ii  aliandd 


lied.        It    W 


IS   veiv  snial 


all    I  r.ices   dl    It   are    imw   ii 


tteviv  hist 


iiiitheiitic  reciu'ds  dl  it  are  very  niea'^re.  and  they  serve  luily  tn  sh  iw  tin 
t   aiitiiiuity  dl'  the  eanal   idea.      The  nineteeiith-centnry  |trd'^ress  mi   thi 


■.  tlienddie.  cdiisists   in   the   eniirnidUslN    iireater  iiwcjiiitude 


the    Wdll 


111  cull 


ijilished  in  the  sdliitiui  id    the  ureat   subsidiary   lUdblenis  invdlved.  and 


■r    t 


..    '.!; 


:r.o      riiii'Mi'iis  asd  \V(>sin:i:s  or  riii:  .\i.\"'  cijyruuy 


\l= 


t  ■!,  I 


I  ti] 


fa 


«  .--v: 


I 


<U< 


in  llli'  illl|i|ii\('liii'lit  ill  met  IhmIs  111  WnlU  ullldl  llll->  innliTrd  tlicsr  niiMl  . 
tlirr>  |.u>>ili|('.  I'lir  llliill:illiins  ii|  tlu.^  lllllrlc  llllciiy  IuiIikI  cM'Ii  ;i  1,ii, 
M-ii|pliiiii   III    all    ill.'   :4ii'at    caiiiils  w  lucli   liaxc    licfii    coiisi  nidctl  (iiinn- 

I'l'lllm'N  .   .Mill     It     IIIIInI    I  lirl'i'lnlr   lie   I'l  i||  |i  liri  j    |ii  a    ll'W    sl  a  I  I'llll'lib 


I'V^Midin  ■  I 


mmc  iiii|Hii'iaiil  ami  lv|iical  ckhnI  luri  iiiii>.      Ii   mi-hi  lie  tliinnflii  ||,at 
iii^>niii  (il    iiiiictcciit  li-c('iilm\   can; 

111    liir    N 


lis    wniilil    III'    riini|i|i'tr  w  itlmiil    a    I 


ii'iira:,'iia  anil    I'anaina  raiiai  iuiijitIs.      liiil   I  Ih'm'  st  iiiii'iiil 


n .- 

iii'iii  .  ti 


•  Ills     Wi.li 


It  has  ('\('i'  seen,  an 


w  Inch  w  ill  i'i'li|iM'  aii\  lliin'4  iiT  till'  kiiiil  w  liu'li  till'  Will  I 

\i\  accniniiiislit'il  I  acts.     I' lie  Iwciitiflli  ccniiin  will  lie  w  ell  iimli'i'  ua\  lif|, 

1 1 1]' ••  ariniinl  llic  I  Imii  "  w  ill  licciniii' iiniit'ccNsai'V .    T 

I'l  mil'  111  I  111 •>!•  canals  will,  mtv    |iriiiialil\ .  sd  ri'diicc  t  lie  ilcniainl  li 

lliat  ;i>  rniisi  I'lici  mn  w  ill  lie  iiit|i'liiiiirl\    jiiisi  |Miiicil.     'I'lii'sc  can; 

iUll  licl'  inllslili'lcii. 


tl 


111'   t  he  ,,1  . 

ill 


IS  will  1 


Ml/     (  '  \N  Al. 

in  till'  I'liutli   1 

-nine  111    I  111'  nllli'l'  '^I'l'lll    i';ili;ils  iif  t|| 


;ri';il   wnfk  |icriiiiis  ;i    rciliict  mn  nl   alii-nl  ."i7."t'i  miiiv 


I   ;i  \iiy;i;4.'   Inmi  WC^icin    |'"iiiii|ii'  in   lnili;i.     ('iiiii|iart 


I'  winlil.  lis   c(Misti'iicii 


nil   u  as  cas\ . 


il;ii     i''n'^t  li   i"l  \\  ci'ii  I  IT 


I 


mini  i^  ;iiiiiiii    |ii|   siatiitc  miles.  i,[  wliidi  ;il 


ilii'iii  mill' 


llillo   li'i|lllli'il    1111  c.\c;i\  ;il  Inn  :  sixteen   miles   1 


mile  rei|iiiii'i|  niily  a  slc^iii 


;ill"ll  111  lli;ii<e  ihe    (•liallllel    iif    siltlicielil    ilelilli    1  li  I'l  iie^li   esistinu   (ll'\    ili 


-mils.  i';iili'il  ••  lal 


11  111  I  the  remain  ini;'  se\  I 'III  \  six  miles  iij  excaval 


lull    W  1  !!■ 


It    i'lliell\    ihl'iill'^h  ;i    suit    ;iill|vi;il   snil.       A 1    nl 


ll\    nlle    |iiiinl    illil   I  he  e\ca\  :il 


reacii  lill  \  III'  si\t\   teei  in  ile|ii  h.  ami  here  also  was  Iniiml  liie  (inl\  iiist;iii,  i-  ,,] 
riicU  excavatimi.      Kven  tiiis  ruck  iu;\  |isiiiim  was  su  soil  tli;ii   |iait  nf  ii  uis  ,•,, 


ca\  ;itei|    li\    I  lie  sleam   >liii\  (' 


Aliiiiit  SK.titin.itdu  ciiliic  Minis  nf 


leniiiv  I'll. 


it 


IIL'llel'lal    Will 


this   iiKiterial  hail  I 


leeli   liijideil   iin    tn    c;iis    c;iri\|lr.^-    Iweiil 


\    !l\i' 


ciiiiic    \;iriis    ]ier  car.  minle   ii|i  intn   trains  nf  t\\ent\   c;irs   |pei'  t  i;iiii.  ;iii(|   th 

tftlins   were  strilll'4  lllmej:  lll    the   l;ite    nl     ti\e   |ier   mile,    il    Wiilllil    h;i\e    l'i'i|iilii" 

.IMM)  miles    111   siii'h    ti'ains   in  ti'aiis|inrt    the    iii;iieiial    tliiit    was   exr;i\,iiii 


W 


iill\   was    ;ii 


tiiiiUy  lieunii    in  iMiO.      The  \'icern\   nf  I'I'^a  nt 


iiri'.:iii;ill\   ;i'^ii 


til  liiriii^h    the  lahnri'i's  reijiiireil.  ami   at    nne  lime  aliunt  .'iii.tiiiii  hiliiirir' 
thus  eiiiiiln\  ed.     t  >ii   ;i  I'lian'.,^' nl'  adiiiinist  r;it  inn   in    Iv^xpl.th 


le    new     \'ici'iM\ 


relilsed    111    llirnish   the   native    lalmr.  and    it    then   liec;iiiie    necessarv    In    iliiiinil 


U'  Irnm  l''.iii'n|ie.  and  In  sii|i|ilemeiit  t  his  insiiMieieiit  and  h 


i''li-iirii'i'il  siiiiii.v 


nl'  lalinr  liy   \er\    l:ii^;e  ilreili;iii'4   macliim 


>leani    slin\el> 


n|     Wllli'll     ,1 


llnlll 


-IXtV  were  elii|i|n\  Ci 


'I'lie  task  111  sii|i|il\  in'4  watei'  Inr  i  lie  vast  ;irm\  nt 


nii'ii  w;is   :iii   em^ineeriiiv;'   lent    nf   im   mean  characler  and  cn^i.  as  the  I'liini 


mute  lies  1  lirnn'''li  an  arid  desi 


•It.      A  s\  stem  nl   walerwiirks.  I 


i;i\  111!.;'  Its  -Mill. 'I- 


a  I  <  'aim.  nil  the  Nile.  ;iiid  dist  rilint  iii'4  t  he  water  t  lirnimhniit  t  he  leii..;ili  ..I  lin' 
canal.  w;is   therelnre   cniist  riicled.      In  the   latter   part  nl'    I.SCiK.  tlie  Mati'i-.'l 


the  Ked  and  Mediterranean  se 


is  Were  j. lined,  lai'iie  arm  Ui 


|il'esslnn-  li;id  i..  •  II 


traiisrnrmeil  iiitn  ..^real  lakes,  and  nceaii-'-iniii!.;'  vessels  were  sidliic^  tlii..rjli 
what  had  lieeli  a  desert.  The  c;ilial  is  L'<1  leet  deep.  7L'  teet  wide  ;it  the  li.  I- 
tnm.  the  sides  sliipiii','  va i'i;il il \ .  ;iccnrdiii.L;  tn  the  nature  nl'  the  iiiatei'i;il.  1  II' 
resiilliim  width  at  the  inp  varyiiii;  Irnm  1 '.  10  I  n  .' !L'.S  t'eet,  .Mlhnimh  imi  i..  |i 
eiinii'^h  Inr  Ihe  Very  lai'ifest  vessels  alloat.  it  will  accnminndaie  the  yreat  l':lk 
nf  ncean  ti'.'ivel.  iiiclmliic4  war  vessels.  'I'lie  tntal  cnst  nl'  this  wnrk.  inch  III,  I!'.; 
the  lire;ikwaters,  lin'htlmiises.  etc..  at  each  terminus,  was.  ap|irnxiiii;i''  '\, 
VL'O.ddO.llllO.  nr  8l<M».(MHt.(MM). 


I'lilike  must  canals,  the  Sue/  canal  has  no  locks.     'I'lic  original  pla 


11  (i! 


M 


^i 


ItMt    si  1       . 

;i  luii'i 
mill-   •     » 
iinliii.      !• 
i;il    iii> 

II  llllMll  II 
111^     \\i.|  I   -. 

•i'li.;ii.  .,| 
;i\  lir|.^'^  ;i 
l-nlii|ili  •  oil 
r  llll'  i.li,,.i- 
W  ill    II"'    ill' 

■  !7.'i<>   liiMrv 

|i;nc(l  ■'  ill 
rilM  .  'I  lic' 
iilioiii   mill' 

sli:Jii  .  ,•,. 
ilr\  c|i'|.!i'-- 

^ill  lull    \\i   ii. 

r\i';i\  :il  Imii 

lli^lalM  T  I't 

I    il  \\;i^  i\- 

ili'ri;il  w  I  If 

I  w  r  1 1 1  \    till' 

II.  ;iimI    till' 

I'    rri|iiiii'cl 

i'\r;i\;ili'ii. 

lll\    il'^lc'iil 

Mili-r>    Wrii' 

W        \'ici'|li\ 

to    illl|M<!| 

'  --'ll'l''^ 
ii'll    ill'i.iil 

111  W  ■  '  I  i\  • 
lie  clil  Ill- 
it  >    Mlllll-l' 

'^tll  i.t  llll' 
W  ; 1 1  r I  ■    "I 

illlll  i>'  'II 

:4  llll"  ijli 

t  till'  ll.'l- 

1i-ri;i!.  1  ill' 
ll.it    .:.r|l 

;4fi';it  'Ik 
illi'lil.  ,lr^' 
i\illi;i'    '\. 

ililll  d'     'i'' 


'!^ 


* 


I! 


«J 


^:f  Hi 


4^  -s  i . 


(:>:,: 


vmi 


m 


'IIS 
^  i  ill 


ill 


'i  ;il 


m 


.•i,vj       in/fMrus  AM)  n<)M)i-:i;s  or  •////■;  a/.V"  <i:.\rri;y 

l';iii;iiiKi  iMiiiil  ilid  imi  iiii'linli'  |ii('k>.  Iml  tin'  nniM'il  phiii  pniviiliMl  tm'  |||. 
Ill  cinliT  III  >ii\  I'  i'\ci'>>iv(' I'lili  iiiLj.  'I'lif  Niciii'iinua  iMiial  >('li('iiit'  iit'cc>Mai 
iiirliidi's  l()i'k>..  I'lir  \sal('r  lid'  1  lir  Sue/ canal  cniiio  diiiiM Iv  tioiii  the  m 
w  liii'li  ai iiiit'clcil.    A  raiial  u  it  li  lucks  iicco^aril y  ici|iiircs  an  aiii|ilc  \v;r 

ICCll    c. 


>1 


i|i|ily  Innii  smnciivci  or  Ircsh-uatcr  lake.  It'  tlic  Suez  canal  iiad 
sinictcd  at  a  liinlnT  Icsid  than  ilic  .Mcditci  raiiciui  and  licd  sca.s.  liad  l"- 
Mi|i|ilicd  with  water  I'lnm  the  Nile,  ami  had.  thefeture.  Iieen  const iiieted  \\\\< 
siiitalile  loclis  at  eaidi  end  (as  was  actually  recoiuiiiendeil  by  some  en^iiieii-, 
the  cost,  oi  const iiict ion.  as  well  as  tire  |ier|ietiial  exin-nse  cd'  niiiiiitenaiM, 
would  have  lieeii  Lrrcatly  in  eseos  td'  its  actual  cost.  And  so  the  fact  thai  : 
was  possilile  to  construct  the  canal  witliout  locks,  and  without  piovidiiiu'  I'l 
a  sii|>|ilyol'  watci',  was  a  t,'reat  advaiilas;!' that  taciliiated  the  |iroinotioii  ojil,, 
eiiter|prise. 

M  \\eiii:sii:i;  Canai..  —  'I'his  canal.  haviiiLj  a  total  length  of  only  iIhim 
live  ami  one  hall'  miles,  has  transformed  the  city  of  Manchester.  l'',nuliiiiiL 
Iroiii  an  inland  city  to  a  seaport.  Actual  excavation  was  liei,Min  in  Nu 
veiiilier.  ISS7.  and  just  six  years  afterwards  the  whole  canal  was  lilli',{ 
with  water.  It  has  a  de|)lh  of  LTt  leet.  and  a  width  at  the  liottoiii  ol  liMm 
iL'd  to  ITti  feet,  thus  i,dvin,L,'  a  ,!,ni'ater  capacity  than  the  Sue/  canal  or  tin 


.ro| 


iroposcd 


I'anama   canal.      Some  of    the   i^reatest,  dirticulties  involved  aii 


from  the  necessity  of  jirovidiiii;'  for  the  existin.L;  canals  and  railroails  w  itli 
which  that  busy  portion  of  Kn,i,d:iml  is  so  crowded.  I'erhaps  the  most  m 
teiestiiiLT  feat  of  eny;iiieerin;.,'  was  the  druwltridj^e  carry iiit,'  the  Duke  i.| 
r>iid,i,'ewater"s  canal  at  liaiton.  This  small  canal,  havinj;- (ui,i,diially  a  di'pili 
(d'  oidy  four  ami  one  half  feet,  here  crosses  the  K'iver  Irwell.  It  was  iii>il\ 
considered  a  ,t,Meat  feat  i>[  eie^ineeriiej;  when  .lames  Urindley  const  riicted  liic 
i-aiial.  durini,'  the  ei;.;hteenth  century,  so  that  it  crossed  the  river  on  a  \  in- 
duct. .\  waterway  ciossiii'^- a  waterway  on  a  viaduct  was  then  a  new  idr.i 
iiut  this  old  canal  was  constructed  consideiahly  aliove  the  desireil  level  d 
the   .Manchester  canal,  and  yet.  of  course,  not  so  hi,i,di  that  a  masted  >|iii. 


mi'dit  jiass  under  it. 


herel'ore  a  draw  became  necessar 


rv.     To  add  to  ti 


compliiMi  ion.  the  water  supply  of  the  small  canal  bein,;.,'  somewhat  limitfii, 
it  was  considered  very  undesirable  to  lo.se  a  t  rou.Lfhful  of  water  (roughly. 
L'(i(t.(M»0  :;;, lions)  each  time  the  draw  was  opened.  To  allow  this  water  i.. 
tlow  into  a  tank  ami  then  pump  it  back  would  consume  too  nnndi  time.  '•> 
say  notliiui^  of  the  expense.  Therefore  the  iiridj^e  must  swiii,y;  with  ilir 
ti'oiiiih  full  of  watei'.  'i'hat  required  <,'ates  at  each  end  of  the  draw.  :i> 
well  as  at  the  end>  id'  the  canal  on  each  abutment.  These  Liates  wi'M- 
eomparatisely  simple ;  but  the  ditlicnlt  problem  was  to  ensure  a  water-ti'..;lit 
joinr   lietweeii  the  ends  id'  the  draw  trough  and  the  corres|iomlin'4  cmN  "t 


th(.'    cana 


1.     Ti 


'luperatiire    i 


haul. 


es.   a^    well    as  maiiv    other  consideratinn 


Would  preidude  the  possibility  of  making;  even  a  fairly  ti,t,dit  joint  by  swin,''- 
iiii.,'  the  di'aw  to  a  idose  tit  with  the  abutments.  The  desired  result  \'  i- 
accomplished  by  placiii!.i'  at  each  end  of  the  draw  a  very  short  I'-shaii'i 
structure,  liavinL,'  the  same  cross  section  as  the  cross  .section  of  the  trniuii. 
and    haviiiij  beveled  ends   tiitin.ij'    coi'res|pondin!ij  bevels  on    the  ends  of  'ln' 

trough.  Tiiese 

the  i.;ites  are  closed,  the  water  between  the  Liates  at  each  end  (a  c  ;k- 
paratively  small  amount)   is  drained  (d'f  and   wasted,   the    r-shaped   \\imI'> 


beveled   ends  are   iacetl  with   rubber.      To   open    tl 


le   It 


/;  y 


I  t(M'  tlh  ',,, 
IH'i't'SSIII  1  > 
III  tllf  -I  - 
lllpl"'  \\.l!i  1 
(I   lll'fll  '"l.- 

N  li;i(l  111"  <.\ 
I'licti'd  w  iili 
i'iii;iiii'i  I  - ,. 
aiii1<Mi;iiM'< , 
fart  thai  !t 
•((V  ill  ill,'  1 1  If 

itinli  III   till' 

only  tlini\  - 

r.    Kiiulaini. 

ij;iiii    ill    Nil- 

\\a>    tilli'd 

nil    III     |||>||| 

anal  m'  iIh' 
(lived  arii>i' 
ili(ia(l>  w  nil 
lie  iiiii>i  Hi- 
ll.' Dukr  nl 
ally  a  (li'|iiii 
t  was  ju>tl\ 
stnu'lcil  till' 
IT  nil  a  \  ia- 
a  lu'W  iiliM 
red  Irvi'l  I'l 
iiastnl  ^liii' 

add  III  till' 
liat  liiiiilt'il. 
T  (rnu'^lily. 

is  watiT  I" 
lii'li   t  mil'.  '" 


Im'  w  1 


th   ill' 


III'    ilraw.  ;is 

atrs   wi'ii' 

\vati'i'-ti'-:li' 

|iii'4  ciiiU  "t 

^id('r:itiiHi-. 

It  liy  swni'i- 

rcsiilt    \':i- 

It   r-shai"'! 

llio  triiii-ii. 

'lids    lif    !  Ill' 

|i    till'   di  .A 
llid    la   I"  :i.- 
d    wiMi   "^ 


i-tmi-.-  -i-vJivi'tK*  »«"i. 


Q 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  M580 

(716)  872-4503 


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:5r)4         TlilUMPHS  AND    WOSDEIIS   OF  THE  A/A'"   CENTURY 


i  WSj 


II  i 


■:  «i 


arc  raised,  and  tlii!  draw  is  tlieii  iiec  to  turn.     The  wedges  are  operatcii 
iiydvaulie  rams. 

CiircAdd  J)i;.\iNA(;i'.  Canai,,  —  It  will  probably  be  a  surprise  to  lui,  , 
]ioo])le  In  learn  that  this  "drainag*! ''  canal  has  a  greater  cross  sect; n 
tlirougliout  the  "earth-work"  sections  than  any  ship  canal  in  existence,  unl 
is  only  exceeded  through  the  rock  sections  by  the  Manchester  canal.  'I  iic 
city  of  Cliicago  obtains  its  water  sn])jily  from  Lake  Michigan.  The  '•inta'iM  " 
])ipe  was  at  tirst  located  comjiaratively  near  the  shore.  As  tlie  po[)ulatiiiii  n| 
tlie  city  grew  and  tiie  voluiut!  oi'  its  .sewage  increased,  it  was  oljserved  ilmt 
the  water  supjily  was  becoming  contaminated.  The  Chicago  IJiver.  iht(. 
which  tiie  sewage  was  emptied,  became  so  foul  that  the  odor  was  intolcmlilr. 
The  very  evident  fact  of  this  odor  ]»robably  had  more  to  do  with  the  i)romiii  imi 
and  accom])lislinient  of  the  means  of  relief  adopted  than  the  far  less  eviili  nt 
but  very  dangerous  jiollution  of  the  water  supply.  An  e.xtensiou  of  tli<-  in- 
take pipe  to  a  point  several  miles  from  shore  by  means  of  a  tunnel  (wliidi 
was  in  itself  a  notable  feat  of  engineering)  only  deferred  the  time  when  ihr 
water  supply  would  again  be  fatally  contaminated  if  the  sewage  continued  \n 
flow  into  tiu' lake.  It  was  ai'cordiiigly  determined  to  dispose  of  tlie  sfui-,. 
by  discharging  it  into  an  artificial  channel  where  it;  might  become  (bliiicii 
with  water  from  Lake  Micliigan.  and  thence  pass  from  the  watershed  ol  thr 
Oreat  Lakfs  to  the  watershed  of  tiie  Mississipj)i.  Tlu;  level  of  Lake  Miclii- 
gan is  so  liigii  tliat  there  was  no  trouble  about  obtaining  the  recpxisite  grade. 
and  tlie  divide  between  the  waterslieds  is  so  low  that  the  depth  of  the  le 
([iiired  cutting  at  the  summit  was  not  forbidding.  l>iit  why  have  such  a  lai^e 
canal?  it  was  re((uired  tliat  the  sewage  should  be  diluted,  so  as  not  to  iie- 
come  offensive  to  the  inliabitants  of  the  region  through  which  tlie  canal  nnist 
pass.  The  law  under  wliicli  the  work  was  authori/ed  re(piired  that  the  llou 
sli(uild  l)e  <)(i(i.0(l0  culiic  feet  per  minute,  and  tliat  the  minimum  widtli  at  ilie 
bottom  of  the  idiannel  must  be  Kit)  feet.  According  to  the  well-known  \;\\\^ 
of  iiydraiilics.  it  was  seen  tiiat  a  deep  canal  would  liave  a  greater  capacity  jier 
unit  of  excavation  than  a  very  wide  shallow  canal.  This  is  especially  line 
through  the  sections  of  deepest  cut.  since  excavation  afiori'  the  water  Hue  adds 
nothing  wiiatever  to  the  capacity  for  How.  The  sections  adopted  called  iui  ;i 
dejith  of  water  of  22  ieet.  The  side  walls  in  rock  are  practically  vertical,  tlie 
width  of  channel  Ixdng  UtO  feet  at  tlie  bottom  and  H\2  feet  at  the  too.  In 
earthwork  the  cross  section  is  larger  than  in  rock,  thus  reducing  the  v(doeily 
of  flow  and  danger  of  scouring  the  i)anks.  'i'lie  width  of  channel  at  the  h. ii- 
tom  is  I'OL'  feet,  the  width  at  tlu;  water  surface  being  2W  feet,  and  the  >ii;e 
.slopes  2  horizontal  to  1  vertical. 

.V  very  expensive  feature  of  this  great  work  was  th»>  necessity  for  ci'M- 
structing  a  diversion  channel  for  the  Desplaines  Iviver  throughout  that  \»>v- 
tion  of  the  river  valley  occupied  by  the  canal.  Lack  of  space  forbiii-  a 
further  discussion  of  this  feature.  The  canal  will  drain  into  the  Desjilaines 
L'iver  at  a  ]>oint  where  the  slope  of  the;  river  is  so  great  that  there  will  never 
be  danger  that  a  strong  west  wind  or  an  unusual  lowering  of  the  levtd  ni 
Lake  Michigan  can  possibly  cause  the  current  to  flow  eastward. 

Work  on  the  canal  was  commenced  only  after  many  years  of  discussn'ii, 
planning,  legislation,  litigation,  and  bitter  opposition  by  tlie  varied  ii  'ej. 
ests  which  considered  themselves  more  or  less  injured.     liut  the  work  \\  is 


i   I 


PROdRESS   IN   CIVIL   ICNGINEEIilNG 


:«.■ 


Uf  illy  coinnieiKH'd   in  July.  IN'.L'.     Tlif   t'sliniatcd  cxcHvatinii  is  approxi- 

in,  ly  4(»,(MI(  1,000  cubic  yards  —  about  one  half  that  of  the  Suez  canal  ;  but 

til  cngtli  is  only  L'U  miles,  coniparcil  with  lol  miles  for  the  Sue/,  canal.     The 

ret  !  cost  is   estimated  at  sonu'lhii:,^'  over  .*!i;7.000.(l(l0.      It  is  exjiected  that 

til  Aiu'k  will  be  actually  coniph'ted  before  the  (dose  of  this  century. 


pecially  tnn' 
iter  line  ailds 


V.    (;i:oi)i:sv. 

I  may  be  that  many,  who  have  read  of  the  incredidity  of  all  Europe  when 
rill'  voya<,'es  of  navigators  durinj;-  the  iifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  first 
ili'iiiiiiistrated  the  sphericity  of  the  earth,  will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  this 
kill'  V lodge  had  been  ac(iuired  almost  two  thousand  years  before,  and  had 
siii>  ■  then  been  f<>r(i<>ttni.  To  Eratosthenes,  a  <!recian,  belongs  the  honor  of 
tir^'  making  a  measurement  (about  the  year  LV50  i;.  c )  of  the  size  of  the  earth, 
wlihli.  while  very  ru(h'  and  iiuuicurate.  used  the  same  fundamental  [irinciple 
a-i  IS  now  emitloyed  by  geodesists.  JUit  the  api)liances  <if  those  ancient, 
(liivians  and  of  the  Arabians,  who  later  carried  on  the  work,  were  exceed- 
iii-l\  ci'ude.  I'A'en  iliiring  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centui'ies.  when 
the  I'lcnch.  Knglish.  and  Dutch  were  working  very  hard  on  the  jiroblem.  and 
uiMc  gradually  obtaining  results  which  came  closer  and  (doser  to  those  now 
kiiiiwii  to  he  correct,  the  a[)i)liances  for  measuring  angles  were  so  rough  and 
iiiairiirate  that  it  was  only  possible  to  assert  that  the  earth  is  spherical,  with 
;i  (li.imeter  of  about  7'.(00  miles.  The  seventeenth  century  was  jiearly  jiast 
wlii'u  I'icard  lirst  used  sjiider  lines  to  determine  the  "line  of  coUimation.*' 
(iv  I  III'  true  line  of  sight,  in  a  t(des(!o])e.  Tlrs  marked  a  new  era  in  methods 
(if  work,  but  the  (UghttH'uth  century  was  about  half  gone  when  it  was  tiist 
aiitliiiritativ(dy  ]iroven  that  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  imt  is  more  truly  an 
•'olilate  spheroid,"  —  such  a.  figure  as  would  be  ol)tained  by  tlartening  a  sphei'e 
at  tiic  poles.  Sonu^  idea  of  the  accuracy  of  the  work  done,  even  at  this  stage, 
may  be  obtained  by  considering  that  the  computed  ihitteinng  is  so  sliirht  that 
il  wr  had  a  perfect  r(>i)roduction  of  the  earth,  redui-ed  to  a  iliameter  of  ll' 
iiiilics.  the  flattening  would  be  less  than  n'.-r  ^jf  an  inch  —  almost  imperceptible 
■veil  to  a  trained  eye.     The  very  highest  mountain  wmdd  be  considerably  less 


tl 


lan 


',„  of  an  inch' in  height  on  such  a  sphere, 


The  [iresent  nuirvtdous  state  of  the  science  is  due  to  the  great  imjirove- 
inciits  which  have  been  made  in  the  construction  and  use  of  angle-measuring 
iii^tniments  and  of  "base  bars;"  also  to  the  development  of  the  mathemati- 
ral  theory  and  proce.s.ses  involved,  notably  that  of  the  "method  of  least 
s(iiiares."  A.s  an  illustration  of  the  accuracy  attainable  in  the  construction 
of  theodolites,  the  writer  recently  made  an  elaborate  test  of  the  »  rror  of  the 
L't'iitcring  of  one  of  these  angle-measuring  instruments.  ( »f  course  no  (/imf 
measurement  is  possible.  The  result  is  i)ased  on  a  long  series  (d'  observa- 
tiims.  which,  when  combined  according  to  certain  mathematical  ju'incijiles. 
will  L;iv(>  tii(^  desired  result.  The  eri-iu'  was  thus  computed  to  be  fi)rfi/-firo 
iiii//niiif/is  of  an  inch.  To  realize  what  is  meant  when  an  angle  is  measured 
with  a  "'jjrobable  error"  of  a  few  hundredths  of  a  s(>c(uui  of  arc.  it  should  be 
iciiHinbered  that  one  second  of  arc  on  a  circle  lo  inches  in  diameter  is  les.s 
'^'''"'  iimVimt  "1  ""  inch.  The  accuracy  whiidi  has  been  attained  in  the  mea- 
Muvment  of  base  lines  is  not  easily  realized  by  a  layman.  .\n  engineer 
realizes  the  practical  impossibility  of  nn-asuring  a   line  twice  and  obtaining 


:':  n 


m 


ill 

If 


Hi 


lit  I 


:\rAi         TIl/hMl'US  AXD    WOyUERS   OF   THE   XL\"'   CEXTURY 

lifniisilji  x\u'  siuiic  result  to  tlif  iiiicht  unit  (it'  iiicasuit'iiiciit.  'I'Iil-  iiiitiai.l 
arc  tln'rclorc  al)lf  to  apin'ceiatt!  tlit;  acliicviMut'iit  (if  mcasiiriiii;'  a  base  i-i,i' 
liaviii,!,'  a  Iciigtli  of  over  iiiiie  luilcs.  w  itii  a  '•  imdiahli'  I'linr  "  of  less  than  hh,. 
tivc-millioiitli  of  its  lt'ii;j;tli.     Tin-  wcjnls  ••  jimliahlc  error. 


as  used  aliovc 


1. 


a  s( 


ifiitilicallv  exact  iiicaiiiin4'.  Imt  tliev  iiiav  l)e  lakeii   hv  tlie  uiiiiiitiat( 


rc|)rescntiin^-  a  nieasiirc  ol'  tlic  i)n'cisioii  olitaiucd 


A I 


il)out  llie  elose  ol'  tlie  last  cciitiirv  tlie  tii'cat  iiiatliematiciaii.  L 


(le  w  I'll 


ol     ;i|| 


liail  declared  that  the  results  of  the  surveys  which  hatl  then  hecu  iiia 
iuconsisteiit  with  the  theory  thai  the  form  of  the  earth  is  exactly  thiit 
oblate  spheroid.  That  f(iriu  would  rtMiuire  that  the  e(|uatorand  all  paiallcU 
of  latitude  shall  be  triu'  circles,  aiul  that  all  meridian  sections  shall  be  e(|ii;il 
(llipses.  Kaplacc  >howcd  that  the  discrepancies  between  the  actual  rcMilis 
obtained  and  the  results  which  tlu;  theory  woidd  call  for  are  too  great  to  lie 
considered  as  mere  inaccuracies  in  the  work  done.  \\'itli  the  extension,  dm 
inji  this  century,  of  the  j^reat  geodetic  surveys,  carried  on  bv  the  viiiiiiii> 
governments  of  the  world,  more  and  more  evidence  has  devtdo|)ed  that  ili^ 
meridian  sections  of  the  earth  are  not  ecpial.  whiidi  is  e(juivalent  to  sayiiii,' 
that  the  eipuitor  is  not  a  jierfci't  circle.  'I'liis  has  led  to  the  next  stage,  wliidi 
has  liciMi  to  prove  that  the  iorm  of  the  eartii  may  be  more  closely  i-c|iresi'iiiiii 
by  an  ••  ellijisoiil ""  than  l)y  a  spheroid,  that  is.  that  crr/v/  section  <d'  the  inuli 
is  an  ellipse.     Several  cab  ulations  have  been  made  to  dcterniine  the  leiiuili 


md 


location  o 


f  th 


principal  axes  of  such  a 


Hire 


r.ut  thcM-  c 


ilculatidii-. 


are  (considered  uiisatisfactorw  because  evidence   has  dexidoped  thai  the  t 


I'orni  of  the  earth  cannot  be  represented  even   bv 


an  ellinsoi 


This  fi- 


nir 

lire 


is  symmetrical  above  and  below  the  e(piator.     'I'here  are  reasons  for  bclic\  ill^■ 


that  the  i.iuthern  he: 


rtl 


nisiiiiereoi  tlie  eartli  issliglitiv  larger  tlian  tlie  iKutii 


th 


iid  that  the  birni  of  the  eartli  is  more  nearlv  that  of  an 


■ ovaloKt 


a  liuurc 


of  which  the  ordinarv  hen's  egg  is  an  exaggerated  ex; 


iiHple 


All  the  above  forms,  the  sphere,   spheroid,  (dlipsoid.  and  ovaloid  a 


re  l;cii- 


metrical  forms  wliicdi  rcpres.'iit  with  more  ami  more  exactness  the  true  lnrin 
of  the  earth,  but  even  this  iiK'rcasing  exactness  will  not  account  tor  the  dis- 
crepancies and  irregularities  whicii  have  been  found  at  \'arioiis  places,  iiml 
which  cannot  be  ex])laiiied  on   the  ground  (d'   inaccurate  W(M'k.     (ieodesist^ 


ave  been  bu'ced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  true  bum   (d'  the  eartli 


Is  tint  a 


regular  geometrical  form,  but  is  a  •■  geoid."  that  is.  like  the  earth  and  iike 
nothing  else,  unless  we  admit  the  exaggerated  c(Uiiparison  that  it  is  ••  like  a 
potato."  It  should  be  understood  that  the  words  ••  bu'iii  of  the  earth"  dn 
not  refer  to  tlie  actual  surface  (d'  mountain,  valley,  cu'  ocean  bottom,  luii  le 
the  actual  ocean  surface,  and  to  the  surface  whiidi  the  free  ocean  wmuM 
assnm(>  if  it  could  ))enetrate  into  the  heart  of  the  continents.  'I'lie  astniml- 
ing  accuracy  of  the  work  done  may  be  a|ipreciated  when  we  consider  thai  tin- 
differences  between  the  "geoid"  and  ilie  more  accurate  mathematical  !■  ■  ni-^ 
are  distances  which  should   be  measured  in  feet    rather  than  in  miles.      I'.ii 


many   piirjioses. 
I'"or  son: 


it   is  sutticieiitiv   exact    to  consider  th 


e   earlli   as   a  sol 


e  ver\'  precise  woi 


k  it 


iiuu'c  exact    lorms  have 


littl 


IS  iiecessar\'  to  consider  it  as  a 

th 


splieroK 


1.    Hi 


e  or  no  utilitarian  value,  and  the  va.-t  amoi 


wo 


rk  that  has  been  spent  on  these  researcdies  h.is  been   due  to  ma 


11  >  1      :-I 


i'(U' knowledge  as  siudi. — due  to   the  same  enthusiasm  whiidi  advaiici 


sciences  in  tiidds  whi(di  only  broaden  man's  kiiowled 
we  live. 


<il   the  woi 


Id  ill 


PROGHliSS   L\   CIVIL   EMllSKEniXd 


:r)7 


I  lie  luit  1,1  •  .i 
;  ii  biisc  111,!- 
less  tliiiii  i,iic 

I  aliuvt'.  111 \ !• 
niiiiliiitcii  ,1^ 

•iilll.    Lillllllr,'. 

■11  iiiiidi'  w  in- 
ly tllilt  nl  III 
I'iiU  i.;ir;ill.l~ 
dial!  lit-  r(|iiiil 

ilOtUiU    I'CMllu 

IK)  f^i'cat  til  111- 
xtciisidii.  iliii- 
V   the  val■illll^ 

I|IC(1    lluit    llir 

liMit  to  sa\  itr^- 

t    Staji'f.  W  lilrll 

\\  n'lii'csi'iiu-il 

II  of  llic  i-;iilli 
iiif  the  Inr^tli 
>(■  calciilat  imi,- 
1  ihai  ihr  tnii- 

Tiiis  li'^iiiT 

S   t'ol'  ll('lir\  ili;^- 

the  ii(irllii-i',i. 
111."  —  a  timiiv 


VI.     KAlLKdAMS. 

:  he  acliii'vnui'iits  of  engineering  skill  on  the  line  ol'  V)ri(lges,  canals,  tiin- 
)i(  •.  et(\,  have  been  great,  but  their  effect  is  insigniticaut  e(inii)aie(l  witii 
til-  social  revolution  that  was  created  by  the  invention  and  developnn'iit 
1,1  railroads.  Tlie  railroads  of  tliis  country  rejiresent  a  value  of  about 
sl_.(iU(»,<MI(>.0(H»  —  one  sixth  of  the  national  wealth.  Their  jiay-rolls  in(dude 
ill),  , It  (Sr)(>,(H(((  eniiiloyees — .,'„  of  the  working  [lojmlarion.  I'liey  sujijiort, 
ilii  rtly  or  indirectly,  about  ."ijddO.OOO  people.  They  collect  an  annual  reveiuu; 
i,r,,iii)\it  !?i!l.L'()(>,(>0().()(M>.  whiidi  is  greater  than  the  value  of  the  combined  i)ro- 
iliins  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals,  wheat,  rye.  oats,  barley, 
|i(it:iioes,  and  tobacco,  prodiu'ed  by  the  entire  nation.  Su(di  a  stuiieiidoiis 
>(ii  lal  institution  requires  special  discussion,  and  it  will  be  fouiul  treated 
si-parately  under  the  heading  of  •'  Kvolutiou  of  the  liailway." 

VII.     TINNKLS. 

Tunnels  are  of  exceedingly  ancient  origin,  if  by  tunnels  we  include  all 
iirtiiicial  underground  excavations.  I''roiii  })reliistt)ric  times  natural  caves 
have  been   ustnl  as  burial   iilaees.  and.  following  this  practice,  tunnels  and 


aitilicial   rock   chambers  have   been  cut  out  by  kings  and   rulers  in   'i"li 
Niiliia.  and  India  during  periods  so  ancient  that  we  call  the  study  of  tl 


leii 


ln>iiiry  arciueology. 


.N 


or  were  the  ancient  tunnels  contiiied  to  tnnilis 


r 


lial 


ivloiiians  constructed  tunnels   throuijh  mater 


lal 


M\'i\  that 


a   liniii'. 


if 


hrii-k  iiiasonrv  had  to  be  used  to  sustain  the  work.     The  jjoiiiaiis  con-tiiictt-d 


;i  tunnel  ov< 


r  th 


iree  and   one   half   miles  long  to  drain   the   waters  i 


f   Lak 


•llrllio. 


.Vboiit  .'»0.()(M»  laborers  were  occupied  on  this  work  lor 


eleven  \cais. 


'Ill-  niiieteeiiih  century  can  hardly  boast  of  works  that  rejiresent  a   greater 
iiiiiiiiit  of  labor  (inciisured  in  mere  davs  of  work)  than  some  of  these  ancient 


iiiiiiiiiiaents  of  constructive   skill,  but  rlie 


niasterpiec 


if  this  ceiiturv  an 


wiiiks  wlii(di  hiive  been  greatlv  aiih'd  and  even   rendered   possible  b\-   tint 


ili-ni  inventions.  —  compressed-air  diilli 


niaehines.   modern  explosives. 


;ll|i|    t' 


le  compressed-air  process  u  >ed  m  subaipieons  work. 


r 


le 


.ivaiice  in 


methods  of  tunnel  surveying  is  as  great  and  nearly  as  important.      I'rogress 
xcavating   tunnels   is   necessarily  slow,  because    the   working  face   is  so 


HI    I 


that 


onlv  a  lew  men  cai 


ili'pelKlS    U 


1  work  there  at  a  time,  and  the  rate  of  advance 
jion   them.      As  an   illustration:  althougli  the   Mout  Cenis  tunnel 


'lungs  to  the  latter  half  of  this  centurv.  the  first  blast  beiiiLT  m: 


'I   fnr  tilt!  first  four  years  hand  drilli 


iig  w;is  employed,  when  the  averagt 


Kle 
th 


in  liS.IT 


|ii(igress  was  about  nine  inches  \nn-  day.  Then  machine  drilling  with  eom- 
invssed  air  was  adojjted.  when  the  rate  of  advance  was  multi]ilied  five  times. 
Till'  invention  of  compressed-air  drills  simultaneously  solv(>il  two  ditticulties  : 
ill  The  compressed  air  furnishes  an  extremely  convenient  and  safe  form  of 
|io\ver,  which  enables  hides  to  be  drilled  iniicli  more  rapidly  than  it  is  pos- 
Miile  to  drill  them  by  hand.  (L')  The  comju'essed  air.  after  doing  its  work, 
hausted  into  the  tuinud.  and  thus  furnishes  a  continuous  supply  of  f,...ii 
The  necessity  for  ventilation  has  often  re([uired  the  constnietion  and 
ii|i''""ition  of  exi)ensive  ventilating  plants.  .\dd  to  these  improvements  the 
li.i,'titiiig  of  the  tiiniud.  even  during  eimstruetion,  by  idectric  lights  which  con- 
^ww  no  oxygen,  and  the  eoni|iarison  between  ancient  and  modern  methods 


IS  l-\ 

;iir. 


'  ■  (I  Si 


Jfi  -f  I 


•6r,H 


TiNiM/'iis  AM)  ]vo\n/:i{s  or  tiu-:  xix'"  ckmcuy 


1. 1 , 


i 


''ijitsi:' 


!■ 


bccomt's  fspi-ciiilly  iiiarkfil.  l.cldrc  llic  iiivi'iitimi  oT  cxiilDsivcs.  liiird  v  1< 
\v;is  sdiiii'riiiit's  i)r()ki'ii  In  Imildiiiu'  wood  liri's  next  to  the  rock,  and  t!  u, 
Avlieii  tilt'  i'o(dv  had  Ix-coint'  very  liot.  cooliiii^-  it  suddcidy  witli  watiT.  '1  n. 
suddi'ii  contraction  would  split  the  rock.  N'cntilation  was  attcinjiti'd  liv  \\..\- 
ini;-  tans   at  the  tunnel   cnti'anccs.      With   toindics  and    tires  to  consular  :,ir 

]irecious  oxyi^^eii.  and  no  ci  ,■- 
tive  ventilation,  it  is  a  woilid- 
liow  those  earlier  tuniiel>  u,  v,. 
constriK'ted.  'Die  eoni|ire>  ..(j 
iiir  methods  tor  sul)a(|Uii'ii> 
work  will  !)('  relerred  to  uini.i- 
a  special  ease.  The  esscniin! 
principles  liave  already  \nv\\ 
(h'scribed  under  caissons. 

TiNNKi,  Sri;vKviN(i.  —  I  in 
tunnel  surveyiiiii,'  devtdoped  lim- 
ing this  century  is  one  ol  ih,. 
marvels  of  surveying  work.  It 
a  tiinntd  is  to  be  several  imlrs 
in  length,  not  tuily  is  the  cmm- 
vation  commenced  at  each  cuil, 
but  one  or  more  interm(Mli;iti' 
shafts  are  t're(|uently  suid<  u< 
extended  in  eacdi  direction  I'lniii 


AMKUK  AN    I'OUT.M,.  ST.   (■|,.\1U   TrNNKI,.   NOKTII 
<)!•    DKTHlUr.    Ml(  II. 


the  level  of  the  tunnel,  and  excavation  is  ..^........^  ...  ......  ...i. ,  _.....  i,,.„ 

the  shafts.  It  is  extremely  iiiqun'taiit  that  these  sections  of  the  tunnel 
should  "meet""  exactly.  If  they  should  fail  to  do  so  by  any  a|i](reci;ilili- 
amount,  the  necessary  nioditicatioiis  are  fnviueiitly  costly  and  therefore  iu>- 

tify  the  most  elaborate   precautions   in  the  surveying  W(U-k,  especially  sii 

the  surveying  costs  much  less  than  the  consetpieiices  of  such  a  blunder.  Tlir 
Hoosac  tiinntd  is  o\  er  li.">.<l(M»  feet  htiig.  'I'he  heading  from  the  east  end  imi 
the  heading  from  the  central  shaft  at  a  point  ll.L'74  feet  from  the  east  mil 
and  l."»();)  feet  from  the  shaft.  The  error  in  alignment  was  live  sixteeiitli-  nt 
an  inch,  that  of  levtds  "a  few  hundredths."  error  of  distance  ••  trifling."  Thr 
corrected  alignment  was  then  carried  on  toward  the  heading  Iroiii  the  wr-l 
end.  wliiidi  it  met  at  a  ])oint  lO.l.'JS  b'et  (nearly  two  miles)  from  the  west  nni 
and  !.'(»;-»(!  feet  from  the  shaft.  Here  the  error  of  alignment  was  ,"jj  (d'  an  iinli 
and  that  of  levfds  about  1  5  inches.  Tlu'  surveying  work  of  the  s]»iral  tunnel^  mi 
the  St.  (lothard  Kailway  (to  be  described  later)  is  another  exampU' <d'  ni;ii-.rl- 
ously  accurate  work  under  peculiarly  unfavorable  circumstances. 

St.  ( ioi'iiAiJK  TrNNKI,.  —  To  appreciate  the  magnitude  (d' the  ]pidbleiii  in- 
volved, (d'  wlii(di  this  great  tuiiind  is  the  erowiiing  feature,  some  idea  >liMi!lii 
be  obtained  of  the  Al]iine  topography  lying  between  .Sileiieii.  iii  Swit/ril.iinl. 
and  I'xidio.  in  Italy,  loss  than  forty  miles  a])art.  The  idea  of  coiiin  riiui,' 
Switzerland  and  Italy  by  a  railro;id  ])assing  over  or  through  the  Aljis.  b\  Mti- 
lizing  the  St.  (iothard  I'ass  as  far  as  jiossible.  d.ates  back  to  ISoO.  or  i  vin 
earlier.  An  eiiterjirise  of  such  magnitude  could  be  consumniated  onl\  ;ilti'r 
years  of  discussion,  planning,  surveying,  negotiations,  and  even  internal  i'lial 
agreements.  In  1S71  a  treaty  was  iinally  ratiiied  between  (Jermany.  Italv  nni 
Swit/erland.  by  whiidi  the  construction  and  financiering  was  duly  auth":  "il. 


'Iii ''5 


777.']' 

cs.  luird  1     k 
I'k.  and  tl  II. 

I    WatlT.       '1  ;ir 

11]  it  I'd  by  w  ,v- 

I    COllSUllli'    :  ,ir 

and   11(1  (Ml  r- 
t   is  a   Willi. :cr 

tuniifls  w.vr 
(■  (•()iii]ir('>-.ii 
1'  sid)ainirnus 
'vrcd  to  uiiiiiT 
'I'lic    csscn:  i;il 

already    lurii 
aissiiiis. 
kvim;.  —  Till- 

d»'Vtdl)|iril  ilui- 

is   one  III   ilir 
yiii^  wovk.     1 1 
'  si'vcral  iiiilrs 
dy  is  the  I'M'M- 
'd  at  cacli  niil, 
i'    iiiti'i'iui'iliati' 
icutly   sunk   tn 
direction  Irmn 
of    the    tunnel 
iiy  apiu'eciiililr 
1  theret'orc  iu>- 
'S]ie('ially  siiii'i' 
iiluudcr.    'I'lif 
|e  east  end  uiri 
|ni  the  east  rinl 
e  sixteenths  nt 
tritliinj;."'    Tli' 
Ironi  tlir  \M'~t 
la  the  west  ilni 
|s  ,'''^  of  an  iiirli 
iiiral  tunnrKoii 
iph'  of  WAV.  il- 

'S. 

|u'  jirolih'Ui  i!i- 
■  ue  iih'ii  sli"Mlii 

il    Swit/el'l:iliil. 
lol'    collliril  III',' 

|e  Alps.  In  'iti- 

ISrtO.  (IV  '^'11 
Ited  only  ^iiln 

1  interiKii'  'ii;i: 
liiiy.  Iial;    '^I'l 

Iv  aiitli'-'   ■•■'i. 


Piit>(,jn:ss  /\  CIVIL  i:s<iiM':Enis<i 


3.W 


(    I   AuLMist  7.   1S7L'.  tl 


•iintract    for  the  ronstructmn   \\a> 


dLjiied.   with 


]  iviso  that  the  work  must  he  eoiiijileted  witliin  eij;ht  years.  On  .\|)ril  .'SO. 
1  si»,  the  advance  headings  met.  and  soon  therealter  tiie  maii.->  were  re;4ii- 
1  ly  carried  throic^li.  although  the  tiiniitd  wah  not  actually  coniiileted  in  the 
.-     citied  time. 

fill'  route  adojited  was  bold  enoULjli  to  sta'^'^er  I  he  financier,  if  not  tiie  en,i,n- 
I  r.  Startin;4'  from  Silenen.  Swil/crlaud.  it  rei|uiri-d  a,  (diiiili  of  nearly  L'OOO 
1.  t  to  reach  ( iiisidieiien.  the  ado|iled  norliiirn  nortai  of  the  tuniKd.  This 
w    iild  reijuire  an  nrrrniji'  i^radc  of  L'dd  feet  jicr  mile  in  the  ten  miles  of  dis- 


t;   icc.  or  an  actual  .^radc  of  ,">7(l  leet  per  mile  in  the  upper  part  of  the  1 


iiie, 


il  i  he  I'lver  valle\'  were   lollo 


1,-.  llie  ( 


We(L       T 


le   line  W 


as  therefore  ••  de\cloped,"  that 
listaiice  was  purposely  increax'd  iiy  adopting;  an  indirect  line,  in  order 


lilt  the  grade  might  be  less.      It   was   found    jiossiiile  to  run  the  line  from 
SiiciuMi  to  IMaffenspniiiif,  a  distance  of  about  six  miles,  on  the  comparativelv 


,n-ade  of  l.'>7  feet  per  niih 


.\t  11 


lis  iioiiit  the  line  suddeiilv  iiliiiiijes  inti 


lllie 


tlh  mountain,  and  curves  around  in  a  circle,  which  is.  roughly.  L'(MM»  feet  in 
liiiiiieter.  while  it  continues  an  upwanl  grade  of  iL'l^  feet  per  mile,  .\fter 
triNcrsing  4<Sir»  feet  of  such  tunnel,  the  line  again  emerges  into  tlie  open  air, 
liming  turned  nearly  three  fourths  of  a  circle  in  the  solid  rock.  .Mioiit  l.'0(M» 
iirl  farther  on  the  line  actually  crosses  its(df.  tht^  upper  line  there  being  I()7,|, 
In  t  higher  than  the  lower  line,  which  is  at  that  point  witiiin  the  tunnel.  Iiy 
this  device,  which  is  called  a  sjiiral.  the  line  is  run  at  a.  practicable  grade,  and 
;ui  elevation  of  ir>7ifeet  is  surmounted  by  introducing  ()i>S(»  b'ct  (d'  "develop- 
imnt."  Near  the  entrance  of  the  Leggistein  tunnel,  the  line  is  less  than  ."tOd 
tcit  away  (horizontally)  from  a  lower  part  of  the  line,  which  is  about  .'>r»0 
lilt  lower  in  elevation.  Space  forbids  a  further  description  of  this  climb  of 
L'i'on  feet  to  (ioscheiieii,  where  the 
ilunges  into  the  bowels  of  the 
c;uth.  and  does  not  again  emerge 
iiiitil  it  has  traversed  n'uif  mid  mii' 
'lii'irtt'r  iii'ili's,  and  has  reached  the 
sdiithcrn  slope  of  the  Alps.  Even 
line  the  ])()rtal  is  .■)7."»,''>  feet  above 
si'ii  U'vel.  and  the  valley  down  to 
I'xiiiio  is  steeper  in  jilaces  than  the 
viillcy  of  the  Keuss.  l'"our  s])irals 
all'  used  in  lU'scending  about  L'(>."i() 
fi'i't  in  an  air  line  distance  of  less 
iliaii  1".)  miles.  In  one  place  even 
the  upper  liiu'.  where  it  crosses  the 
lii\vi'r  line,  is  in  solid  rock.  Imagine 
slaiiding  in   the  gloom  of  a  tunnel 


ami 


considering  that  verticalh    1 


la 


le- 
n    lOI) 


INTIUIOi;    OK    ST.    11, Alii    '11  NNi:i..     NOKTll 


OK    DK'IIIOI 


MIC  II. 


iH'iitli   your   feet  —  more    tl 

I'll    lurther  down  in  the  bowels  of 

till'  earth  —  there  is  another  tunnel  belonging  to  the  sanu'  line  of  road.     Tin 


n.|.|, 


it  majority  of  tunne 


s  are   straight.     A    lew  1 


lave  curves  at  one  or  botl 


ciiiN.  but  nowhere  else  in  tl 
tiuiiicls  carved  out  of  the  living  rock 


le  woilil  can   he 


foul 


1(1  sucli  examiilcs  ot 


piral 


I  I'i  :  'ii<lS 

I       fl     I    ■  OTilfl 


ii.  .1 


i'l 


1 1 

1  ii  t?  'ii 


m  ■■^. 


i 


(5!!   • 


'M 


:il.\ 


i     '     'I.    '■ 


■»■'•!! 


:)«io 


TUirM/'/IS  AM)    nu\hia!S   OF   rnE  XIX"'  vestuhy 


Sr,  Ci.Aiii  Ti  nm;i.. —  A  ghiiicc  :it  a  iiiap  of  lowtir  l^anatlii  ami  Micln.:  ,,i 
will  sliow  tliat  all  the  rail  traflic  ol'  lower  ( 'aiiada.  and  cvfii  that  ironi  .Mont  i.  ,| 
and  (^Miciii'c.  tlial  passes  as  far  west  as  ( 'liica,;,^!.  must  fithiT  cross  the  hctii  ;i 
Kivcr  at  hctiiiit  or  tin'  St.  Clair  llivcr.  at  of  near  Tort  Huron.  I'laiis  |.  i 
bi'idsin<;'  tlic  livci'  have  liccn  lici|iit'ntly  made,  hat  tlio  (-'anadian  ;j;ovci'nnii  i 
lias  stt'adil\  rt'inst'd  |M'iniission.  Tlif  Ifatlic  alonj;' the  river  in  tS'.MI  ainoimii  i 
to  ovi'i'  .'ir>.(M)().0(M»  tons,  or  more  than  was  shi])pfd  at  the  ports  of  cither  .Ni  a 
\'ork,  I.oinloii.  or  I^iverpool.  and  gi(>atly  in  excess  of  that  which  pas^',i 
throuiih  the  Sue/  canal.  Such  Iratfic  must  not  he  impeded  even  hy  a  dr,i\. 
liridf,'c  ;  and  thend'ore  a  tunmd  was  the  oidy  alternative.  The  ])rol)leni  wa^  in 
many  respects  nni(pie.  liorinj,'s  showed  that  the  tiinind  must  jiass  tlirnii-li 
clay  and  oc(Msional  ]»ockeIs  of  (piicksand.  and  therefure  it  wotdd  he  neccs>iii\ 
to  e)n|)lov  a  itneumatic  method.  Urunel  had  used  a  ••shield"  on  the 'rii:iiiii> 
tunnel  half  a  ccidurv  heforc  ;  but  all  of  the  earlier  tunnels  constructccl  liv 
tills  method  were  iiiucli  smaller,  and  the  ditti(!ulty  and  dan;j;cr  increase  vii\ 
rapidlx'  as  the  si/.c  increases. 

In  ISSCi  the  ••St.  Clair  'runnel  Company."  virtually  a  creature  ol  tli- 
(hand  'I'riink  Railway  Company,  was  ort^'aiii/.ed,  and  in  1S(S,S  work  wa.--  Iir- 
t,Miii.  .\fter  a  false  start,  made  hy  sinkinj;  sjiafts  which  were  at'tciwiini- 
ahandoiied.  open  ciittiiiijfs  wer<'  commenced  at  each  end.  which  were  ■  \- 
tended  to  points  (itlOO  feet  a])art.  between  which  the  tunnel  was  excavaini 
and  lined.     'I"he  circular   liniiiL;-.  liaviiii;'  an  outside  diameter  of  L'l  feel,  is  el 

cast  iron,  made  in  se,i;niciits  whi(di  are  liolted  to.nt'tlier.  having'  strips  of  a\ 1 

tlirci'  sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick  placed  in  the  joints.  I.iipiid  asphidt  \\;i> 
Ireely  used  as  a  preservative  and  to  make  ri.ylit  joints.  'I'he  runnel  was  exrii- 
vated  for  nearly  L'(K>(>  fe<'t  on  eadi  side  as  an  ordinai'y  open  tunnel  until 
the  excavation  was  actually  under  the  river:  then  a  diaplii;ii;iu  witli  an 
locks  was  built  on  each  si(ie.  and  that  part  of  the  tunnel  lyini;-  undciihr 
river — L'L'IIO  feet  in  lentjth — was  constructed  under  air  pressure.  Several 
curious  facts  were  developed  durini;  the  construction.  'I'he  material  i'Mm 
vat<'d  outsi(h'  of  the  shields  was  thrown  insiih'.  loaded  on  to  <'ars.  ami 
liaiiletl  by  mules  to  the  diai)hrat^m.  it  was  found  that  horses  could  im'I 
work  in  compressed  air.  Mules  could  do  so.  but  even  they  w«>re  soiueliiiH- 
affected  by  ••the  bends."  a  disease  akin  to  paralysis,  which  frecpu'ully 
occurred  amont,'  the  men.  The  shields  were  forced  forward  by  tweiii\- 
four  hydraulic  rams,  each  havini;  a  cajiacity  of  \'J,T\  tons,  or  ."(KK)  tons  Id 
each  shield.  I'sually  a  force  of  IL'OO  to  l.^iOd  tons  was  sntiicieiit.  Mm  li 
,!.,'as  was  encuuntered,  which,  on  account  ol  its  explosiveness,  prevented  tin' 
employment  of  blasting  to  break  up  the  luuilders  which  were  fre(piciiil\ 
found.  The  advantages  of  electric  lighting  in  'ompressed  air  work  wi  iv 
exemplified  in  this  tunnel.  In  .\ugust,  ISDO.  about  one  year  after  ilir 
shields  were  ])lai'ed  on  eatdi  side  of  the  river,  they  met  near  the  ceiiiir. 
The  progress  of  each  shield  averaged  nearly  ten  feet  ]ier  day.  Cousin' i- 
ing  the  fre([uency  with  whiidi  the  cost  of  great  engiiie(»ring  work  exce.  is 
the  original  estimate,  it  is  remarkable  to  note  that  in  tliis  vwaw  theaciMil 
cost  (.1i<l.'.70(),(l()())  was    less  than    the    original    estimate,   which    was    ah    ii 

*;;,()(t(»,(»uo. 

Waltkk  Lokixc  Wi;i  I 


un  Y 


1(1   Micliiui.i 
tlic  Dcti'i.;! 

.         I'lllllS     luV 

ij;(ivcriiiiii  III 
'.K')  iniinuntnl 
I'  ('"tlicr  New 
■hich  |iiisM  il 
I  liy  il  ilr;i\» 
:)l)lt'iii  WiiN  III 

[KISS    tlirnll'^il 

be  lU'ci'ssai) 
1  tilt'  TliaiiKs 
iistriiftcd  li\ 

lUI'l'CilSC    \v\\ 

■aiiirc  (il  til' 
i'di'k  was  lic- 
■»■  al'tiTwaiii^ 
icli  were  r\. 
,-as  cxcavaii'ii 
J I  Ict't.  is  I.I 

iripS  (if  AVniill 
I  as|iliall  W;l^ 
ticl    was  ('\r;i- 

tuiiiicl  iiniil 
iHin  wirli  iiii 
111!,'  under  tlir 
ire.  Si'Vci'iii 
iiatcrial  cmm 
to  cars,  am! 
I'S  ('(iiild  lint 
,n^  Sdiiii'tiini'^ 

1      t'l't'(lll(Mlt!\ 

by    twciiix- 

1(MH»  tons   Inr 

ii'iit.      Mmli 

revciucd  tin' 

:i    rri'i|ii('iiil\ 

AVdi'k   w  V 

ar  after  ilic 

tilt'  ccnnr. 

( 'olisiii'i- 

oi'k  cxcf'i- 
('  the  iiclnal 
was    ali'"it 

k(i  AVi-.r.i 


HIE  CENTURY'S  PROGRESS  IN  THE  ANIMAL  WORLD 


(II-    AM. MAI,    jilSKAsj-.s. 


Ink  wars  (if  Napolt'oii,  wliidi  in  tlic  early  years  (if  tlie  iiiiieteeiitli  ceiitiiiy 
>  .  seiidusly  affecrteil  tlie  };(iveniiii('iits  and  iiislitiitidiis  of  l"'iird|ie.  had  an 
I  jiially  niarUed  iiitliieiiee  ii|i(iii  tlie  (lev(dd|iiiieiir  (if  tile  aiiiiiial  industry  in 
ll.r  ediintiies  tliat  were  lirdii.^'lif  witliiii  tlie  spliere  (it  tlie  military  djieratidiis. 
lliis  cliiipter  of  the  histiiry  of  that  peridd  appears  Id  have  lieeii  nenleeteil 
li\   writers  who  have  indiistridiisly  didved  into  details  of  snlijeets  of  far  less 


■rest  and  iiiiportanee 


KnoiiL'ii  lias  been  (diroiiieled  liv  various  historiai 


IS, 


'ver.  to  show  that  in  iiiauv  cases  tin 


ise  eiiLra''('(l 


in  siieeessful  operations 


|..r  1 


iiipi'oviiii,'  the  ijreeds  of  doiiiestieated  animals  were  fdiced  to  abandon  the 
udik  to  wliieh  they  had  devoted  their  lives,  and  for  whiidi  loii^^  study  and 
i'N|ierien('e  liad  specially  litte(l  I  hem.  and  to  become  units  in  the  vast  armies 
'AJiii'h  were  or<'ani/ed  oiiK'  to  melt  awav  in   liie   bi(io(l\   and  disastrous  eam- 


iLMis  of  that  eiioidi.      l)iit  it  was  not  the  men   alone  that  were  tal 


'1 
horses  were  seized  for   the  use  of  the  dtHcer,' 


Ken. 


r 


le 


IIKl 


tf 


e  cavali\-.  for  t  he 


arlillerv  ii 


lid  tl 


le  transjiortatioii   trains. 


The  sli( 


ep  ami   swiiie  were  slaii^li- 


tired  for  tlu^  subsistence  of  the  armies,  and  the  cattle  were  drixcn  off  for  tl 


aiiic 


purpose.      Neitlier  the 


(dioicest   Ho(d\S  and   herds   mn-  the  most  mat;iiiti- 

iiied.     The  fruits  df  niaiiv 


cent  individuals  produced  by  the  breeder's  art  esc 
\ca.rs  df  patient  effort  in  sidection  and  in  ,i;iiidiii;.,'  the  forces  of  heredity  were 
lilotted  out;  the  animals  hd't  were  few  and  inferior.  To  crown  all  these  dis- 
asters, the  uidst  deadlv  forms  of  conta,i;ioii  were  .yathered    fidiii  their  liidini;' 


aces 


wi 


th   tl 


le  aiiimals  that  were  seized 


tl 


le   pla<.;iics 


wliiidi   these   cause 


were  iiroiiau'ated  aiiioim'  the  vast  ai'trn^ifation  of  beasts  that  wen 


rcfpiired  foi 


till*  service  of  the  armies,  and.  finally,  they  were  disseminated  throiii^hoiit  al 
siciidiis  to  whicli  these  armies  penetrated. 


Tl 


le  a 


'•riciiltiirists  of  (ireat   l>ritain.  thanks  to  the  isolation  due  to  tlie  0( 


in- 


siderable  expanse  of  water  wliiidi  se]iaratcs  their  territory  from  the  mainlaud. 
escaped  not  only  the  invasions  of  armed  and  destructive  hosts,  but  also  the 
]icstileiices  whudi  accoiiiiiauied  them.  \\'hile.  therefdre.  the  farmers  of  the 
ciiiitiiieiit  were  stru-i-jflin;.,'  to  save  a  few  of  their  rcniainiii,!,'  animals  from 
the  rava}.jeS  of  t,daiiders,  rinderpest,  foot-and-mouth  disease,  pleiiro-iiiu'iimonia. 
ami  other  pla,a;ups,  those  of  the  IJritish  Isles  were  ]»rrfectiiiy  the  work  of  their 
ancestors  without  molestation.  Those  circiiiiistauccs.  lost  sis,dit  of  by  many, 
explain  to  acertain  extent  the  a])pareiitly  marvidoiis  success  of  the  IJritisli 
liiisbandnieii  in  devplo]iin,ij  so  many  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  siieep.  and  swine 
te  tli(^  wonderful  iierfectiou  w  liiidi  we  see  at  the  end  of  tlie  nineteenth  century. 
The  favorable  climate,  tojjjether  with  the  abundant  and  nutritions  hcrliap". 
Iiave  undoubtedly  been  factors  in  the  ])rodiictioii  of  the  British  lii'ceds.  but 
the  power  and  oi)]iortuiiity  to  select  the  best  animals  and  retain  these  for 
hiiiMliiiir  j(ur]ioses  must  also  have  had  .threat  influence. 


m 


m 


m 


i"  jt 


Ml ; ! 


m 


1311 


i.;i'i! 


■l^Sf'I'S'li 


,,iH 


.tf'li 


«iii 


.1,'*^ 


»)' 


u '  m 


ijiifi^ 


•nr' 


;i()-j       TiiirMfiis  AM)  woMncns  or  riii-:  xix'"  lestuuy 

'IMlc  crirct  (I  I'dlltll^iniis  (IImmm's  ill  li'liiidiii:^  llir  ilt'Vcl(i|illli'lil  ol  ;ni 
lil'c  iii;i\  lie  a|i|ircci;itril  Irnm  i  lie  oi  inintr,  cai-ct'iilly  maiU'.  I  lial  in  I  lie  c Id 
VfJii's  el  tlic  fi'^litci'iii  li  criitiirv  tliccaltli'  pla^iu' (^liiulfi'iicst )  alinic  dcslK 


ill  Vaw 


i{M>  two  liuii'h'i'il  iinlliiiii  licai 


1  I'l  cattk',  valiir'il  at  si-Vfii  1 


•illiiiiiv  (i| 


lars.      Dmiii.i;-  tlic  lir>l  hall   nl    the  iiiiictt'i'iitli  ctiiitiirv.  cattlr  |ihi'4iii'.  |>i 
lUMMiiiiniiia.  and    lniit-aii(l-iii<iut  h   ili--caM'   wrrc    |iai'ticularly(lisa>ti(iu>  |c 

rdjK'.    and    niii|ii('sl  idiialiU . 
til 


aninril    indnstix    id'    llii'    ('nntini'iit    id'    I'ji 


t  hriMi''lii)iil   Asia. 


will 


rli  a|i|irar.s  in   |ia\i'   Iiimmi   the  nrinuial   liabital   id  1 


phr^iirs.  Diirinj;'  llir  last  third  nl'  this  rmliiry  llif  di'Vidii|iiiii'nl  nl  vrlii,- 
iiary  scii'iicc.  tni^i'l  her  with  tiir  cnarliiicnt  ot'  sanitary  Ici^islatimi  and  P  ■• 
riiliM'i'fmi'iit  id  iiiiidli'4i'iil  nirasni'i's  id'  ic|iicssi(in,  liavr  |iractii'ally  ciadiiMM  li 
till'  ciittle  pianni'  limn  I  hr  l•llnll^^il■^  id  I'!iirii|p('.  ;iiid  \\r  iiavi'  u\\\\  to  nnlf.  i- 
iiiilinrtant.  its  iiiva>iiiii  nl'  (Jiral  liritain  in  1,S(;."».  whiidi  IimI  to  tlir  ado|itiiiti  | 
tlif  in'csriit-  must  cxcidlrnt  saiiil.iiy  iir,i;ani/atiiin.  and  tiic  cxti'iisivc  niitliii.d^ 
on  till'  ciintinriit  Inllnw  in.i;-  tlir  i''i'aiirn-i'riissiaii  war.  Duiiiij;'  thr  last  -.|\ 
years  this  pjai^iii'  has  swept  o\ei'  lar.ne  sertiinis  id  the  Aliicaii  I'lHitimiit. 
(lestruyiii,!4  nearly  every  bovine  aniiiiai  in  the  re^inns  lirst  invaded,  ami  lia<l 
it  not  lii'L'ii  lor  the  lortuiiale  and  timely  diM-nvery  of  a  sneeessriil  ini'thnd  dj 
preventive  inoeiilal ion,  the  cattle  industry  would  have  been  alisolutelv  aimi- 
liilated. 

I'leiiro-piieunionia.  almost  ei|iially  destriU'tive  with  eattle  iplai,'ue  and  mmli 
more  persistent,  was  widely  disseminated  over  the  contiiieiit  of  i'airope  diir- 
iiig  the  seventeenth  eentiiry.  and  reaelied  l'ai.i;laiiil  aliout  lS|(t.  .Many  mimn 
were  lost  in  futile  eonleiitions  over  the  snhjeet  of  eonta^nioii.  and  it  was  not 
until  the  last  twenty  years  that  vigorous  measures  for  its  e.xtermination  unc 
enforced,      lu  the  meaiitiiue  the  ciintauion  had  been  carried  to  .\ustralia  ami 

South  Africii.  where  it  has  since  remained  domiciled,  a  constant  soiin | 

loss  to  the  cattle  i^rowers.  'I'he  losses  from  this  disease  in  I'^nrope  are  imu 
comparatively  iiiiimportant,  but  in  the  countries  of  Asia  and  .\frica.  and  in 
Australia,  it  is  still  a  i^reat  inculms.  I''oot-an(l-moutli  disease,  less  fatal  in 
its  effects  than  the  other  mahidies  mentioned,  appears  to  be  more  dilliciilt  In 
control,  and.  in  the  cli)sin,tf  years  of  the  century,  we  tind  it  prevailiiit;- exlm- 
si\elv  over  the  jiriiicipal  countries  of  ( 'ontinental  I'airop 


The  di 


seases  w 


liicli  have  most  serioiish'  affected  the  develoi)inent  of  nil 


species  of  animals  are  the  Ljlanders  of  horses,  t ho  variola  id'  sheep  ( sin 'cp-p 
d  the  three  diseases  of  swine  known   in   lMiro]ie  as  erysipelas,  swine  | 


an 


and  swine  jilague.     These  have  been  extremely  prevalent  and   fatal  in  i 
parts  (d'  ICurope.     ( ilanders.  swine  ]>est.  and  swii 


le-l. 

liali\ 


le  plai^'Ue  lia\e  lieeli   liroii-lil 


to  the  .\iiiorieaii  continent,  and  have  been  even  more  destriU'tive  here  than    n 
their  ancient  habitat. 

'i'he  diseases  which  at  present  are  re.narded  as  most  serious  attracted  Knt 
little  attention  at  the  lie^inniiiL;-  of  ihe  century,  or  were  unknown.  Tiiln  i- 
culiisis  has  now  become  tin-  ;_;reat  scoiirec  of  dairy  cows  and  other  lii'jli'\ 
bred  cattle,  ruining'  manv  of  the  best  herds  and  thieateiiine'  the  health  ol  i!i.' 


consumers  ol'  milk,  if  not  also  of  b 


'I'exas   fever,  a  disease  id'  cattle 


studied  in  the  Tnited  States,  but  now  known  to  be  widely  disseminated 
the    South    .\nierican.    African,    and   Australian    continents,  has   (luring- 
years  retanh'd   oper.itioiis   for  im|irovin,L;'  and   increasin;,;'  the  stock  of  ca' 
and  has  seriously  restricted  the  luarketiiiij;  ol   animals  from  the  inbcted 
tricts. 


tiiM 
in  .  r 


liV 


1)1     nil.. 
lir  .•!.,- 

■(ll'Stli. 
nil-.  III    . 
lie.  |iliMi.    . 
nils   III   1  .. 
lll.ly.    ill-... 
|1    (il    ill.    .. 

Ill      Vrlili- 

III   iiinl    till. 
criiiliiMii  d 

1(1  llnl|..  .1- 
l(l(P|ltiuM   1. 1 

•f  mil  liii.ik 
lie   last    -i\ 

(■(lilt  ilMMlt. 

I'd.  ami  lia.i 
1  iucIIuhI  1. 1 
liitcly  aiiiil- 

(■  and  iiiiii'li 

iMirdjic  (liii- 

Maiiv  \iar> 

.  it  was  tint 

iiatidii  wi'iv 

bstvalia  ami 

sdiircc  III 

ic  arc  iidw 

ica.  and  iti 

'ss   I'atal    ill 

liMiciilt  t.. 

ling  cXtrll- 

it  dl'  (itlii.|- 

sll|.(']l-]".\  I. 

swine  |ii-t. 

ill  ill  niaiiv 

■I'll  laiiii.^lit 

K-rr  than  HI 

ti-iicicd   i'iit 

•11.        Till"    !- 

thcr  hi-lilv 
■allii  (if  til.. 
(■little  lii-t 
jiuiited  (1^. f 
during  i'''' 
k  of  oiiit'". 
iil'i'Cted    ''-• 


TllOItOl  (•lllilil.li 


;mi»       TnihMi'iis  AMD  \yn.\hi:iis  or  iinc  m.\">  vkmuuv 


w. 


hn 


1. 1 


'I'liis  brief  ^\iiiiiiiiin  rdiitivi  tn  (•(Piitii.Lfions  (lisciiscs  anil  tln'ir  ctli cts  is 
tliu  attt'iitioii  that  can  lie  ^ivcn  in  this  articlf  to  cnnilitiuiis  wiiii-li  iliroii-ii 
all  liistnric  tiiin's  liavo  lit'L-n  iin|i(irtaiit,  and,  in  many  cases,  have  hei  n  sn|ireiii. 
in  theii'  intlnencf  npitn  tho  tendencies  and  tlevelopinenl  nl'  tiie  animal  {iii{>ii- 
latinn.  As  the  tweutietii  euntnrv  a|)|ir(iaches,  hdwever.  the  inthience  ol  Hi, 
animal  phii^ues  is  on  tiie  wane,  iind  wit,!.  .1  tew  moic  veais  ol  activi'  >cientilii 
invest i},'ations  tliey  will  all  lie  so  thoi'on^ddv  contiolled  that  the  di>astrMii- 
visitations  of  the  jiast  can  never  he  i'e|ieated,  and  they  will  not  e\en  he  ,1 
liiiidninetf  or  menace  to  the  stock  grower. 


iniii 


V  ^ 


;!!•',,; 


#1,1  >l',i!'' 


I'.      •..?*!  .•11  I. 


"it;  ';t. 


11 


»i 


It.      I\(  IIKASK    IN     M   Mll|-.i:s. 

.\s  mi.u'lit  he  expected,  there  has  heen  an  increase  in  the  ntimhers  of  ti.r 
domesticated  animals  ludil  in  the  various  conntries  of  the  world,  hut  iln- 
iiicrease  has  been  far  from  uniform,  and  cannot  lie  measured  either  li\  iln' 
jiji'owtli  of  the  poimlation  or  the  def,'ree  of  |ii'os|ierity.  Kvidently  the  di  ii>it\ 
of  |ioiinIation,  tlie  develo|iment  of  manufactures,  and  the  lertiliiy  u\  the  mhI 
liave  li;id  much  iiiHuence. 

In  the  I'uited  Kiiiffdom  there  were  1  ,."i( H ».( I( t( I  horses  in  ISOO.  and  Imi 
•_',(MM».tl(t(l  in  1S;»,S.  Diirint,'  this  time  the  cattle  had  increased  fr<iiu  .'i.ddii.ooo 
to  1I,(I()(».0()(»:  the  shei'ii  from  L'."i.( M l( ».( t( M »  to  ;!I.<I<M».(I(I() ;  and  the  swine  lion, 
;;,(»(l( ».()(>(»  to  ;!. 71 »(».( »(»(».  Thus,  while  the  cattle  doiililed  in  niimliers  diiiiiiu 
th(f  eeiitury,  the  horses  increased  iiut  one  third,  the  sheep  one  fourth,  and  llic 
swine  one  fourth.  As  in  the  same  period  the  population  of  the  country  \\;i> 
:ui','niented  from  1( ;,!'(!( >.(»()(>  to  .|(M»<HMMH>,  or  two  and  one  half  times,  it 
not  ilitlicult  to  see  why  10iij;land  has  liecome  the  world's  i^rcatest  markei  \ov 
animals  and  animal  products. 

It  is  important  ti-  note  the  increase  in  animals  in  a  lew  of  the  principal 
countries  of  i^uroiie.  In  i-'ranee  there  were  l.SdO.dOO  horses  at  the  lienin- 
niii,i,Mif  the  century,  and  there  were  .'».4IS,(>00  in  IS'.Mi.  The  cattle  incieaM'il 
from  (■).( )(>!).( Mil)  to  l;;.;!.')I.O(M);  the  swine  fri.m  f.,"i(M».(l(M>  to  Ci.  jOfl.ddO :  th,. 
.Lfoats  from  Sdd.ddd  to  l.,"id(»,ddd;  while  the  shee]Mh'creased  from  ;)0,ddd.iMio 
to  L'l.L'dO.ddO.  'I'hat  is,  in  round  liiimhers,  the  horses,  cattle,  and  li'oals 
(hiiiiiled,  the  swine  increased  nearly  ."id  per  oent.  lint  the  sheep  weic  dimin- 
ished one  fourth.  The  [lopiilatiou  advanced  I'roiu  I'r.ood.ddd  to  .'!S.,"»dd.iio(i. 
or  alioiit  Id  per  cent. 

In  (iermany,  frcfm  ISI'S  to  ISiH'.  the  horses  increased  from  L'.."idd.d(id  t., 
;!.,s;{(;,ddO ;  the  cattle  from  '.>,77d.(HI(t  to  17.r.()d.d(ld  ;  the  j^'oats  from  7dd.i"iii 
to  .'{.d(MM>0(>;  the  swine  fnmi  T.'idd.ddO  to  lLM74.dOO;  and  tho  sheep  ,lr. 
creased  from  17,.">d(),dd0  to  l.'>.(idd,d()(l.  The  population  iiioreasod  duriii'.;  iln' 
same  time  from  L".>,7(M >,(•(»»>  to  4<.»,r)d0.d(l(>. 

Ill   Kuropean   Hiissia,  from  1S2S  to  ISSS.  tho  horses  wore  increased   frnii! 
lL',ddd.OdO  to  l.'(»,0(»0.dOd:  the  cattle  from  10,0(»d,ddd  to  L'.'{,S40.000 ;  the  shc(|. 
from  .•!(■!,( tdd.ddO  to  47.."idd,dd(> ;  while  the  swine  decreased  from  l.l.Sdd.ddd  \,, 
<).L'(K),(I(M).     The  popnlation  during  this  period  increased  from  4."»,(t(»d.(Hid  i 
J)0,(IO(>,0()(). 

These  iire  the  conidaies  in  'which  there  is  most  interest  on  account  of  tin  ' 
intiuence  u]>ou  the  markets  of  the  world.     In  regard  to  Kurope  as  a  win,'' . 
owing  to  the  lack  of  statistics,  we  can  only  estimates  approximately  as  to  ti  > 
condition  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.     From  such  data  as  are  .availal' 


1 1*1 


WJ 


Till-:  ('i:\rr iiY's  runaiiEss  i.\  iiir.  ammal  witin.n      lui.-. 

i     iiipi'iirs  tliiil    )  line  w  CIV  idMnit    LMt.COO.ddO  liorso.  C.I.SiMi.otlu  niiilr.   l.">7.- 
.'''ii.lKHl  sIm'I'ji.  ami  .'Ili.rtllO.uon  swiiit*.     'I'lir  iiniHiliitinii  i>t  l'!iiri>|M'  at  llial  liiin' 

i    iilai't'il  at   17.">.t .0(1(1.      In   iln-  yrarl'.HK)  tlirivwill   l.c   m    laiinjic  iidl    I  -r 

I     iiu    I  l.l'.'iO.dOO  llnrsfS.   lt>.S.(l(l(».(KHI  calll,..   |,S(I.,",7.1.(MHI   ^lu•(•|p.  aiii  I    ."i(;.S(»(».(MM» 
,s  .MM'.     'I'lif  iiniMilalinii  will  ivacli  aliiiiit  ;iS(i.()(l(t.(Ml(i. 

I'rdiii  tiicsc  ti.^iiivs  it  \v(ail(l  aiipcar  that,  takiii;^  all  nl  j'aiiuiM'.  tlic  Ini- 
];  III  |in|piilal  iitii  lias  iiiricascil  inun'  ia|iiill\  than  have  aiiv  nl'  t  licsc  s|it'ri(-^ 
I  i  (loiiit'Sl  icati'il  animals.  In  otlici'  \mi|'i|>.  llir  |Mi|>iilal  am  is  L'.  I  7  times  what 
ii  was  at  till'  lM"4iiiiiiii;4  nl  tlic  cciiturv .  u  liili'  I  licir  arc  luit  L'.l  t  timi-s  iin  maii\ 
l.disi's.  1.7.'"»  I  iiiii's  as  iiiaiis  (•iit.tit'.  I..V»  tillll■^  us  maiiv  >wim'.  and  1.11  limes 
ii^  many  slieep. 

I'llis     gl'ltwin^'     ilelieieliev     ill    the    stiM'U     nl     alillliaU.    eniljiird    with     all     ill- 

1  rea.sini?   ('oii.snniption   nl'    meat    per  eapita.   Iia>    led    tn  the   iiiipnrtat  imi  nl 
'^irat-  iiiimhers  nl'  animals  and    lai'^e  (piaiititie>  nt  iiieat>  and  nther  animal 


W  ATh.ltlNc.    Till,    (  nW  ^. 

]inMlia-t>.  'I'lie  resnll  iie^  t  radc  lias  si  imnlaled  the  pindiiel  inn  nl  animals  in 
<iiiier  jiai'ls  (d  the  world,  part ieiilurly  in  ihe  I'niled  Slates  id'  .\nieiiea. 
Aasiralia.  ami  .\rgeiitiiia.  in  all  of  wliiidi  llierc  has  heeii  a  inarvtdons  ih'- 
\elnpliii'nt. 

There  are  no  ndialde  statistics  ;is  In  the  niimlier  of  aiiinial>  in  the 
I'liiled  .Sinirs  at  the  licL^inniim' of  the  eeninry.  Snme  have  estinialcd  ihat 
llicrc  were  only  ;i( »(».()( l(t  Imiscs.  (KKt.dOd  catllc  and  (KMI.OOO  shve).:  Imt  i  he 
writer  is  (d'  the  opinion  that  iherc  were  from  ,1(1(1.(1(10  to  1.000.0(l(t  hor.M-s. 
at  least.  ;!.000.00(t  head  of  eatllc.  and  from  I'.OOO.OOO  to  ;!.00(».00(i  shco.  In 
|S|0.  with  a  popiilalion  of  17. 0(1;!. 000.  tlieic  were  L.'lOO.OOO  horses.  1  I.'.HIO.OOO 
laillc.  1'.».;;()0.0(I0  sheep,  and  L'(;.;;oo.( MM)  swine  :  while  in  iS'.Ilt  the  nnmher  is 
lilaeed  at  1  .■■..S(iO.(  100  horses  and  mnles.  1  l.ooo.ooo  cattle  .".<,».00(».(KIO  sheep,  and 
.'IS.CiOO.OOO  swine. 

In  ISSS  the  horses  ...'  Canada  numlicred  1.1(I0.00(».  the  eatllc  .•;.7'.to.ooo. 
(lie  shcc|i  L'.C.OO.OOO.  and  the  swine  1  .L'0,-..ooo.  In  the  >anie  year  .Mc.\ieo  was 
creijitcd  with  L'.OOO.OOO  horses.  ."..000.000  cattle.  I'.OOO.OOO  >hecp.  and  .'..000.- 
oiiii  LToats.     Takinn'  the  whole    of    Nnith    .\mcrica.  and  niakinc-  allowances 


ii 


hmv 


^WW^'^ 


:i(iti  TlUUMl'HS   A.\D    UO.\J)ERS    OF   THE   XIX'"  CKXTURY 

lor  till'    increase    sinre  l.SSS    in  ("anada,  and   Mrxicti.  it    may    lu'  faiilv  ;i 
siinic(l    tliai     at    tlic    closu   of   the  irntury  tliciT   will    l>c    almiit    iK.OUd.dnc 
luirscs    and    niuics.    .V».(M )(».( H M >    catilc.    ."iO.dOUjOdd    sheep,     and     l(».tMi().(iiiM 
>\\  iiie. 

In  Sdutli  Anieriea.  Argentina  !'ai'  (>utstii|is  ail  other  cdnntfies  in  aniin.i: 
product  inn.  The  lioises.  which  in  iSlil  nnadiercd  ."(.ST.^.tMH*.  had  inercas' n 
liy  lSi»r>  to  1. 1  I7.(l(«t;  the  cattle  inci'ease<l  in  the  same  jieriod  lron\  lO.L'l-'i. 
000  to  L'1.70L'.0(»0;  the  sheeji.  Ironi  L'.';. I  1 0.000  to  7  l.;;SO.OOO.  The  popiil  .. 
tion  in  iS'.ri  was  only  ;;.". Ml  1.000.  In  rruguay  there  were,  in  lS<»r».  IOL'..;is 
horses.  ."i.L' IS.OOtt  cattle,  ami  1  t.;;;;;;.000  sheep.  In  I'ara.^Miay  ther.-  were,  in 
IS'.IC.  L'lC.OOO  li<.r>es  and  L'.lOO.OOO  cattle.  'I'he  last  returns  irom  Cliiii 
(IS.SL''.')  -ive  l,')0.000  horses.  I.. ').">(», 000  cattle,  ami  L'.oOO.OOO  sheep.  .\s  to  tin- 
condition  in  Itra/.il.  we  have  no  reliahle  statistics. 

The  animal  industries  of  .\nstralasia  have  shown  the  most  wondcrtul 
devidopmeni  dnrin;.;'  tiie  century,  in  ISOO.  there  were  hut  L'OO  horses.  |(i|n 
cattle,  and  filOO  siiceip.  in  INIO.  iliere  were  ll;;o  horses.  I'J.  I  |0  catt  le.  L'o.'.Kio 
>lieep,  and  '.(."ilO  swine.  In  IS'.Ki.  there  were  l.ltL'.'!..Vi  1  luuses.  lL'.70I.(ioo 
cattle,  1  lO.rc'I.OOO  sheeji.  and   1.000.000  swine. 

In  .\sia  there  are  lar,!.;'e  lunnliers  of  aniniaN.  Imt  ii  is  iniposslhle  to  ui\.- 
statistics,  except  for  I.ritish  India,  where,  in  IS'.»,").  thei'c  were  l.l.')L'.nMo 
horses.   I<.l.000,00(»  cattle,  and  17.L'00.000  sheep. 

Mr.  Simonds  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  nundier  (d'  eaidi  class  of  live  slock 
in  tlii^  world  in  IS'.tO.  and  his  concdusions  may  he  accepted  as  approximatcl\ 
(■(U'vect.  He  placed  the  total  nundier  of  inu'ses  in  all  countries  at  (l.'l.  l(!".t.liiHi. 
the  asses  and  mules  at  l0..'l!S.00<i.  ihe  cattle  at  ;!oi»..so7.000.  the  sheep  ;it 
.■■»SS,<,»;!."».000.  the  swine  at    lOL'.oL'C.OOO.  and  the  -nats  at  ."■);>.'. >7 1,000. 


I  i  ■  li  I  », 


»    ;,i 


;ni 


III.    niia.'ox  I'.MiAr  or    i;i;i:i;i)s  or   .wni.vi..'^. 

The  increased  numlu'r  (d'  animals  now  held  in  vaiious  jiarts  of  the  worll 
does  m'lt  i^ivc  an  adc(piate  idea  id  the  enlarj^ed  luoduction  of  animal  fond 
products,  as  ciuiiparcd  with  one  hundred  years  ai^o.  iMirinj.;-  tli(>  last  cen- 
tury there  lia>  lieen  constant  imprmenu'iit  in  the  \arious  lireeds  of  animal-. 
with  a  \  iew  to  perfect  their  form  and  shorten  the  time  reipiiied  for  tin  ir 
li'rowth.  The  lueeilcr  has  learneii  how  to  stimulate  developnu'ut.  and  li.i- 
fixed  the  ipiality  of  early  maturity,  throinjrh  hereditary  iiiHuence.  until  it  i^ 
now  transmitted  with  the  same  regularity  as  are  other  charactiuistics. 

("attle  are  no  lonner  '(vkX  until  they  are  three  or  four  years  old  liefoie  l>ciii_; 
sent-  to  the  Imtcher,  and  it  has  heeii  found  that  they  can  he  made  to  yield  ;iii 
equal  ipiantity  of  liecf  of  better  ipiality  at   eiiihteeii   months  to  two  ycai-. 
It  is  the  Hesh  of  such  yonii;;'  animals  which  has  heen  much  discussed  nndn 
till'  title  of  ••  l)al)V  l)eef."'     Not  only  is  this  hecf  commended  on  account  ol  ii- 
tenderness,  its    hiu'li  nutritive  value,  and  the  more  even  disli'ihution  of  I, it 
tln'oui^h   the   muscular   tissuo.  b\it   lu'caiise   tliis  shorteniinj;    id'  the    fecdin; 
]teriod  enables  tiie  farmer  to  produce  a  ,i;reatly  iiu'reased  (|naiititv  of  liumr 
food  from  the  sanu'  mmdier  of  acres.     That  is,  by  rcibicinu:  the  atfc  at  w  hir 
bullocks  are  marketed   from  three  ami  one  half  years,  as  was  fornieily  ti 
rule,  to  twenty  months,  it  is  possible  for  the  same  I'ann  to  jiroduee  one  thr 
moro  animals  in  a  yivcn  series  of  years. 

It  may  be  admitted  that  not  allot  the  stock  of  beol'-pi'odiU'in<j;  animals,  n 


THE   VHNTURY'S  PIUhlUFSS   IX   THE   AM. UAL    WUIlLh        'Ml 


111  aiiiiii.i: 


(      n  tlu!  grt'att'i'  jiart  of  it.  lias  ac([uirf(l  this  cxticinc  (Ici^riT  nt'  carlv  iiialiiril; 
1    I   iiHist.  of  it  lias  (It'Vi'ldin'il  soiiirwliat   in  this  ilircctioii.     Tin'  larm'-lioiici 


ml.  and  ]()in;-hiinu'(l  cattle  of  Texas  have  iiearlv  (lisao 


learcit.  and  e\cn    in 


Virxico   thev  ar 


I'   l)eiii<jr   laoiilh    renlaceil  1)\    oi  Ut 


Ts  (it    lieitcr  (lualiiy.      T 


iD'isi    ini]io 


I'taiit   tact    is  that   luceds  I'xist  wiiieh   can   In 


e    (iepeinlid    ll|i(iii    lur 


>]iee(ly  transfoi'iuat  ion  ni    the  entire  stoel;   ol   cattle   when   the  iiece>>iiy 


I'oiii    (hill 


i;;;.  H'.'.i.ddH. 


A  siniiliU'  hastening'  of  niatiiriii'^'  has  i ii  aeeoniiili>he(l  wiili  the  iiiulton 


f   sh 


jieeiis    o 


•Mellt    Willi   PolUtrv, 


eep.  With    iiiiiiiei'oiis    varieties   ol    s\\  iiie.    and    to  a    consuhTaole 


r 


le   ilevejoonielit    ol 


the  (iairv  hieeds  of  cattle   has  als(>  lieen  leniarkahh 


-;^^- 

•  m.    rs. 

^            • 

1      ,                                     ,, 

^^^"(I^^^Br 

-i 

m 

§     ' 

.-«■  ■  '■  'J^  ■ 

i 

'•m 

M/-'- 

^m 

{ 

- 

*     MS-- 

i 

ii 

■■:■       t/ 

^ikijaJKfK^BSSi 

«?S| 

.  ^- 

- —  'i 

!  ■      -^ 


3t,: 


A    ri;\ii'ia;AN(  I'.  >oeii;iv.     i  m.idtiNc;  i 


Ii  can    lie  hest  ajiid'eeiated  liy  eontfastiiii,'  the  half  wild  cows  of  oiir  W'estein 
Init  two  or  ihr piai'ts  ol   milk  a  day  at   their  liesl.  and 


aiiis.  wliieli   vieli 


iiniie    foi'   half  ol    the  year,  wilh  the  hii^hly  s|ieeiali/.ed    types  whiidi    inddnee 

How.   and   with    which    the    milk 
rni|il  ion. 


luenfy  to  thirty  (|naris  daily  when   in    liil 
accretion  continues  from  \ear  to  \ear  withoiil  inti 


'I'he   yield   of  liiitler   has   heeii    increased   e(|iially  with   that   of  milk,  and 
aiiionir  the  dair\   hrecds  there  are  some  wliicii  are  siieciallv  valued   liec;nise  n\' 


iile  the  unimiiroved  cow  \ields  liul. 


ilieir  a.|ififnde  lor  liutfer  ]iiddnction.      W'l 

"lie  I  mirth  to  one  half  iionnd  (d'  hiitier  a  day,  j^noil  sjieeiinens  (d'  the  I  test  lireed> 

I'liidiice  from  one  and  one  half  to  three  |ioiiiids.  and   in   niimeroiis  instance> 


tdl  <M'('ater  (iiiaiit  ities. 


Ill  liie  jn'odiiel  ion  ol' wo(d  there  has  also  lieen  a  wiMiderfnl  advance.     Tho 
•'hre  lias  lieen  increased  in  jenirtli.  the  fleece  has  lieen  dist  rilmted  more  iini- 


m-- 


il; 


i  i 


H  \:. 


i  :■ 


!  f!  ! 


JW8 


rillUMI'HS  AM)    WOXIfK/iS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTUUY 


foniily  ovrr  the  siirfiict'  ol'  tlic  Ixuly,  iind  tlie  (luality  of  the  fibre  has  bivi 
niodilicd  to  conlorni  to  the  I'tMiiiireiiicuts  lor  iiuuiutueturiiig  the  iiitiiiite  van- 
ties  of  fabrics  demaiuled  by  inoih'rii  civilization.  The  Heece  of  to-day  is  ]ii(,- 
lial)ly  three  times  as  heavy  as  that  of  a  century  ago. 

The  iiM])rovenieMt  ill  the  Merino  tyjie  has  been  truly  wonderfid.  Not  oi.iv 
liav(!  the  iieiuitiiiil  long  and  silky  wools  of  the  Kanibonillet  and  Saxony  bid  ,  s 
been  devidniied  by  persistent  sidectioii.  imt  the  body  oi'  the  ^Merino,  foriiicnv 
small  and  aim  >st  useless  for  its  Hesli.  has  been  brought  to  a  standard  cIomIv 
aii|iroa<'liing  that  of  the  best  mutton  breeds. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  changes  of  fashion  have,  during  the  latter  jihiI 
of  the  century,  made  the  production  of  the  extra  fine  wools  less  profitinilc 
than  the  course   varieties,  and  tliat.  as   a    conse(|uence.  many  flocks  wliiili 


AI!T    Clirnt  S.       KiKlil.KI!   I 

had  been  bred  to  the  very  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  this  diicctinii 
have  gone  to  the  shambles,  and  their  jieculiar  points  of  excellence  have  Ijitii 
lost. 

AVith  ])oultry.  a  vast  nnnibcr  of  varieties  and  strains  have  been  develii|»  il. 
among  which  the  most  fastidious  taste  may  readily  find  its  ideal.  Sunn'  dl 
these  have  been  jterfected  irom  the  stamlpoint  of  utility,  while  with  mhci^  '.'wv 
guiding  principle  has  been  purely  a'sthetic.  Thus  there  are  breeds  which  :i:.' 
chanicteri/.fd  l.y  their  si/e.  ra])id  growth,  and  exoidleiice  of  tlesli  ;  others  wii' -li 
have  been  <levelope<l  simjily  as  egg-produciii'^  machines  and  which  liiive  c  ^  'i 
lost  the  niiiteiiial  instinct  for  incubal  iiui :  and  still  others  in  whii-li  the  bcnii' . 
the  complication,  and  the  perfection  of  the  feathering  con>tilute  the  iniiu  i' 
(daims  to  attention. 

The  stanthird  weights  of  the  heavy  varieties,  such  as  Hrahmas  ami  (Joe!   •-. 


THE   CENTURY'S  I'liOGHESS   IX   THE  AXIMAL    WOULD 


309 


in 

\  :i 
1. 
(Ill 
tl, 

{■« 

til. 
til 


iow  11  lbs.  to  1-  lbs.  for  cocks,  and  (S.»,  lbs.  to  9?,  lbs.  tor  lions.  In  tlie  United 
lies,  there  has  been  developed  a  distinct  American  class  of  medium  weight 
V.  Is.  of  which  the  Plymouth  IJocks  and  Wvandottes  are  the  nu)st  poimlar 
!  icties.  The  cocks  of  these  varieties  \vei<;h  inim  S},  lbs.  to  O.J  lbs.,  and  tbe 
:i>  (),\  lbs.  to  7?.  lbs.  Thev  are  valued  both  for  their  tlesh  and  for  egijf  ju'o- 
.  lion.  The  rapid  nndtijilication  of  varieties  by  modern  breeders  is  illus- 
ii.'d  by  the  Wyandottes.  which  came  into  existence  during  the  last  third  of 
rentury.  and  of  which  there  are  now  live  distinct  varieties:  the  Silver, 
•iilen.  White,  Uiiff,  and  lUack. 

The  breeder's  art  lias  been  most  successfully  brought  to  bear  in  stimulating 
•  function  of  e<^^r  productioi'i.  Not  many  years  ago.  an  average  yield  of  IL'.") 
lot)  eggs  annually  from  the  hens  of  evtMi  a  small  flock  was  considered  all 


KliKNCU    (  nAcllllDItSK    •' (;i..\I)r.\Tul! 


!::^ ;  ^;l 


that  it  was  yiossible  to  obtain,  but  at  jiresent  there  are  varieties  which  may  1)6 
ivlii'd  upon  to  prodiice  more  than  20(»  eggs  annually.  In  some  instances,  it 
is  iiUegedthat  an  average  of  nearly  oOO  eggs  a  year  has  been  reached  in  small 
tinrks  which  have  been  given  s]iecial  care. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  there  has  also  been  great  improvement 
in  tiie  various  breeds  of  horses.  The  heavy  draught  horses  have  been 
hiril  into  a  nun-e  comjiact  form,  with  better  legs  and  feet  and  less  slug- 
uish  disposition.  The  most  uoticealtle  advance  has,  however,  been  in  the 
lighter  grades  of  horses,  and  this  has  largely  been  accomiilished  by  infusing 
thi'  lilood  of  the  English  thoroughbred.  The  Freiieh.  by  systematically  breed- 
ing the  heavy  mares  of  the  country  to  thoroughbred  stallions  with  careful 
si'h'i'tion  of  the  oj'ispring.  ]U'oduced  !in  extremely  valuable  breed  of  carriage- 
Imrses,  known  there  as  the  (/inin'-sini//.  and  wliich  have  been  imported  into  the 
I  iiited  States  as  French  coach-horses.  These  animals,  lieautiful  in  form 
ami  action,  have  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  the  breed 
is  so  well  established  that  its  good  ([ualities  are  reliably  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation. 

24 


i  a = 


I 


'  JT'lt  I 


ufi  ^. 


PM\ 


IHil 


370 


riilUMI'HS  AXD    WONDKllS   UF   THE  A/A'"   CEMIJliV 


!i«i 


Tliei'e  art'  also  (Ifrinan  coacli-liorst's  iuul  similar  breeds  in  several  otii.  ,■ 
countries,  whii-li  have  been  estahiished  by  I'ollowing  the  same  general  |i!,ia 
as  that  adopted  by  the  French.  'Ihese  breeds  are  iieculiarly  the  iirodiici  ii 
the  nine1.(;enth  century,  and  art;  in  their  most  valuable  conditinn  ;i>  ii,,' 
century  closes. 

The  Amei-ican  trottinj^'  horse  has  without  doubt  been  one  ot  tla;  uu  .^t 
remarkable  triumiihs  oi'  the  breeder's  art  which  the  (-entury  has  seen.  Oii- 
<;inatin^r  in  eonsiderable  obscurity,  but  undoubtedly  owing  much  ol  iis 
excellence  to  the  thoroughiired,  the  trotter  was  boru  with  the  century.  ;iii.l 
has  continually  increast'd  its  speed  until  the  very  end.  It  now  gives  pi.p- 
miso  of  continuing  its  evnlution  through  at  least  a  considerable  ])art  ol  li.i' 
tAveiitieth  century.  In  the  decade  from  1S(»0  to  ISIO.  the  best  reccirdnl 
sipeed  at  this  gait  was  1*:-V.» ;  from  ISIO  to  ISl'O.  the  tina-  was  hiwercil  lu 
2:4S^;  fnuu  l.S.'JO  to  1S|(».  it  reached  '2:.\\\:  from  ISfO  to  iSoO,  the  limit  w.is 
2:L'.S;  from  ISoO  to  ISHO.  '2:\\)\:  from  iSdO  to  1S70.  l.':17];  from  lS7()  io 
1SS(».  1':1L'J  ;    from  ISS(»  to  IS'.M).  L':(>S;'  ;  and  from  ISKO  to  IS'.KS,  L':Ooi^. 

This  extraordinary  and  constantly  progressing  increase  in  S])eed  during 
the  century  has  excited  the  interest  and  admiration  (d'  the  world.  It  is, 
however,  ((uite  generally  ailmitted  that  too  much  attention  has  been  givin 
to  speed  and  not  enough  to  disiiosition,  size,  conformation,  a,nd  soiimi- 
ness,  to  bring  the  animals  to  their  highest  value  for  otlier  than  nicing 
purposes. 

Owing  to  ihe  relatively  small  extent  of  agricultural  territory  and  the 
great  devclo]iment  of  manufactures,  (ireat  I>iitain  has  become  the  ln-i 
market  in  the  woi'ld  for  animals  and  animal  products.  The  jmndiases  nt 
(•altle,  sheep,  beef,  and  mutton  have  been  ])articularly  large.  Considering. 
Hrst.  the  importations  of  cattle,  it  is  foiuid  that  during  tht^  five  years  lumi 
iSCiI  to  ISC).")  imdusive.  the  average  nundier  was  174.177;  from  ISC.C  lo 
l.S7(».  the  average  was  1<)4,'.H7:  from  IS71  to  1X7.'),  L'ir>.!)'.)(» ;  from  ISj; 
to  ISSO.  L'7L'.74."'>;  from  ISSl  to  ISsr..  ;!S7.L'S2  ;  from  ISSC,  to  IS'.IO.  i;!.s.o;is ; 
from  IS'.U  to  JSUo.  44S,i;W  ;  and  bu'  the  two  years  iSilf)  and  l.S!)7,  .V.H>.  l;;7 

'I'his  uiii)aralleled  growth  in  the  consumption  of  foi'cigu  cattle  has  Iniil  ;i 
nuirked  influence  in  encouraging  the  development  of  the  cattle  indusiix  nl 
sonu'  other  parts  of  the  world,  particularly  in  the  I'nited  States,  (,'anada,  lUnl 
Argentimi.  The  ex]K)rt  trade  of  the  rnited  States  has  (h'veh)ped  even  iiidiv 
rapidly  than  the  import  trade  of  (Jreat  Britain.  In  1S71  this  traflic  w;i^  in 
its  infancy,  and  l>nt  L'(»,.">.".(»  head  of  cattli'  were  exported,  valued  at  .S4(Mi,ntio. 
r.y  lS7;Mhe  nund)er  had  increased  to  l.'!(!.7L'(>,  valued  at  .SS.;!(IO.O(l<>.  Tl-n 
Clime  the  liritish  restrictions  ])rohibiting  American  cattle  from  leaving  ihc 
docks  where  landed,  and  re<piiring  their  slaughter  on  these  docks  wilhin  n  ii 
duys  fnun  their  arrival.  These  regulations  were  a  rude  shock  to  the  .Ann  ri- 
can  cattle  grower,  and  led  to  nu'asures  hen'  for  the  control  and  eradication  .l 
the  cattle  diseases  which  were  cited  by  the  English  authorities  as  the  can-c 
of  their  unfavorable  action. 

.Mthough  the  ]ileuro-pneumonia.  about  whi(di  most  a)>prehension  was  ■  ■- 
pressed,  has  long  sin(;e  been  extii']);ited.  oid  an  elaborate  iusi)ection  sciv  >  r 
has  been  organized  to  prevent  any  affected  animals  from  leaving  our  sImt  ■^. 
the  I'cstrictions  have  been  continued.  Fortunately,  the  trade  was  oidy  t'  i- 
porarily    endiarrassed,  and  has   continued  its  growth  notwithstanding  t'   - 


THE   CENTURY'S  PliOdllESS  IS    THE  AMMAL    WOULD        [571 

I  ,  inictidu.  In  IS.SJ)  those  i'X|M)rt.s  first  t'Xci'cdfd  L'0((.(Hl(i,  and  tlic  lollow  in,"- 
\i  !■  roiicliod  .■!i)4..S."!(;.  Since  lliat  tinii'  tlic  niiniluT  lias  Miictnatcd  lirtwcen 
->.MHt(l  and  .•;<)L'.0(l().  until  iNiiS.  wlicn  it  ivachcd  the  iMiurnious  aggivgate  of 
|;;'.M.'.V>,  valued  at  .s;;7.,S(M»,()0(l.  ^•^t  ,,uite  all  id'  tliese  eattlc  liavu  -dne 
1      iicat  Jiritain,  but   that   lias   been    the  dcstinatiiiu   df  by  iar  the  "riratoi' 

I'",'" 

Mie  exports  of  shceii  have  varied  wididy.  accordin,^-  to  the  lluctuations  of 

tl..    markets  at   home  and  abroad.      l'"roiu   1S7(>  to  lS7."i  the  number  varied 

li.  1,1  ;;9.(MM»  to  CilJ.OdO;   Irom  ISTI   to  1N,S;».  it  varied  from  1  Ki.diKi  to  ;;;;7,))(l(>. 


PACINO    HOUSK    '-STAI!    I'orNTKU.  '      Tl.MK.     1    M.    .V.lj   s. 

Til  IS<.)()  the  exports  were  but  (w.r.OO :  in  1S'.»1.  C.O.OOO  ;  in  1S!»2.  4r).000 ;  and  in 
IMI.'!.  .">7.L,'00.  l)e,<;inninu'  with  IS'.M.  the  expurts  of  slieep  ai^ain  increased. 
I'Mrliinc;  ill  thnt  year  l.'lL'.OOd;  in  lS<>r>  they  were  4<ir..(i()() ;  andiulSUf).  4'.)1.0(i(l. 
In  1S".I7  there  was  a  decrease  to  L'll.dOd.  and  in  IS'.IS  a  further  decrease  to 
L'iMi.diMI.  valued  at  Sl.L'l.'l.ddO. 

Tlie  export  trade  in  horses  and  mules  was  inconsideiidile.  varying  from 
L'iMM)  to  Sddd  a  year  until  lS<»r».  when  1 4.ddd  horses  and  4Sdd  n'lules  were 
■-iiililied  to  forciu'ii  ports.  'I'his  trade  increased  in  IS'.MJ  to  L'.">.lL'(>  horses  and 
'■'•'i.'U  mules,  together  valued  at  about  8t.ddd.d(ld.  in  |,s;i7  a  further  increase 
u;i^  made  to  ."i<t..-);;L'  horses  and  77.'i;;  mules,  the  value  being  .1iir).4d0.ddd. 
A';d.   liually,   in   ISIIS   there   were    exported    the    largest  number  ever  sent 


nl  m 


^  m 


ifii 


4H 


Wn\ 


'\n  \i 


W  p:J 


Mm 

ml ' 


I 


fin 


';):r  ir  -■»  J 


!lt  ». 


in! 


^;li 


372 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDKRS   UF  THE  A/A"'  CENTURY 


from  this  country,  aniountiiig  to  ni.tilo  horses   and  (>'.»',»(»  imUos,  vahieil  ;it 

$(;.(;•»  1,(100. 

Swine  arc  not  exported  in  very  hirge  iiuml)ers,  as  they  du  not  .stand  >hi|i- 
ping  well.  The  largest  nunibcr  sent  abroad  was  l."».S.'>.Sl.  in  liS74.  the  valiu' 
of  which  was  .1(!l.(iL'."),.s;!7.  In  1S<»7  and  IS'.IS  there  were  oidy  1(;,<S00  exiM,ibd 
each  yeiir.     Very  ii'W  id'  tiiese  cross  the  ocean. 

Tiiis  rcsunii'  of  the  dcv(do[inient  of  the  international  trattie  in  live  aniiiuls 
and  the  stiitus  of  the  animal  industry  would  not  he  conii)lete  without  sdini' 
reference  to  the  markets  lor  iinimal  products.  The  (piantity  of  foreign  ne  ;ii 
cimsumed  in  (Jreat  ISritain  is  most  remarkal)le.  The  imports  of  fresh  linl. 
wiiich  from  l.SfH  to  ISCi'y  averaged  but  10.771'  ewts..  had  increased  in  the  yi  min 
IS'.d  to  \S',)r>  to  an  average  of  l.*.(»L'0.r>(>,S  cwts.,  and  in  1S!>7  exceeded  .'!.()( Mi.i ion 
cwts.  T'lie  projjortion  of  this  sui)plie(l  by  tiie  I'nited  States  is  indicatcil  l,y 
the  returns  for  IS'.K),  giving  a  total  of  L'.()r>;».700  cwts.  of  imported  bed.  dt 
Avhicli  this  country  furnished  L'.(t74.(')44  cwts. 

(Jri'at  Jlritain  also  imported  .">,1'.>.">.1.'7()  cwts.  of  fresh  nuittou  in  l.S',>7.  innic 
than  nine  tenths  of  it  being  frozen  carcasses  from  Argentin;i  and  Australioia. 
Of  fresh  and  salted  pork,  the  I'uited  States  supplied  4,1S."),S00  cwts.  out  nt 
a  total  of  (t.odMjOSS  ewts.  The  priucijud  other  animal  jiroducts  imiMutiii 
by  that  country  are.  1.7r>0.000  cwts.  of  lard,  l'7(;,4r).S  ewts.  of  rabbits,  and 
1,<),S.'!.S10,000  eggs. 

The  continent  of  Eurojje  consumes  considerable  quantities  of  lard  ninl 
salted  pork,  which  are  largely  furnished  by  the  United  States.  notwithstiMnl- 
ing  the  uii favorable  attitude  of  the  governments  towards  such  traffic  and  tin' 
existence  of  many  annoying  and  injurious  regulations.  Fresh  ments  Irnui 
America  have  been  practically  excluded. 

The  IJritish  markets  for  dairy  i)roduets  and  woolhave  also  had  considci;ilili' 
intiiuMUH^  upon  the  i)rosi)erity  of  the  animal  industries  in  various  ])arts  ni  tlir 
world.  The  rajiidly  increasing  demand  for  dair^'  products  is  worthy  of  attrn- 
tion.  In  1877  there  were  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  l.(').">7.40.">  cwt^. 
of  butter  ;ind  margarine.  In  1897  the  imports  had  been  raised  to  .'!.L'17.no1 
cwts.  of  Imtter  and  !>.'!().rt4.'>  cwts.  of  margarine,  or  a  total  of  4,l."i4,.')44  cwt--.. 
being  two  and  one  half  tinu's  the  quantity  imjiorted  in  1S77. 

The  quantity  of  cheese  imported  in  1877  was  l.tJo.'L'.H'O  cwts.,  and  had  in- 
creased to  2.()0;!,(;o8cwts.  in  18<I7. 

The  country  sujiplying  the  largest  (piantity  of  butter  in  18%  was  Deniiiaik. 
with  France  second,  Swech'u  third.  Holland  fourth,  and  Australasia  liltli. 
Nearly  all  of  the  margarine  came  from  Jlollaiul.  'i'he  largest  (piantitv  nl 
(dieese  canu^  from  Canada,  the  United  States  being  second,  with  less  tiiaii 
half  the  quantity  furnished  by  her  neighbor  to  the  north,  and  IIo11:iih1 
third. 

The  ([uantity  of  wool  imported  by  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  fieruKitiv. 
Austria.  lieji^ium.  United  Stiites,  and  other  consuming  countries,  inerca-'i! 
from  200,000  tons,  in  the  decade  1 8L' 1-1 830,  to  ,'V  100.000  tons  in  187U1^^||. 
This  wool  came  principally  from  Australia.  IJiver  1'late,  South  Africa.  IJii  ii. 
and  Spain. 

The  excess  of  im])orts  of  wool  into  the  I'nited  Kingdom  over  the  exp'tts 
were,  in  IS'.H',  ;512,'_'17,111  li>s.,  and  in  ISIU).  ;;8;!.84o.4oO  lbs.  Of  the  i  tal 
quantity  imported  by  the  United  Kingdom  in  18'.)(!,  the  United  States  supt' ."il 


I 


)t  stand  sliiii- 
•74.  tlu'  Viiliii' 
,(S0O  cxiioiliii 


as  ])fiiin;iik. 

raliisia   titil!. 

(puiiititv  ui 

ll    l('.s>    liiiiU 

[\h\    ]\o\hvA 

',(',  (^icnnaiiv. 

's.   iiicriM-'il 
lS7]-!^sn. 

rioa.  Kii-  :i. 


(11, 
r.i 
I' 
til 

(M 


77//V    CEXTUIiV'S   rRlM^UESS   LX    THE   AXIMAL    WORLD        373 

,  l.ildd.dOO  lbs.,  whik'  Australasia  iuniishcd  477,(ino,()U(l  lbs.;  Cape  of  Cuod 
,pc,  7(>,0(IO,(tV(»  lbs.  ;  I'.iitish  Kast  In. lies.  4;;.(i(H),()(M>  lbs.  ;  Natal,  L'1,0(»(),0()0 
.. ;  France,  1!0,(I(H»,(K)0  lbs. ;  Turkey,  l(;.r)0O,()()(»lbs.  ;  and  Hflgiuiu,  11,4(K>,(«)() 

The  tendency  of  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteeutii  century  has  been  to 
enlace  horses  and  adojit  mechanical  motors.  The  great  increase  of  steam 
r.ioads,  cable  cars,  electric  cars,  bicycles,  and  automobili;  vehicles  has  so 
luecd  the  demand  for  these  animals  that  their  value  has  decreased  over 
;v  i)cr  cent.  While  there  is  still  a  i^oijd  market  for  horses  suitable  for 
liiaii'i'  use.  for  dravs.  ftjr  army  scrvu'c.  and  for  a;4ri('uitural  pur[»oses,  buyers 


^91 

»^^^^H 

is** 

1 
i   • 

K 

1 

■JM^^^;: 

#viB  ^*^^^ 

H  H    x^^  ' 

///•--.^^,  '^r  i  ^^ 

llL'^^i: 

ki^^^^. 

k k-;  V  >  '  .  ^1 

r^^"^\ 

1^ 

^m 

^m 

AUTOMoini.E  OK  noi!Si:i,i>s  (  auhiack. 

arc  l)eco!ning  more  critical  and  the  future  is  nncertaiu.  As  it  is  tive  or 
six  years  after  a  breeding  establishment  is  started  l)efoie  any  of  the  horses 
[imduced  can  be  placed  iipon  the  market,  the  effect  of  this  uncertainty  is  to 
discourage  would-be  horse  breeders  and  influence  them  toward  other  enter- 
prises. 

The  end  of  the  century  also  finds  the  sheep  industry  in  a  depressed  condi- 
liuu  on  account  of  over-production.  The  vast  (pumtities  of  wool  grown  in 
Australasia  and  South  Africa  have  clogged  the  markets  to  such  an  extent 
tliiit  Australian  wool  in  the  London  market  has  dropped  fr(un  l."»d.  per  pouiul 
in  1877  to  S^d.  in  1.S07,  and  South  African  wool  from  l^Jd.  to  7Jd.  during 
tlic  same  period.  Uther  wools  have  fallen  in  about  the  same  proportion.  .M- 
tliough  sheep  are  raised  for  the  production  of  mutton  as  well  as  wool,  and  the 


I 


III 


III 


,^'ili 


It  m 


ilii 


HM 


374 


TllIUMPHS  AND    WOXDEliS  OF  THE  XIX'"  CEXTL'IIY 


I    I   ! 


'■     i| 


i  -;        !: 


ii-r' 


.  «■ 


tt'iKk'ncy  ill  tlir  rnited  Srattis  has  hpon  towards  the  bivt'diiig  of  mutUm  ,shfi, . 
tin-  value  (if  thi'sc  animals  lias  Ih'cu  rt'duci'd  about  niii'  lialf. 

Then' have  bn-n  jiiTiods  of  dt'iu'i'ssiou  with  the  rattle  and  swiue  iudustrir  . 
but  iiriees  have  been  well  sustained.  The  Eiiropean  markets  are  yearlv  i 
fjuiring  larger  sui)[)lies.  and  the  stoelc  of  beef-produeing  cattle  in  the  I'niir.i 
States,  in  ])rop()riion  to  the  po])uhition,  is  rai»idly  diniiuishinj;'.  Tlie  deerea>.  .1 
munber  is  in  a  slii;iit  degree  eounterbalaiieed  by  earlier  maturity;  but  wh.  n 
due  allowanee  is  made  for  this,  it  is  plain  that  the  United  States  has  not  tiic 
surplus  of  lieef  which  ii  l)oasted  a  few  years  ago.  .Vt  the  same  tinu-.  our  uumi 
trade  in  the  markets  of  tlu'  world  is  threateiu'd  with  more  serious  eompetitimi 
from  South  America.  Australasia,  and  even  Kussia. 

The  (.'entury  closes  in  a  period  of  wonderfid  achievenuuits  in  the  extension 
of  transportation  facilities  and  in  the  education  of  the  masses  in  all  parts  ot 
the  world.  The  producer  in  South  Auu'rica.  Africa,  and  Australasia  kel■|,^ 
abreast  with  the  most  enlightened  stock-growers  of  Kurope  and  Anu'rica  in  In^ 
knowledge  of  the  ijest  breeds,  the  most  economical  methods  of  fei'ding.  Mini 
the  most  desirable  hamUing  of  his  jiroduets.     There  is  no  animal  i)roduct  >m 

jierishable  but  that  it  can  now  be  sent  from  the  antipodes  to  r.ondon  in  g i 

condition.  All  of  this  has  brought  surprising  changes  in  the  tratiic  betwiTU 
different  countries  and  in  the  nuiditication  of  industries  to  meet  new  comli- 
tions.  The  ])roducers  of  the  most  distant  ])arts  of  the  world  are  aggrcssivch 
entering  our  nearest  markets.  Comiietition  is  becoming  more  intense,  ami 
commercial  rivalry  is  assuming  nu)re  the  appearance  of  warfare  than  hent<i- 
I'ore.  The  nations  of  the  world  are  actively  engaged  in  assisting  their  peopli' 
in  this  struggle.  They  diffuse  information  as  to  the  best  and  nu)st  econom- 
ical methods  of  ])roduction.  they  seek  out  new  markets,  they  subsidize  triiii>- 
portation  lines,  they  assist  in  the  introduction  of  new  kiiuls  (d'  goods,  tlii'v 
sustain  their  subjects  in  the  most  aggressive  ]>ractices.  they  exclude  the  pro- 
ducts of  competing  countries  by  tariffs  and  hostile  sentiment,  by  discrimiii;i- 
tions,  by  unpacking,  delaying,  or  damaging  goods,  under  the  pretext  n| 
inspection,  and  by  burdensome  charges  and  regulations.  Some  countiii> 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  absolutely  prohibit  competing  iirodncts  for  compiv- 
hensive  but  iiuletinite  sanitary  reasons. 

The  outcimie  of  this  commercial  warfare  cannot  be  foreseen.  The  strug:^li' 
lias  been,  and  is,  fiercest  over  the  international  traffic  in  animals  and  aniniul 
products.  The  greatest  forces  of  the  Avorld  are  to-day  contending  as  to  wliiii 
the  future  shall  be.  The  United  States  has  oidy  recently  begun  to  reaii/r 
that  it  also  nuist  take  jiart  in  this  connuercial  struggle,  if  it  would  retain  in  ii- 
kets  for  its  products  and  secure  prosperity  for  its  peojde.  Its  trade  has  bmi 
unjustly  prohibited  and  discriminated  against,  its  merchants  have  licen  un- 
fairly treated  and  insulted,  and  its  ]irotests  have  been  treated  with  ili-disguiMil 
contemiit.  Xotwithstanding  all  the.se  efforts  at  repression.  American  tiM'Ii' 
h.as  gone  on  increasing  at  an  amazing  rate,  tlie  forbearance  of  the  goveiiiim  i 
having  been  far  overbalanced  by  the  energy  of  the  ])eople.  Having  grow  i  •  ■ 
be  one  of  the  greatest  jiowers  of  the  world,  with  magnihceiit  resources  ■■: 
undeveloped,  the  I'nited  States  will  no  doubt  maintain  its  ])ositioii  ami  >■ 
tinue  to  su])])ly  the  markets  of  the  world  with  the  best  animals,  the  1  -t 
meats,  and  i>robably  with  the  best  dairy  products. 

I).  E.  Salmon 


J  "I  .ill ' 


4'M 


run  Y 

nuttcni  .slier   . 

H'  iiulustrii  -. 
ii'f  yt'iirlv  I 

11    tllC    I'llilr,] 

"he  (l(.'('rtM>.  ,i 
y  ;  but  Avli.  II 
i  has  iKit  till' 
iiif.  our  iiMMi 
i  coiiilu'tiliiiii 

lit'  cxtt'iisi.iu 
1  all  parts  nt 
"ilasia  k('c|i> 
uierica  in  liis 
ftn'ilins;.  iiinl 
il  ]ir(i(lurt  >u 
idoii  in  udmi 
attic  iK'twi'cii 

t    llt'W    ('(Mlili- 

aj;-yri'ssivi'lv 
intense,  ami 
than  heirtii- 
their  |)e(i|ili' 

Host  OCOlUilll- 

isidize  tran^• 

K'Xxls,   tlll'V 

lule  the  ]iio. 
(liscriniiii;i- 
pretext  nt 
■  eountrit'> 
or  eoiiijiri'- 

le  striiuuli' 
and  aiiiiiiiil 

as  to  w  li,ii 
11  to  reaii/e 

retain  iii:ir- 

e  has  lirrii 
■e  lieeii    iiii- 

l-(lisi,nii-ril 
■rican  trinlf 

;dVei'inih::I 

,i;'  n'l'ow  r,  I'l 
sources  \  it 
111  ami  r  II- 
s.  the  1.  -t 

SAI,MU^ 


LEADING  WARS  OF   TUP:  CENTURY 

I.   wAKs  OK  Tin:  iMTi:i>  statks. 

'I'mk  proj^'ress  of  the  nineteenth  (century,  in  everything  that  i)ertaiiis  to 
(;i\  ilization,  arts,  and  sciences,  has  been  greater  than  the  total  progress  in 
anv  decade  of  centuries  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  this  is  eipially  true 
ill  regard  to  the  art  and  science  of  WAit;  for  the  expenditure  of  blood  and 
tiviisiire  in  the  prosecution  of  the  wars  and  the  lighting  of  the  battles  ot  this 
criitury  far  ex(!eeds  that  of  any  otlier  like  period. 

The  first  year  of  the  nineteenth  century  dawned  upon  the  United  States  at 
jM  ace  with  the  world.  In  September,  l.S(»(),  Napoleon,  finding  that  he  could 
imt,  coerce  the  young  nation  into  "an  entangling  alliance,'"  and  fearing  lest 
the  United  States  should  join  England  in  opposing  him,  found  it  his  best 
jiiiliey  to  conclude  a  peace.  The  brilliiint  a(diievements  of  the  newly  organ- 
i/ed  navy,  under  Commodore  Truxton.  not  only  illuminated  these  early  pages 
(il  iiur  history,  but  established  a  prestige  never  yet  forfeited;  fur  the  liistory 
ef  this  i)ranch  of  our  service  is  unparalleled  from  the  iirst  effort,  during  the 
Keviilution.  of  Esek  Hopkins,  to  that  of  (Jeorge  Dewey  at  .Manila,  and  Samp- 
son and  Stdiley  at  Santiago. 

\V.\i!  w  rrii  JSAitiiAiiv  Statks.  —  In  180.*?  the  United  States  determined  to 
end  the  jiiracy  of  the  ]5arbary  States,  and  an  expedition  umh'r  Commodore 
l'rel)le  was  sent  to  the  .Mediterranean.  The  I'hiladelphia,  while  pursuing  a 
]i:iate,  was  grounded  oft'  the  coast  of  Triixdi,  and  captured  by  the  Tri|iolitans. 
will)  made  slaves  of  the  crew  and  prisoners  of  the  officers.  In  February.  iStt-l-. 
<'a|itain  Decatur,  with  seventy-six  men  from  his  ship,  the  Intrepid,  boarded 
the  I'hiladelphia,  killed  or  drove  off  the  .Moors,  fired  the  vessel,  and  returned 
without  the  loss  of  a  man,  although  fienudy  attached  by  the  shore  batteries. 
In  duly,  Commodore  I'reble,  with  his  sipiadrcm,  laid  siege  io  Tripoli,  but 
his  bombard  lent  was  ineffective.  CJeneral  Eaton,  consul  to  Tunis,  induced 
llainet.  the  b 'other  of  Yusef.  who  had  nsur]ted  the  sovereignty  of  Tripoli,  to 
furnish  him  a  troop  of  Arab  cavalry  and  a  company  of  (Jreeks.  With  these, 
and  a  band  of  Tripolitan  rebels  ;ind  a  fbn^e  of  American  sailors,  he  crossed 
tiie  Uarcan  Desert,  stormed  and  cajitured  Derne,  an  eastern  seaport  of  Yusef. 
The  latter  was  glad  to  make  peace,  and  a  treaty  was  signed  .lune  1.  ISOo. 

Imhax  Waks.  —  From  ISO!)  to  ISll  fighting  with  the  Indians  in  the 
South  and  Northwest  was  constant.  Ceneral  JIarrisoii  and  the  celebrated 
iuilian  chief  Tecumseh  were  the  principal  actin's. 

\\  au  ok  181L'.  —  The  contest  between  England  and  France  for  the  domin- 
ion of  the  seas  was  the  cause  of  the  war  of  ISIL'.  England  declared  the 
Ceruian  and  Frenidi  coast  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade.  Niqudeon.  in  ISOd, 
made  the  same  detdaration  regarding  IJritish  ])orts.  In  1S07,  England  ]iro- 
hiliited  trade  with  the  coast  of  Franc-e.  American  commerce  was  injured  and 
almost  destroyed  by  the   combined  action  of   the  two  powers.     Four  years 


Si^Q 


w 


i 


VA 


^iii^ 


11. 


.   M' 


rf  ■'  1' 


lihii 


I 


:J7fi         TlUIMI-ns    AM)    \\(>MH:i:S    of   the   Sixm   cilSTlJUY 

wi'ii'  (•(iiisimic(l  ill  iifi;i)li;iti(iiis,  with  (•(Piisliiiit  JC'i^rcssiniis  on  the  |i!ii't  •  t 
Kiigluud,  and  mi  .liiiic  \\\.  ISIL',  Coiinios  (IcclariMl  war.  'I'lit' t,'it'iit -t'l'idr  "l 
tlif  caiuiiiii.uii  was  the  atti'iii|it('il  iiivasidii  nl'  Canada.  Had  tlio  war  Imm  n 
matlt'  I'Utiri'ly  upon  tlic  seas,  an  early  pcacf  minlit  liavr  cnsurd. 

'I'lic  war  lit'i^'aii  on  the  Lakes,  and.  ic|iuls('d  in  llic  cfiort  lo  niakt-  a  stand 
on  the  Canada  sIkm'c.  and  lallin.;  l)a(d<.  Hull  stirii'iidcrcd  hctroit.  .\n,i;ust  .'i. 
A;;ain,at  (.Mici'iistown.  ( (ctoiu'r  1.'!.  the  Anicrirans  were  (Iclcatcd  with  llif  lu.>s 


(OMMODdllK   RTKPIIKN    DKCATUH. 

of  a  tlumsand  nion.     Altoj^t'tln'r  tlio  first  year  of  tlio  war  was  a  disastrous  s 
on  land. 

At  sea,  tlio  navy,  consistiiiju:  of  not  uiori'  than  a  half-dozen  frigates,  w 
its  niaij;iii}i(H'ntly  disciiilincd  otticcrs.   had  hi'fii   (Muinontly  sucoossful. 
Angnst  1."!,  the  Ksse.x,  Captain   I 'ortcr.  captured  the  Uritisli  ,sloo]i  Alert : 
Angnst  li>,  Captain  Hull,  connnanding  the  ('onstitution.  destroyed  the  {'••■ 
riere  off  the  (rulf  of  St.  Lawrenee;  October  1<S,  the  Wasp,  Captain  .[m; 
captured  the  Frolic,  but  later  in  the  day  both  the  Frolic  and  the  Wasp  I 
into  tlie  hands  of  th»'   Hritish  ship  I'oietiers.     October  2"),  Cai)tain  Dcca* 
with  the  frigate  United  States,  captured  the  >racedonian  off  the  Azores: 
December  L'l).  after  a  desperate  tight  in  the  South  Atlantic.  (Jajjtain  W 
bridge,  coninianding  the  Constitution,  defeated  the  British  ship  Java. 


ail' 

i!h 

I  Ml 

11 

ii'r- 
;<'S, 
:V1I 
'If. 
ill 
;::i- 


rruRY 


LKADIMi    ll'.l/.'.S    or   THE   CESIUliY 


:I77 


ill    till'    |i{Ut       I 

.Lri'cat  ■I'lTur  .  t 
the  war  lie.  n 

>  make  a  stuhl 
•(lit.  Aii,i;iisi  ... 
I  with  tliu  In-. 


Tlir  caiiiiiaiuii  "t  IM-'I  opt'iifd  on  tlir  (  anadiaii  liniiiifr  w  il  li  tlic  m'vi'hiI 
(ii\  i>i(iii.'>  ill  ciiiiiiiiaiKl  (if  ( Ji'iu'ial.s  I  larii.scni.  Dcarlidru,  ami  i  laiii[il(iii.  Hn 
.liiiii'  N.  (ii'iicral  \\  iiiclii'slci'.  willi  ci^lil  iiuiidrctl  KciilucUians,  didM'  the 
iW'ilisli  and  Indians,  iiiidci'  rniildi'.  linni  I' rciiclitdwii,  (in  llic  llivcr  l^li^ln, 
liiit  ictiiinin,!,'  witli  a  rin'cc  (if  lillccn  hniidicd.  I  iicv  (iliiii'.cd  Winciicstcr  lo 
siiiTi'iidcr.  wiucli  lio  only  cdnsi'iitcd  In  do  nndd'  I'nicldr's  i.Kniii.M'  Id  iirntfcl. 
till'  Ainci'ifans  lidni  tlic  Indians;  wiiicli  [iidinisf  I'ldiiiu  ticaclicidiislv dis- 
IV warded,  and  iiiarciicd  away,  leaving,'  the  sidi  and  Wdnndcii  Kciiliicluans  to 
iir  aiassacrcd.  I  Iciiccrdrtli  tiic  l\cntii('k\  war  crv  was.  ••  Kcniciniicr  the 
llivcr  Ikaisin,"  and  many  were  lli*'  lliitisii  and  Indians  wlio  iiad  cansc  to 
(head  tliat  sld,!i;an.  .May  .">,  iicncial  Harrison,  rcinrorccil  liy  (icncial  (irccn 
(lay  and  Ins  Kentucky  trodjis.  rc|inlscd  the  Uritisli  and  tiicir  dnsUy  allies 
uiidir  'I'cciinisi'li.  <luly  L'l,  they  returned  tdtir  tlionsand  stroic^',  hnt  were 
a.uain  rc|iiilse(l. 

The  Aniciicaiis,  liy  wonderl'ul  e.\erlioii  and  hard  wdik,  liuilt  and  0(|iii])|)e(l, 


isastl'OUS  w!ie 

rigates.  wi;h 
ice.ssi'iil.  '  Ml 
[)]>  Alert :  a 
ed  the  (ln'i- 
ptain  .l(ii;e>.:, 
le  Was|.  !'  U 
Liiii  Dcca'  ". 
Azores :  -n 
iptaiii  1!; 'a- 
Fava. 


COMMOnoKE    I'KIIUY    .\T    Il.X'rTI.K    OK    I,.SKK    KIMK. 

at  Krie.  a  .scjnadroii  of  nine  shi])s  with  iifty-iivc  t,'uns.  the  comiiiand  of  which 
was  <_;iven  to  rdiniiiddore  I'erry.  Sejiteinher  10,  I'erry  Wdii  his  ,i,'i'aiid  victoiy 
en  Lake  I^rie,  over  the  ICiij^lisli  sfnuidron  of  six  shi]is  and  si.xty-three  ,i,Mins. 
This  Avas  the  tiiniinif  ]ioint  of  the  war,  and  I'erry's  name  <,'oes  down  to  jios- 
triity  with  the  immortal  names  that  never  die.  <  Mi  ((ctolier  '>,  (ieneial 
llanisdu.  conveyed  by  I'eiay's  ships.  laiide(>  liis  forces  in  Canada  and  coiii- 
|iletely  destroyed  rroctor's  army,  Tecumseh  being  among  the  slain.  Su 
ended  the  war  in  the  Northwest. 

In  the  meantime.  General  Dearborn  was  figliting  with  varying  .suceess  in 


••:i 


niA 


Ui    I  . 


'%% 


<!■ 


'T 


*  lift' 


il) 


|:| 


U 


f 


liJiMJ?!  li..,. 
MM?'!"'  ImU>  ; 


37H 


Tuir.Mi'iis  AM)  \\o.\i)i':iis  or  riii-:  \l\"'  cestuhy 


I'liprr  < 'uiiiida.  .Iiicksoii.  ill  tlu'  Soiilli.  was  ;ivt'ii^,'iiiH'  tlic  I'ort  .Miiiiiii^  ni.i 
^acrc.  tiiially  iiii->liiii,LC  ''"'  <'r<'fks  cailv  in  the  next  Vfar.  Tiir  iSrilisli.  unci,  r 
tilt'  iidiniis  A<liiiiiiil  Ciicliriiin',  pluiitlt'ri'd  and  ravai;i'd  and  linrnrd  cvcrvlliiii ; 
in  ft'iudi.  lioni  l.i'wistow ii  ttt  tin*  Carolina  coast,  sfizin^,'  tlif  ni'j^rocs  ami  sell- 
iny  tlicni  in  tin-  \Nfst  Indies.  Diirin'^'  this  year  the  Anicricaii  navy  <M)ntiniic'.| 
to  Itf  siiccijsst'nl,  nitM'tin.y;  lew  losses,  though  the  tight ing  was  even  ni<H.' 
desjierate. 

.Iidy  o,  jSl  I.  the  Americans  det'eated  the  Hritish  at  Chipiiewa  ;  and  on  Ih.' 
L'oth  was  I'onght  the  battle  ol'  !  iindy's  Lane,  where  (lenerals  Urown  ami 
Scott  were  wonndcd,  In  this  desperate  battle,  eight  hundred  men  wcic  lii«i 
on  either  side;  and  though  the  battle  was  uiulecisive.  it  had  the  eifcct  n|  a 
victory  lor  the  Americans.  .August  14,  live  thousand  troops,  under  (leiiciil 
Uoss.  were  landed  on  the  i'atu.xeid.  and,  dei'eating  (Jcnoral  ^Vinder.  wlm 
nuide  a  stand  with  a  handful  of  men  near  JMadensburg,  proc«'eded  to  the  cii\ 
of  Washington.  .Vfter  buridng  the  eapitol  and  White  Mouse,  and  oilin 
buildings,  they  hastily  withdrew.  The  attempt  to  take  I>altiniore  iir(p\.ii 
abortive,  and  on  September  M  the  llritish  recmbarked.  It  was  at  this  t  iim 
that  Key  wrote  tht;  "Star  Spangled  Uunner."  Angust  IT),  the  enemy  wnv 
repidsed  at  Kurt  Krie  with  the  loss  of  one  thousand  men,  and  a  mouth  laiii 
were  liiially  driven  back.  The  whole  I'.ritish  S([uadron  on  Lake  ('han;plaiii 
surrendered  to  (.'ommodorc  .MacDonougii  after  a  terrific  tight  for  several 
houis.  on  September  17,  and  on  tla;  same  day  the  i>ritish  army  of  twelve 
thousand  was  forced  to  retreat  from  I'lattsburg  by  (leneral  Macondi".s  hncc 
ol'  forty -live  hundred. 

In  J''lorida  tlu;  Spaniards  had  allowed,  if  not  em-ouraged.  the  Knglish  tu 
use  their  territory  to  tit  out  expeditions  against  the,  I'liited  States,  .laiksni,, 
with  two  thousand  men,  took  possession  of  IVnsacola  on  the  7th  of  Novem- 
ber, driving  out  the  liritish. 

|)ecend)er  the  I'Stli  the  IJritish  opened  tire  on  New  Orleans;  again,  on 
.January  1.  1S1.">;  and  oii  January  ,S  I'atdvenham.  with  twidve  thousand  iinii. 
]uade  his  su])renie  effort,  .lackson's  force  was  now  about  six  thousand.  Tli. 
]>ritish  were  driven  to  their  ships  after  losing  two  thousand  killed  and 
Avoundt'd,  their  general  ludng  among  the  slain.  The  American  loss  was  se\eii 
killed  and  six  wounded.  The  war  was  kei)t  uj»  on  the  octfau  until  .MmivIi, 
the  last  capture  being  that  of  the  iiritish  brig  Penguin  by  the  .Anicrieaii 
sloop-of-war  Jlornet.  in  the  South  Atlantic. 

The  treaty  of  (Jhent  had  been  signed  on  the  '_'4th  of  September.  IM  I,  aii(i 
the  news  of  the  glorious  victory  at  New  Orleans  reached  Washington  simul- 
taneously  with  that  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty.  The  war  had  been  so  iii>- 
tasteful  to  the  pef)])le  of  New  Kngland  that  Massaidiusetts  and  Conneeiiiut 
had  i)assed  laws  directly  antagonistic;  to  those  of  the  I'nited  Stato.  .hkI 
liostilities  between  the  Federal  and  State  governments  were  feared,  wlrrli. 
])erha])s.  were  only  averted  by  the  ending  of  the  war.  Tin;  issues  leadiii,  in 
the  war  of  ISll'  were  left  unsettled  by  the  treaty,  but  Kngland  never  ;iL:,iiii 
attempted  to  interfere  with  American  shipping. 

Skcomi  W.\1!  with  Uamuakv  St.\tks.  —  Immediately  on  the  (lose  III 
Avar  of  ISlL'.  the  .Algerians.  su]>])osing  that  the  American  navy  was  li. 
crippled,  began  again  their  depredations  on  American  commerce.  Con, 
dore  Decatur  was  sent  to  the  Alediterraneau  with  a  scpiadron,  and  once  :: 


:lie 

.i!y 

■■III- 

■ir 


VTLL'Y 


i.KMUsa  ir.iA'.s-  or  tiiic  cicxiiny 


:»7!) 


I  Miiinii.s  III 
iW'iliMli.  iiiiH' 

led  cvcrvtlii, 

^nx's  :iiii|  -. 

iiivy  ciiiitiini.  1 
as  even  inni,' 

'ii ;  iiiid  oil  til.' 
Is  Ui'owii  iiihi 
iiicii  were  1..-I 
tllf  ctfcct  nl  :i 
lllldt'l'    (It'lirl.i! 

\Viii(l('i'.  uli.i 
led  t(i  tlic  I'll  \ 
ISC.    iiiid   dlliii 

tilllOl'f     ))|'(l\ri| 

us  at  this  I  iiiM 
II!  L'lU'iiiy  wnv 
:i  iiiiintli  L'lid 
ki'  (!liiiiii|il:iin 
lit  i'or  s('\cr;il 
niiy  di'  t\vc|\r 
liu'oiiiirs  loii'i' 

111'  Kiiu'lisli  III 
tes.     .liU'ksMi,. 

rtll  (d'   Nli\r|ii- 

ns  ;  a.i^'aiii,  I'H 
oiisaiid  iiirii. 

luusaiid.  Til. 
I  killed  ;iihI 
iss  was  s('\  I'll 
until  .Maiili. 
It'   Aiiicriciiii 

)or.  INM.  ;iiiii 

iiiU'toii  simal- 

Ix't'ii  so  iii>- 

(  '(lllllt'cl  i.'Ul 

States.  ,111(1 

ai'i'il.  wlmli, 

ncs  Icadiii  .  I" 

never  ai::iiu 

close  (il  : 111' 
y  was  li.'i'y 
i;c.  Con.'  I'l- 
id  once  i;i  iv 


y,  .e  tlieiii  an  Anicriciiii  driil>l»ini,'.  .Iiiuc  17,  ISl.1,  liu  destroyed  two  Al:.,'eriiie 
\  ^cls;  .lime  L'H.  in  Iroiit  of  the  city  td'  .Mi^icrs.  lie  demanded  the  ridcasc  ot 
ill  Aiiieiiciiii  itiisoners.  indeniiiitieation  h>i-  all  pinpcity  lestroyed,  and  a 
1,  iiii|iiishnient  of  all  tdaini.s  lor  trihutc  from  the  I'nitcd  Slates.  'I'iic  I  >cy 
n  ,  ekly  asseiit^'d  to  the  terms,  and  sij,'iied  a  treaty  of  jieacc.  'I'miis,  'rripoli, 
;i:  d  .Morocco  were  likewise  l)ron;.,dit  to  turnis.  the  Iniled  States  thus  takiiij,' 
ti,.  lead  of  all  tlm  other  |Miwers  in  its  deteiininalion  to  lireak  n|i  the  piiaey 
.,i  the  i5arl)ary  States. 

Mkxican  Wau. — 't"he  l{ciiui)lic  (d' Te.Kas  hecaiiie.  liy  its  own  re(|uest  and 
i.,  Act  of  (;<)ii^r»!ss,  Olio  (d'  tlie  I'nitt'd  States  .Inly  I,  1S|."».  Mexioo  itrepared 
|,.r  war;  the  I'nitcd  States  took  miiisiires  to  pi'ott'ct  the  now  State.     .March 


S(  IIOOI.SlIll'    SAl!.\rO(.A. 

S.  1S|(i.  (Jeiioral  Zachary  Taylor  iiiarchcMl  with  fifteen  hundred  men  to  a  iM)int 
nil  the  Uio  Gramh^  oppo.site  Mutamoras,  where  he  erected  Fort  I'.rown. 

To  the  secretary  of  war,  William  Ii.  Marcy.  and  to  General  \VinH(dd  Scott 
wiisdiie  the  phiii  of  campai<^n.  the  hattlesof  whiidi,  like  iustautaneous  Hashes 
(if  victory  from  the  beginuin<,'  of  the  war  until  its  close,  illumine  the  pages  of 
Anierioau  history.  Then,  as  now.  Congress  was  slow  to  respond  to  the  needs 
'il  the  military  branch  of  the  government. 

April  L'4.  1X4(5,  hostilities  began,  (ieneral  Taylor  .advanced  into  Mexico 
and,  May  S.  won  the  brilliant  victory  of  I'alo  .\lto.  and  again,  tlu^  next  day, 
the  battle  of  Kesaea  de  la  I'alnia.  Taylor's  force  was  less  than  one  third 
the  number  of  the  enemy,  whose  loss  was  one  thousand.  These  two  battles 
crushed  the  Hower  of  Santa  Anna's  army.  Taylor  returned  to  the  riditd'  (d 
I'mt  Brown,  where  the  brave  garrison  had  sustained  a  caiiiiouadc  for  KIS 
liniir-;.  Se])teml)er  24,  Monterey  and  its  garrison  of  nine  thousand  men  were 
taken  bv  tJeneral  Tavlor  with  six  thousand. 


'mm 


'M 


i  I  ! 


i  ! 


'^:t!iu  !ii 


■!ifrt'» 


i 


4  U*i  '  ■  I'l 


;?8o       iiurMriis  a.\J)  woxdi-jus  of  the  a/.v"  cEsrrny 

I't'liiuai'v  L'.'i.  is  17.  'I'Mvlor  gained  tlic  liioiious  virtdry  ol  lliii'iia  \'ista,  m 
wliii'li  llu'  Mt'xicau  loss  was  L'tlOO,  the  Aiiit'i-icaii.  711.  At  !  iiiu's  tin-  .Mfxicaii- 
wore  wit liiii  a  lew  yards  tit'  llia^:-^' s  ri'ii's.  " -V  litllr  iiKnr  i;ia|'i'.  ('a|ita:u 
lifai^ii;."  was  Taylor's  ccli'liralrtl  ordt'i-.  the  cm'i'iiI  idii  id'  which  dccidi'd  llir 
day.  Till'  Aiucricaii  loss  was  scvnt'  in  olliccrs.  'i'a\  lor's  t'oifo.  di'|ili'tcd  l.\ 
iiiorc  than  two  thirds,  whicdi  had  liccii  scut  to  rciiilorcc  (iciicral  Scott,  wus 
liai'tdy  t'orty-tivc  h'.indi'cd;  the  .Mi'xican  troops  luimhcrcd  twenty  thousaihl. 
Captain  l'"icniont.  assisted  hy  ( 'oniniodorcs  Sloat  and  Stockton,  had  suliiu- 
i^att'd  Calil'ornia  ;  (icncial  Kearney  and  Colontd  honiphan.  Northern  .Mexico. 
I»oniphan  defeated  the  Mexicans  at  llraeito.  |)eceiulier  iTt.  1SH>.  and  at  Saci.i- 
nieiito.  l'"el)ruary  S.  IS  17.  and  took  possession  o'i  ('hihuahua.  a  cit\  ol 
t'ort\'  thousand  inhaliitanls.  and  niarehed  to  join  (leiieral  \\'o(d  at  Sallilln, 
.March  L"_'. 

Ivirly  in  .la unary.  IS  17.  ( ieneral  Scott  reached  the  month  cd'  the  IJio  (irandr. 
where  he  awaited  theeii;ht  tluuisaud  troops  sent  hy  (ieneral  Tayhu'.  This 
raised  his  tiuec  to  twelve  thousand.  'I'hese  were  laiuled  at  Sacriticios.  '{'he 
Americans  deliarlvcd  just  iielow  \"era  Crn/.  helween  sunset  and  ten  o'clock  mh 
the  ni.u'ht  of  Mandi  S  wit  iiout  a  sini;le  accident.  With  wdudcrtul  skill  ihr 
investiture  (d'  \'cra  t'rn/  and  the  castle  of  St.  .lohn  de  I'Uoa  was  eom|ilelcd. 
1  hi  .Mandi  !."_'  the  (iovernor  ot  \'era  Crn/  was  summoned  to  surrender.  l>av 
and  ni^lit  the  mortar  haltcrics  |ilaycd  upon  the  city,  the  lleet  aldy  assiNtin-: 
ami  on  the  l".ttli  the  stars  ami  stripes  tloated  aliove  the  walls  ol'  city  and  lui- 
trt'ss.  'I'he  Americans  lost  hut  two  otlicers  and  a  few  soldiers,  .\pril  Is.  lin' 
maii'uiiiccnt  victtu'y  at  Cerro  ( ionhi,  where  three  thousand  .Mexicans  wnc 
ca[itiire(l,  was  won;  .Vpril  I'.t.  dalapa  was  taken  ;  .\pril  L'L',  I'eeote,  the  stron.- 
est  (d'  Mexican  forts,  was  captured;  and  May  1."),  I'mdila  surreiideri'd  m 
(ieneral  \\'<u'tli.  Ten  thousand  prisoners.  sc\-en  humli'ed  cannon,  ten  llina- 
saud  stands  of  arms,  and  thirty  thousand  shot  and  shells  were  capluiv,! 
within  two  niontlis.  When  the  army  eiiti'red  I'lielila  it  nnniliered  hut  foriv- 
tive  liuudred. 

IJeiuforccinents  reachiiii,'  hini,  Scott  set  out  U-o\\\  I'lndila  to  the  vaili\  "I' 
.Mexico  on  .\ii,ij:iist  7.  Aii'.;'iist  '_'(•.  the  liei;-;lits  of  Contreras  were  assailed  and 
taken,  and  the  haltle  of  ( 'huruliusco  —  with  nine  thousand  Americans  a^aill^r 
thirty  thousand  .Mexicans  —  was  fmiL^ht  and  won.  Septi'iulier  S.  .Moliiio  del 
Ki'v  was  taki'ii  :  Scpteniher  I."!,  the  heights  of  Chapultepec.  The  .Mexiciins 
fled  from  the  capital,  and  the  vii'tiuious  .American  army  maridied  in  and  took 
possi'ssion  of  tlie  city,  Septemlier  1  I.  ISI7.  Here  .Scott  and  his  nohlc  w;'i- 
riors  rested  until  the  treaty  was  comdnded  at  (iuadalupe  Hidalgo.  !''elirii;iiy 
L',  ISIS,  and  pi'ace  was  proelaini(>d, -Inly  -I,  liy  I'resident  I'olk.  (InadaliiiM' 
Hidal;j;{),  New  .Mexico,  ami  Califm'iiia  were  ceded  to  tic  I'nited  Stairs 
)ii»ir>,0(t(>,(  100  paid  to  MoxitHi,  and  the  (U'hts  due  from  ^lexieo  to  .\mericaii  riii- 
zeiis  were  assumed  by  the  I'nited  States. 

Till'.  Civil.  W.\i;. —  It  is  not  here  the  place  to  r(du'arse  or  to  diseuss  the 
causes  wliiidi  led  to  .Vinerica's  Civil  War,  a  war  perhaps  the  most  stupeihlens 
recorded  in  history.  liOokiiiiL;'  backwai'tl,  aftt'r  the  bloody  foot-prints  h:!,' 
lu'eii  well  nitjjh  t>bliterated  by  the  tifrowth  of  a  t,'eiieration,  Me  can  see  that  il  '■ 
trend  of  huniiiii  projjress,  the  political  ]irobleins  eonfroiitiii!,'  the  i'edeia:''d 
States,  ill  the  solution  of  whi(di  were  evolved  elements  of  discord,  (he  in^i  r- 
ited  aiitai,'onisui  between  tlie  Puritans  of  the  North  iiiul  the  Cavaliers  ol   :'.c 


.V/TA')' 

r>uriia  Vista,  m 

S   till'    .M('\ic;l!:  , 

!;rai'f.  ('a|ii,i,  ; 
I'll   ili'cidi'il   li.c 

t'C.   (U'|ll('ll'l|     |.^ 

icral  Scoii.  wis 
t'Ulv  thousaii'i. 
Ion,  liad  siili|ii. 
ntlicrn  McxK  M. 
I>.  and  at.  SaciM- 
liiia.  a  ('it\  m| 
Ddl  at  Saltiliu. 

Iif  li'id  (ii'aiiiii'. 

'I'avNir.  This 
icritii'ios.     Th,. 

ten  o'cldck  .111 
frful  skill  liir 
was  ('()iii|ili'i('ii. 
irrciidcr.  I»,i\ 
alily  assisting  : 
•  1'  <'ity  and  Imi- 
April  is.  ill,. 
Mexicans  wiiv 
ntc.  t  in'  slrcii.- 
airrcndrrcd  •,.. 
M(in.  ten  lli..;i- 
wcrc  caiiliiril 
Ti'd  lull     IcH  \  - 

1  tin-  vallr\  .  r 
assailed  jud 
irans  a^:iin->t 
S.  .Moliim  iirj 
In'  .Mi'xiciiis 
I  in  ami  In.. I; 
S  Udlile  w ,  r- 
ijjo.  I''('lirii.ii  \ 
(lUadaliiMi' 
niti'd    St;il.-. 

Vnn'rican  ri'  i- 

)  discuss  t!i'' 
<t  st'll|icMdn;;s 
t-]irints  ii.i'.- 
1  sec  tiiat  : 
lu'  i'edciai'd 
rd.  the  in'  ■  r- 
alici's  ol 


uiiiuair  i;.  i.ia;  \t  <  iiAcri.ri.i'n 


M 


Mm^ 


¥'■ 


!»< 


38'J 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDEllS   OF  THE  XIX'"   CENTUllY 


■N  't 


i!il:!'i!:' 


South,  ill!  t'omhiiieil  to  iiiak»>  the  couHict  inevitable.  For  more  thiiii  a  tlecai  ■ 
of  years  grievaiKM's  had  been  ,y:ro\ving  and  rnnd)liiigs  ■were  licard.  like  the  ii, 
]iris<ine(l  lirrs  lieneatli  the  surfaee  of  the  earth,  nntil  the  eleetion  of  Al)rali;ii;, 
Lincdln  as  I'rcsidcnt.  piedgt'd  to  a  policy  believed  to  be  inimical  to  the  Souii;. 
caused  the  outburst  (d'  the  volcano,  wiiose  tierce  tires  and  molten  lava  for  iuM 
years  sjirt^ad  desolation  over  the  land. 

Time  and  milder  jud.nnient  liave  very  nearly  smoothed  away  the  wrinkl  - 
of  discord,  and  the  close  of  the  century  finds  the  nation  a  reunited  peojilr. 
whose  new  compact  is  written  in  tin*  life-blood  of  her  sons  on  tiie  l)attleficli|- 
of  tlie  recent  war  with  Spain. 

Decemlier  L'lt.  1S(»U,  Soutli  Carolina;  -lan'Ta-y  9,  1(S(51.  ^lississijijii ;  .lanuaiv 
K*.  Florida;  danuary  11,  Alabama;  .lannary  IS,  (Jeorgia  ;  .lannary  L'."*>.  Loin- 
iana,  and  l''ebriiary  1,  Texas,  onci  b}'  one  asserted  their  supposed  \\'^\\\  lu 
withdraw  from  tla^  federal  compact,  and  enacted  ordinances  cd'  secessinn  in 
their  several  scate  conventions.  Fach  State,  as  it  took  action,  churned  ainl 
])ossessed  itself  of  all  Lidvernnient  property,  forts,  !4;uns,  ammunition,  wiiliin 
its  bordcis.  and  armed  its  militia  for  garri.son  duty.  A  convention  (d'  drir. 
gates  from  the  seceded  States,  held  February  4.  ISOl,  at  .Montgomery,  Ala- 
bama, organized  a  new  federation,  to  be  known  as  the  Confederate  States  cif 
Ami'rica,  chose  .hdferson  Davis  j'resident  and  Alexander  Stephen.s  Vice-I'n  — 
idcnt,  and  set  the  whole  machinery  of  a  i)rovisional  government  in  workin.; 
order.  .Inly  L'd.  Richmond  became  the  capital  id'  the  Southern  Confederacv. 
Virginia  seceih-d  A]iril  17;  Arkansas.  May  (> :  North  Carolina,  -May  L'O,  ami 
Tennessee,  -lune  S.      Kentucky  declared  neutrality. 

Lincoln,  npon  assuming  the  executive  (diair,  ^landi  4,  1S('>1,  found  t!ii' 
treasury  depleted,  the  army  of  only  sixteen  thousand  men  scattei'cd  in  llu' 
A\'est.  and  many  of  its  best  oHiceis  already  with  the  Confederacy.  'I'he  \\:\\\ 
hail  been  sadly  neglecteil  l)y  Congress,  partly  because  this  branch  of  llir 
service  had  been  steadily  antagonized  by  the  A\'est,  so  that  at  the  beginniim 
of  the  war.  both  as  to  vessids  and  armament,  il  was  by  no  means  in  a  coinii- 
tion  for  active  sei'vice.  As  in  the  army,  some  of  its  most  valuable  olliceiv 
liad  espimscd  the  cause  of  their  native  States,  and  +he  South  Atlantic  uiiij 
(rulf  ports,  being  in  possession  of  the  new  federation,  lid't  the  United  Siiihs 
vessel.-,  no  jilace  of  refuge.  "With  unlimited  means  at  command,  the  riiinn 
navy  increased  the  nundier  of  its  vessids  to  oSS — T."*  of  them  ironclads  — 
with  444.'}  guns  and  .'!0.(lO(t  men.  lud'ore  the  end  of  \^Vy2.  Toriiedoes  iiinl 
steel  rams  were  first  tiseil  during  this  war.  and  mointors,  just  invented,  wen- 
used  by  the  I'lnted  States.  With  a  nnclens  of  1((  vessels,  around  whicli  I'l 
build  its  navy,  the  Confederacy  had,  by  Novendu'r,  raised  the  luimber  to  M. 
I'ntil.  the  blockade  became  effective,  "cotton  was  king;"  for,  in  (»ctoiiii, 
1S(»1,  the  Nashville,  runiuug  out  with  a  heavy  consignment,  brought  ii;ii  k 
into  Charleston  in  exchange  a  cargo  worth  .'iit.'i.OOd.dOO.  Vessel  after  ve--'l 
was  bought  from  Fnglish  shipbtiilders,  among  them  the  celel)rateil  Alabai  m, 
which,  in  the  fourteen  months  of  her  service,  captured  sixty-nine  pri.  -. 
and  destroyed  ten  million  dollars' wortii  of  merchandise.  The  ai'mnred  i m 
Stonewall  was  bo\ight  in  France. 

April  12,  l.S(!l,  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  harbor,  was  forced  to  suiren  ■  i 
to  the  Confederates,  and  the  first  shot  at  the  old  Hag  ushered  in  the  h  ■  ,', 
bitter  struggle. 


xTUJtr 


LEADING    WARS   OF   THE   CESTUllY 


38J 


•e  thiiii  a  (Icca.  . 
ivd,  like  tlif  ii.,- 
ioii  of  Aliniliiiiii 
!al  to  tlic  Soul  ii. 
t'li  lava  for  f(ji;i- 

ay  tlio  wrinklv^ 

•('united  ]it'0]ilc. 

the  hattlcficl.;. 

^si])|ii  ;  .laiiuin  V 
mary  !'.">.  Loiii>- 
ppost'd   rinlit   111 

oi'    Sl'CCS.sinli     ill 

)n.  claiiiH'd  Mini 
uuitioii.  witliiii 
•flit  ion  of  ddc- 
mtgoiucry,  ,\l;i- 
Icratc  States  dl 
ilieiis  Vice-l'ir< 
lOiit  in  workiiiu 

U    CoIlf('dlMilc\. 

a,  May  L'<».  and 

SCI.   found  l!ip 

■icattcird  in  tlic 

ley.     'I'lic  iiaw 

liraiicli  of  \\\v 

till'  ln'.LjiiiniiiL; 

lis  in  a  cniiiii- 

ualilc  o11iccr> 

Atkmtic  ami 

/iiitcd  Siatrs 

id.  tlic   r  llinll 

1    ironclads  — 

)r|n'do('s  ami 

iivcnti'd.  wi'ii' 

luiid  wliicli  1" 

number  t"  'il. 

r.  in  Oetdi'ri-. 

l)n)U,a;lit  lia^k 

d  after  ve<-"l 

ited  Alaliama, 

y-niiie   jni,.-, 

aniiore(l  ;  .111 

to  surreii'i'i' 
in  llie  il  ■!',', 


Troops  were  called  for  Ity  Lincoln.  Lieutenant-Ueiieral  Scott,  the  veteran 
111  ,11  oi'  Mexico,  was  in  eonimand  of  the  army.  In  three  months,  three  hun- 
,|i I  d  thousand  men  were  in  the  held.  One  hundred  thousand  had  swarmed 
tii  ilie  Confederate  ranks,  tleneral  McClellau  was  sent  to  the  front  and, 
ali.  r  the  resignation  of  Scott  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  year,  was  nuule  com- 
uiaialer  of  the  army. 

•  hily  Ul,  the  battle  of  Ihill  Kun  was  fought.  The  Union  troops  were  dis- 
asuously  routed  and  retreated  in  eoufusion  to  Washington.  The  army  did 
liiiic  more  during  this  year. 

April  -1,  after  setting  fire  to  and  destroying  the  Navy  Yard  and  ships. 


CASTLE   WII.MAM.       MIMTAHV  IMtlSON,    OOVKUNOK  S    ISI.ANP     M-.W    VOUK    IlAlillOU. 

Nnit'olk  was  evacuated  by  the  riiion  forces.  The  frigate  ^Merrimac.  which 
had  lieeii  sunk,  was  raised  by  tht!  Conl'ed(>rates,  plated  with  iron,  renamed 
"Virginia."  and  became  the  scourge  of  the  sliipj)ing  off  the  Virginia  coast. 

The  navy,  as  is  usual,  and  because  (jf  its  very  organi/.ation.  got  in  its  effec- 
tive work  much  earlier  than  di<l  the  army,  and  tlie  seizure  of  the  forts  and 
jiorts  on  the  coast  of  the  seceded  States  began  at  once.  Fort  Uatteras  was 
taken  August  I",*;  Port  lioyal,  in  South  ("arolina.  November  7.  November  7 
a  naval  otticer.  by  overhauling  an  English  mail  steiimerand  taking  off  Messrs. 
^lason  and  Slidell,  who  had  bt>en  ap])ointed  commissioners  of  the  Confederate 
States  to  France  and  Kugland,  very  nearly  caused  a  complication  with  the 
laticr  iiower.  ^Fr.  Sewanl's  diidomaey  settled  the  incident  amicably,  and  the 
ceiuiiiissioners  were  allowed  to  proceed  upon  their  mission,  which,  however, 


Id 


?ii 


!;'!' 


.;iik  '1 


if: 


J'lf  it'  !^f!i 


!;•) 


III! 


I'l'p' 


384 


TItlUMPIIS  AXD    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


|ir()V('(l  I'utilc.  I>y  tin'  closi;  oi'  tlif  vcar,  Miiniiiud.  Kentucky,  and  Missmnij 
at  lirst  (loidtt  fill,  were  si'ciiri'ly  in  the  riiioii.  though  luany  of  their  eiti/in^ 
were  in  the  Southern  army. 

iSCtU. —  Feitniary  (!,  (leiieral  (Jrant.  eoiiiiiianding  the  army  of  the  Ti'inii  - 
see,  with  the  assistance  of  Commodore  l''oote  and  liis  gunboats,  eapturt'd  I'^rr 
Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  River,  and,  on  tlie  Kith,  Fort  Donelson  on  llir 
Cuniherhuul.  The  Federal  forc(;s  liad  reached  tlie  iinmlier  of  four  liundirii 
anil  lifty  thousand,  of  which  .McChdhm  liad  two  Inindred  tiionsand. 

May  L'.'i,  at  Front  IJoyal,  and  .May  IT),  at  Wiiudiester,  ••Stonewall"  .lai'i<.-nii 
defeated  the  Union  troops  and  forced  tliem  across  the  I'otomac.  Hank-. 
Fremont,  and  McDowell,  concentrating  their  forces,  hore  down  (Hi  .(ackMUi. 
who  slipiied  tiirough  their  linos,  and,  on  ,hine  '.»,  defeated  Shields  at  I'dii 
liepiililic. 

The  cry  of  the  Northern  jiress  was,  "On  to  liichinond,"  and  M(;(!lcll;iii 
endeavored  to  oiiey  the  coiumand.  Jle  liad  arrived  not  far  I'rom  the  city, 
between  the  Vork  and  .lames  rivers,  when  he  was  defeated  in  'le  blouily 
battle  of  Seven  I'lnes.  .May  .">1  and  .hine  1.  The  Confedt  "te  (i-->ceral  .Idlm- 
ston  was  wounded,  and  (ieneral  hoe  was  assigned  io  tli-  command  ot  the 
army  tif  Northern  Virginia,  which  he  retained  until  llie  end. 

The  Seven  Days"  liattles,  from  .liuie  LT*  to  .Inly  1,  were  fought  at  fr;ir- 
ful  cost  to  the  Confederates;  nevertheless,  '•it  was  a  glorious  victory."  iiml 
the  siege  of  Hichniond  Wiis  raised.  Li'c  advanced  toward  Washington,  nut 
the  armies  of  Hanks  and  J'ojie,  and  dei'eated  them  in  tlu^  second  battlr  <<[ 
]>ull  liiin,  .\uguht  -\)  and  .'>0,  and  at  Chautilly,  Septendier  1  and  L'.  fonin^ 
I'ope's  army  to  retreat  to  Washington.  Tin;  clamor  in  the  South  had  bctn, 
*' (Ml  to  Wasliingtoii."  I,ee  crossed  the  I'otoniac  at  Harper's  Ferry  and  toik 
twelve  thousand  prisoners.  McClellan,  who  had  been  recalled,  met  tin- 
Confederates  at  Sharjisburg  (.Xntietam).  Sei)1end)er  17,  and  fought  a  batllr 
with  undecisive  results.  Kacii  side  lost  about  ten  thousand  men.  and  I.eo 
returned. 

The  Union  army  under  I'.urnside.  who  had  sujierseded  ]\IcClollan.  iii't  a 
fearful  repulse  at  Fredericksburg,  Decemlier  l.S,  with  a  loss  of  fourteen  tlmu- 
sand.     The  Confederate  loss  was  fivt>  tliousaud.  . 

December  MI,  .lanuary  1  and  1',  was  fought  the  terrible  battle  of  ^Iiirfn  ik. 
lioro,  'I'eiiiiessee,  wliei'c  Hragg's  force  was  ."i."). ()(>(>,  and  ids  loss  in  killr^i, 
wounded,  and  missing,   lO.K'iC).      Kosecraus's  force  was    b'l.lOO,  and  his  !"-> 

li;,.v.»r». 

.March  S.  the  \'irgiiiiii  attacked  the  Union  fleet  at  Fortress  ^loiiroi'  ami 
destroyed  the  <'umberliind  and  the  Congress.  'I'lie  next  day.  Ilie  >biii'.t'ir 
tattacked  the  Virginia,  and,  after  live  hours"  fighting,  succeeded  in  disiiliinr^ 
her  so  tliut  she  returned  to  Norfolk.  'I'lie  \'irgiiiia  was  destroyed  by  i!ir 
Conb'derates  before  evacuating  Norfolk.  May  10. 

Admiral  Farragut.  with  a  Heet  of  \'>  vessids,  entered  the  ^Iississi]i]ii  : 'nl 
bomltarded  the  fiuts  of  St.  Uhiliii  and  rlackson.  Despising  the  fear  of  iiii:  ■- 
and  torjiedoes,  he  continued  on  his  course,  defeat  iiig  the  Confederate  ti' <i. 
and,  together  with  (ieneral  lUitler,  entered  New(trleans  April  L'o.  Dm  !r,' 
this  year  the  navy,  with  the  assistiince  of  land  birces.  had  retaken  all  inn  i- 
tant  ports  on  the  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  (ieorgia  coasts,  sen."  v 
interfering  with  the  blockade  running,  ui>on  which  the  Confederacy  de[ir'.i.' mI 


LEADINd    WARS   OF  THE   CKXTUnY 


:5,s.i 


V,  and  Missoiiiij 
oi'  tlR'ii'  (•iti/i'ii^ 

■  of  the  Tciiiii,- 
s,  ciipturcd  I'Mit 

>()I1C'1SU11    (111     I  lie 

)t'  four  huinlii'il 

ISllllll. 

I'Wllll  "    .l,-|ck>nl| 

toiiiac.  Itiink-. 
ivn  (111  .liicksdii. 
Shiulds  at  Imui, 

and  M(;(;icll;in 

Iroiil    the   ciu, 

in      'ic    lilddily 

!  Ueiicral  .Inlm- 

inmuind  dl   tin- 

fouiu'lit  at,  tr.ir- 
is  victorv."  iiinl 
'ashiii,ij;toii,  met 
i'cond  battle  nl 

and  1'.  forciii.; 

Dutli  liad  lii'iii. 

I'Vri'v  and  ti".k 

ailed,   met    ill.' 

oUi;-lit  a   1i;i1i'm' 

nion.  and  Lee 

iClollaii.  met  a 

t'oUl'tci'U   tin  111- 

of  ]\Iui'frees- 

oss   in   kille!, 
',  and  lii>  l'.-> 


federate   tl-et, 


KOii  all  iini"i- 


f      its   forpi",'!!  .snpiilies.     'I'lie  year  ISdL'   closed  witii    no  advaiitaec  having 
]),    :i  j,'aiiit'(l  on  cither  side. 

!S(;;{.  —  (.)n  .laniiarv  1,  Linctdn  issued  the  thicaiened  Kniancipation  I'ro- 
(1.  ination.  Tliis  ch'stroycd  tht;  last  liopc^  of  the  Confeih'racv  for  rccoeiiilioii 
li\  Knulaiid.  Xo  I'vcnt  of  iin[)oi'tan(;(.'  occiiricd  hcforc  tlic  mithlle  of  spring, 
wi,  II  Hooker.  M'lio  had  reliovod  UurnsiiU'.  made  aiiotlicr  advance  upon  Iticdi- 


'^  ■'•'•^^ 

•  .■■jir.'''- 

f 

f     . 

> 

wm^Sm 

_  0^ 

^      ■>?.  •-    ■ 

w^^^^^^^^^^B9i  J^^^^^^M 

^  .  ,.^ 

it 

:* 

\ 

01^^ 

i-*-^ .  / 

<ii:NKii.\i,s  itoiii'.K'r  v..   1.KI-;  am>  stonkwai.!.  .iackson. 

iii"ii(|.  and  was  routed  by  Lee  and  .Iackson  at  ChauceUorsvilh'.  'May  L',  and 
ell  the  r>tli  was  forced  iu-ross  tlio  IJajiidan  with  a  hiss  of  seventeen  thousand. 
I'lie  Confederate  h)ss  was  less  than  five  thousand.  In  .lackson's  death  the 
<  eiireih'i'aoy  receivt'd  a  blow,  the  conse(pieiices  of  which  may  never  be  esti- 
lll.ited. 

I.ee's  army  again  crossed  the  I'otomac.  for  an  invasion  of  the  North.     The 
Union  forces,  under  Aleade,  luurclied  in  an  almost  parallel  line  with  Jiee'S 


>•"* 


^liil 


'iHt^i 


|j''i  |5# 


n 


I'M 


'■  ii 


« 


'.'Mi 


AH 


m 


I 


;!^^ 


\%  ■ 

1  il» '. 

'  t5  ■' 

idii. 

^!* 

ii:: 

1  r, 


f. 


|fi! 


i  I 


m' 


380 


rniUMPIlS  AXD    WONimiiS   UF   THE  XIX'"   CENTUHY 


tlirougli  -Manliiiul  into  l'ciiiis\  Iviuiia.  Tlicy  nu-t  ami  louj^'lit  at  Ciettyshn:-, 
iliily  1,  L',  and  .".  one  of  the  (U'tnsivc  battles  ol'  the  world's  liistorv.  Lee  wis 
forced  to  \\y^\\\\\  retire  lieunul  tlie  I'ivei'.  Tlu!  Union  could  well  al'i'ord  \\\<- 
loss  of  t  wenty-tliree  tlionsand  men.  hut  Lee's  loss  ol'  twenty  thousand  oi  ilic 
choice  troops  oi  ids  army  was  iri'epai'ahlc. 

in  the  meantime,  (irant  had  heen  sent  to  open  the  Mississippi,  and  aiti  i  a 
six  weeks"  sie!;;-e.  on  -Inly  1.  N'icUslnirn-,  with  nearly  thirty  thousand  jirison'  in 
and  vast  quantities  oi'  stores,  tell  into  his  hunds.  'i'liesc  two  almost  siiu- 
\dlaneous  \ictories  greatly  cncourai^'cd  the  North,  and  iornwd  the  turnm.; 
point  in  the  history  ot  the  war.  .Inly  !•.  I'>aid^s's  victory  at  Port  1Iui1-imi 
accomjilislied  the  dcsii'cd  jiossession  (d  the  Mississipjii  ifiver. 


.'Mill 


lira  Hi;',  who  had  lieen  sorely  pressed  liy  IJoseci'ans.  made  a  stand  at  <'lii( 
mauua.  d(d'eatin,n'  the  I  nion  <ieneral  IJosecrans,  Septendier  lU  and  L'O. 
jorcin.n'  him  to  reticat  t<>  ( 'hattanoo^a.  wlieic  he  \\as  licsici^ed  liy  iliM-,;. 
(irant.  with  Shernuin.  condui;-  to  his  aid.  the  battles  ot  Lookout  .Moniii:ini 
and  Missionary  ilid^^c  were  I'ought.  November  L'.".  and  L'a.  and  liraL;-^  \\a> 
dri\cn  back  into  Oeornia. 


'i"he  i'"ederal  navy  was  <;radually  takiuji'  ]i(issession  ot  the  whole  coa 


si. 


("hariestou   was  ti;_;htly   blockaded.      In    March   the   Conb'dcratc   shi|i  N,i-1 
ville  was  sunk  in  the  entrance  of  the  Savannah  IJiver. 

|)uiinL;  this  year  both  tjdvernments  were  i'oi'ced  to  res(M't.  to  conscri|it  ini 
Lincoln  ordered  a  dralt.  and.  in  -lulv.  a  three  da\s'  riot  in  conseiiucner  in, 
vai 


led  in  New  \'ork.  during  which  two  million  dollars'  worth  id'  jtrojierty 


(lestrox  (Ml 


ISCd. —  In    March,  (irant  was  jiut  in  command  ot  the  whole  I'lu 


on  aiiin. 


the  grade  ot  lieutenant  ''ciieral    liavimi'  bi'cn  re\i\ed  in   his  heliali'.      II 


r    Irll 


Sherman   m   command,  reiiaircd 


\V 


hington,  and.    Ma\'  .'1.  started  on   ili 


third  campaign  against  Ikiidimond.  with  a  i'lU'ce  (d'  one  hundred  and  loity 
Ihonsand.  Sherman,  with  one  liundred  thousand,  was  to  march  to  Atlania. 
The  whole  strength  ot  the  I'nion  army  at  this  time  was  about  seven  Imii- 
dred   thousand,     (iraid  had  speid   some   weeks  in    buinulating  his   plall^  nj 


camiiaign> 


i'rom  the  nuiin  I'eatures  (d' which   he  never  deviated.     The  I 


iiiiiii 


hail  at  last  b)unil  the  man.  and  at  the  sanu'  time  had  acipiired  the  wisilnin  in 
leave  the  conduct  ol  the  war  to  his  judgment  ;  proving,  also,  that  '-iIm  !'• 
is  no  war  on  record  that  has  not  gi\en  its  man  to  tlie  world  or  shaped  ilir 
destiny  ol'  some  other." 

Crossing  the  |{a]uilan.  (iraid  encountered  the  ( 'otd'cderates,  and  the  li.;lil- 
ing.  on  the  ."ith.  (ith.  and  7th.  id'  the  battles  ot  the  \\  ihU'rncss,  was  tciiilir, 
but  the  result  undecisive.  .\t  Spottsylvania  ho  iouglit  from  the  Stli  tc  :!ii' 
iSth  with  t'earl'ul  loss,  .lum,'  1.  he  was  repulsed  at  ("old  llarbiu-,  ami  a.:iiii 
on  the  .'!d.  and  lighting,  more  or  less  desidtory.  continued  in  that  vicinity 
tnitil  the  iL'th.  Since  the  opeidng  of  the  campaign,  the  rnitai  army  hinl  l-l 
sixtv    thotisand    men;    the   C'onlederate  thirtv    thousand.      (Irani    niovd   on 


I'etersburg  and  began  the 


siege  w 


Inch  lasted  from  dune  until  the  next  .\ ; 


The  western  ]iart  of  Virginia   had  seceded    from   the   eastern    portion.    :'iil 
.huie  !'(».  was  adnutted  into  the  rnited  States. 

To  divert  (iraid.  ami.  if  possible,  to  raise  the  siege  of  I'etersburg.  in  •'  "1y 
TjPO  sent  (leneral   Karly  to  threaten  Washington  and   I>altimore.  wl 
aeoomjdislu'd  without,  however,  affecting  (Jraut's  position.     Jveturnin; 


111- 


I'll 


iXTUIiV 


i  at  tJL'ttyshii:^. 

story.         liCC    Wis 

well   aiVonl   in, 
tli(iusiiii(l  nl  1  111' 

ipjii.  and  altiM  a 
lusaiid  ])i'isiiiM  i> 
wo   almost   -.:ui- 

H'(l      flic     linill,,; 

It   Tort   Ilininii 

daiid  at  Cliirk;,- 
l'.»  and  I'd.  ,11,1 
f'j!;t'd  liy  r>r.ij_; 
ikoiit  Mouiiliiii! 
iind    r>i'a;^',L;   wii^ 

vlwdr  coasl.  iiiiil 
ratf   sliip  N,isli- 

to  conscriiitinii. 

01ISt'(lMt'l|cc   |i|v. 

of  jii'ojicrl y  \\;i> 

lie  I'nion  aiiii\. 

M'liall'.      Ilrl.ii 

started  on   i1m' 

'red    and    Imly 

•li   to  Atliiiii.i. 

nt  st'vcii   liuii- 

l;'   his   ]il;i!is  I, I 

'I'lic  I'nioii 

the  wisdmii  In 

o.  that  ••  lliri,. 

or  sl';i|M'il  1  ln' 

and  the  li-hi- 
<s.  was  tcnillr. 

till'    .Sill   tn   -lir 

lior,  and  ir.  lin 
n   that  vicinity 

army  li;id  ''"-I 
;int  movr,l  nii 
:li('  next  Ai'  il. 
portion,  nml, 

■iburt;'.  in  ■'  "iy. 
ore.  wliic  ik- 
'turning  '     'ii 


(.K.NiatAL    Ll.V.^Sl:,^^    1^.    OUAM'. 


!!  I 


«1    !:    11' 


n  ,<iii 


;    n't: 


■  \)V 


'h. 


TUIUMrilS   A  SI)    WOShEliS   Oh'   THE   A/A'"'   CESTrUY 

with  sjMiils.  Kiirlv  tiiiiifd.  iiiid  ilriviii^,'  hack  tln'  l'"('iU'ral  tnMi|i.s  iiiviid  1 
I'ciuisylvaiiia.  biiniiMj;  ( 'liaiiilx'ishiirg.  and  caiiu'  l)a('U  aLjaiii  hriiiLtiiiy:  \  i 
(luaiititics  (if  siipiilii's.  Slicridaii  was  sent  to  dis|i(i.s(>  of  Kaily  and  to  rav.i  r 
tilt'  valley.  At  Wiiicln'stci'.  lie  lut't  and  dt'i'calcd  Karly  in  a  very  sfvcic  ti-lii 
on  <  •ctiibi'i'  L'O,  alnidst  dfstinyintj;  tlic  Iomt  undrr  that  ,y;cni'rars  coniina:  i. 
SluMinan  set,  (int  lor  Chat tann(),t,'a  on  May  7.  niarchin,!,'  towards  Atlanta.  \i 
Dalton  he  nud  (icnfral  .lohnston's  army  of  tii'ty  thonsand  men.  Johnstnn  s 
niastt'rly  ridri'at  Ironi  Dalton  to  .\tlanta  is  nnrivalcd  in  nnlitary  histo:\. 
lie  made  a  stand  ironi  .May  L'.">  to  .Inno  I  at  Dallas,  imt.  itciny  onttlaidiiil. 
was  ol)li,t,'('d  to  I'all  hack.  The  m-xt  stand  wa.s  niailc  at  (ircat  Knn'saw.  nn 
.lunc  L'L',  when  he  rc|iulscd  the  l-'cdcrals.  On  the  L'7th.  Sherman  inadr  ;i 
jiowertnl  assanlt,  hnt  was  a;j;ain  repnlsed  with  a  loss  of  fonr  thousand,  .lolm- 
ston's  loss  heinj;-  l(i\ir  hnndred  ;  hnf.  a;;ain  ontilanUed.  .loimston  was  foiciil 
across  the  ("hattahoocliit'.  and  -Inly  10  found  the  Con  federate  army  entreiicinil 
in  .\thinta. 

.lohnston's  I'ct  reatiny;  tactics  caused  the  pi'ople  to  (danuu'  lor  a  "  tiulil  in- 
leailer."  and  Davis,  in  transferi'inj,'  th"  command  from  .Uihnston  al  sucli  ;i 
crucial  time.  <'onimittt'd  a  ,t;rave  error.  .l(dinston  was  superseded  hy  (leiiii;il 
Hood,  whose  idnef  aud)ition  was  to  li,i;ht.  whi(di.  in  this  case,  was  a  ;4rr;ii 
mistake  in  jnd.;,Mnen1.  On  the  L'Oth.  LfLM.  and  L'Sth  of  .Inly.  Hood  assauihil 
the  lines  of  the  hesie^ers.  only  to  lie  repnlsed  aj,'ain  and  aj.!:aiii.  In  tlic'M' 
lii^hts  more  uhmi  wore  lost  than  duriuLT  .lohnston's  lonL;-,  skillful  reti'eat.  An 
iujndicions  movement  hy  llooil  sepai'ated  his  command,  ohligiu!;-  him  in 
evacuate  .\tlanta.  of  which  Sherman,  on  Septendier  1.'.  took  jiossessiou.  In 
its  advance  on  .Vtlanta,  the  rnion  army  had  lost-  thii'ty  thousand  men.  IIimuI 
saved  his  army  and  made  his  way  towards  Nashville,  hopin-.,'  to  divert  Slnr- 
man  from  (ie(M<,na.  .\t  I'^ranklin.  Novendx-r  ;>(».  he  met  (ieneral  SchdJirld, 
and  drove  him  back  to  Nashville,  from  whence  (ieneral  'I'homas  made  ;i 
sortie,  and  fcdl  upon  Mood's  troojis.  Deceiuher  l.").  comjilerely  routinj,'  them. 
In  the  two  ti,ij;hts.  llood  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  an<l  captured  over  eleven 
thousand.  With  the  remnant  lie  escaped  into  Alabama,  and  these  tiually 
reached  .lohnston.  participated  in  his  last  lii,'ht  with  Sherman,  and  were  Mir- 
rendered  at  l\alei,i,di  with  the  troops  of  their  old  commander. 

Novendier  14.  Sherman  burm.'d  .Vtlanta.  cut  all  tele,<j;ra]ih  lines  and  lie_::ui 
his  ••March  to  the  Sea."  ravaLjinv'.  devastatiiit,'.  and  utterly  destroyint,'  eviiy- 
tliiiiL;;  in  his  reaidi.  Me  was  opposed  by  the  Confederate  cavalry,  wliiili 
siu'cessfully  defended  the  (jities  of  Macon  and  .Vuij^nsta,  upon  which  ilic 
Confederacy  mainly  depended  for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war. 
Sherman  entered  Savannah  on  Dceendier  L'L'.  the  advance  having'  oust  Iniu 
only  .">(>7  mei\  killed  and  wounded. 

On  .riiuo  I'.t.  the  celebrated  soa  tight  between  the  Kearsarge  and  the  Ala- 
bama took  place  off  Cherbourg.  France.  The  Alabama  was  sunk  after  a  live 
hours'  tight.  Admiral  Semnies  was  rescued  by  tho  Deerhound.  belongiii.;  in 
an  English  genthMuau,  and  thus  saved  from  capture.  August  "»,  Conimoii'iv 
Farragut.  overcoming  the  Confeder.ite  ram  Tennessee  and  the  gnnln'i'^, 
sailed  into  Mobile  Hay,  commanding  Ins  tieet  from  the  maintop  <if  his  \\  i.;- 
sliip. 

ISd.";.  —  Tlie  opening  of  the   cam]iaign  of  ISC)")  i'ound   (irant's  arm\ 
before  J'etersburg.     C>n  April  L',  he  ordered  an  attack  along  liis  whole 


1! 


(IH 


;.V7TA')- 

tnuips  iiiv;iil'  1 
11  liriiigiii;,'  \  I 
ly  iiiul  to  liiv.i  (■ 
■('IT  scvt'rc  li-;ii 
■ral's  (■oiiiiiiiii  i 
lis  Allillll;!.       \i 

t'll.         .l()llllSt(lll'> 

iiilitarv  lii.stmv. 
'iui;-  (Mittl;iiik(  .1. 
ill  Knicsiiw  ,  I, II 
licnniiii  iiiiiilr  ;i 
lliiMisaiid.  .luliii. 

■<t(lll    WilS     Imcrd 

iniiy  ciitrciiciinl 

■  Inr  ;i  ••  linliliii-- 
istmi  111  siicli  ;i 
i'llt'd  \)\  (iciiiial 
.sc.  WilS  ii  iiivat 
IIikkI  iissniiilril 
,i;'iuii.  Ill  llii'M' 
I'ul  n'trciit.  All 
liliji'iiii;-  liiiii  Id 
possession.  Ill 
mil  iiH'ii.  IIixiil 
to  (li\cil  Shcr- 
icnil  Scliolirlil. 
'Iioiiiiis    iiiaiir  a 

I'outinj;'  tlirm. 

il  over  clt'Vi'ii 
tlii'sc   liiially 

and  were  siir- 

iiu>s  iuid  licLraii 

tl'OVill!,'  CVriV- 

ivalry.  wlmh 
til  wliicli  ilic 
ions   of    var. 

,'iiig  cost    iiim 

and  111.'  Ala- 
Ilk  al'tcr  a  live 

bcloii.i^iirj  111 
r>.  ('oiiiiiiiHi  Mv 

tilt'       t,'UIlllH    i'-, 

>|)  of  his   r  i4- 

t's  army  II 
is  wliolc 


;^  ^  " 


Slll.K.VI.V.N  s    .M.VIiCII    TO   Till:;   SLA. 


,.li 


11! 


ii^if 


",  ffi 


•Mi         Th'lUMI'HS  AM)    \\<K\I>IHIS   OF   Tllh:   XIX'"   CESTUI:  Y 


m 


<H. 


m 


which  liiiil  lit't'ii  ,s(i  h'lii^thi'iicd  that   tlic   liiifs  nl'   \a'v\   (h'|ilftt'(l  iiriny  \vr 
vciT  tliiu.     'I'hc  ( 'niilt'(h'r;it('s  wcii'  diivni   hjick  with   hciivy  hiss.      Lcc  ti 
};ni|piif(l  t(i  l>;ivis:  "Mn   litics  ;irr  lndkni  in  tiircc  phiccs;  we  cmii  hohl  rctci   - 
lull'!,'  11(1   h>ii,y;t'i'.      IJichiiioiid   iiiii^l    lie  I'vucuatccl  this  cvciiiiii;-."     Tiiiit    iii-   i 
Ailiiiiral  Sciiiiucs.  in   (liicdimci'  to  (inh'rs.  dcslrnyrd  tlic  Cniiinh'ralc  tici't     i: 
t  he  .liiiiirs  liiscr.      Itichiiiiiiid  was   in  thr  iKissrssinii  ol'lhc  rnimi  lorccs  iln- 
ni'Xt  (hiy.aiid  nn  April  I  Liiujohi  iicid  a  icc('|iti(Mi  in  Davis's  vacated  iiiaiisii.ii 
lii'c  attempted   ill  lircaiv  thiniinJi    (irant's   lines  at    Ajp|i(iiiiatt(ix.  hut    eln^iu 
|pursued   hy  Slieridan.  and   lindin,:^  lint iier  ret  I'cat  iiii|Hissihh'.   lie  siin'ciidei,  i 
with  ahout  l-wciity-si\  timiisand  men  on  the  IMli  of  Aprih 

(irant's  iiiaj^iianiiiinns  terms  were  wort  iiy  oi'  liis  laiiie,  'I'hi'  tnidps  wi  ;,. 
panded  on  cnnditioii  ol'  promise  not  to  take  np  arms  until  exclian,y;ed.  Tin 
oilicers  were  permitted  to  keep  ha^vjau'e  and  side  arms,  and  all  were  to  ret;iii; 
their  horses,  as.  (iraiit  said,  "they  would  he  needed  in  the  crops." 

'rurniii;;-  northward  from  Savannah.  Sherman  eoiitinued  his  march  :iiiii 
reaidied  l''ayetteville.  North  Candina.  \\"ilmiii,u;toii  had  heeii  captured  eail\ 
ill  the  year  hy  a  land  and  naval  i'orcc.  .lidiiistun  had  heeii  reinlorced  li\  iIh' 
,y;airisoii  whi(di  had  heeii  roree<l  to  evacuate  Charleston  and  the  remnant  m| 
Mood's  army,  and  had  several  severe  liy:hts.  with  no  decisive  results,  uiili 
Sherman,  who  entered  Ifalei^;]!  ;  and  here,  on  April  !.'(>.  .lohnston's  army  mm 
rendered  on  the  same  leiiiis  yjiNi^n  hy  (iraiit. 

Decemher  ol  ami  January  1  l'"ort  l''isher  was  captured,  and  on  .Ianuai\ 
IL'  \\ilmi1e4t011  was  entered  liy  the  l'"cdeials  ;  l''eliriiary  IS.  Charleston  u;|^ 
captured. 

The  rcLjiilar  hatth's  dnrinn'  the  CiviMN'ar  iiumhered  S'.H'.  Lincoln  calhii 
ill  all  hir  L'.(illO,(KI(>  men.  There  were  actually  in  service  1.  IllO.dOO.  'I'h.iv 
were  lOO.OtK)  disahled  ;  .'lO  |.;;C.'.»  perished:  L"_'(t.(KI(t  were  captnreil.  and  I'ti.iMHi 
died  ill  ca])tivity.  The  ex|ienses  (d  the  war  were  .'iS.").."iO0,O(tO  per  da\.  '\'\\v 
national  dtd)t  was  .liiL'.roo.OtK ).()()(). 

This  (,M'eat  .\iiieriean  War  was  iVm.nht  on  both  sides  witli  a  conra,n-e  ;iii([ 
fortitude  never  Indore  experienced  in  the  annals  oi'  wail'are.  .\s  compared 
with  the  statements  of  forces  and  losses  in  battles  of  European  ariuii'>. 
tlie  casualties  in  the  hattles  id'  the  Civil  War  were  three  and  four  tiini'> 
as  ;j;reat.  And  this  proves  that  in  the  American  War  eaidi  siih'  met  ••  ier 
men  wortliy  (d'  tlitdr  stetd."  'I'hese  overwhelmingly  fearful  casualties  an 
not  to  i)P  explained  otherwise.  .Viid  each  section  resjiects  the  other  iiini. 
than  hefore  the  war  —  a  war  in  whieli  the  eoiKpiered  felt  not,  nor  sai'l 
/irrran'.  and  in  whicdi  surrender  to  greater  nunihers  and  lieavier  ai'tiller\  in 
v(dved  no  sacrifice  of  lieliid  in  the  truth  and  justice  of  their  pause.  Was  tlnM 
ever  an  armed  strife  that  l)roii,i,dit  forth  <ireater  generals  or  more  kni,uliil\ 
valor,  undiminished  courasj:*'  and  iiiitliii(ddiijjr  fortitude  on  the  j'lart  (d'  comhi 
tants  '.'  Tofjether  11111st  the  names  of  ({rant  and  Lee  <;o  doAvn  to  jiosteritv  ;i- 
.yreat  types  of  the  .Vmeriean  soldier.  —  the  one,  nohle  and  sifonoroiis  in  victi"\ 
the  other,  thoii,i,di  a  hero  uncrowned  hy  success,  a  warrior  still  inure  hei.  ;i 
in  defe.it. 

TiiK  Si-amsii-.Vmki.'Ic.w  Wai;.  —  Tlio  proximate  causes  (d'  the  war  ^\    i 
Sjiain  are  tersely  set  torth   in  \\\o  .loint    Itesolution  de(darin^-  the  indepi     i 
ence  of  Cuba  and  demaiidini,^  the  withdrawal  of  Spanish  soverei,i,nity  th 
from,  which  says  :  — 


lisruiiY 


i.i:.\i>iS(i  wMts  (H-  THE  cEsriuY 


aoi 


'Irlnl  aniiv  \Vi  ,. 
\  Inss.  Lee  ti'l  •- 
■  iMii  iidltl  rctci ,- 
!),'■"  'I'liiit  iii-iii 
irt'tlcliitc  fieri  lii 
I'liidii  I'diccs  III,' 
v;i(';il('(|  inaiisiiiii. 

ttOX.    l)llt     (•I(i>(i\ 

.  lit'  simciulch  ,i 

I'lll'    tl'dops    Wllv 

I'xcliiiiiijfd.  'I'll,. 
ill  Wfi'c  to  ii'tiiin 
rops." 

t  Ills  iiKircli  .'iiiii 
11  ra|ituri'il  caiK 
■fiiil'oi'ccd  liy  ihr 
tlic  rciiiiiaiil  m| 
ivc  results,  w  nh 
istun's  army  mii- 

and  (III  .laiiiiarv 
( 'liarlestoii   \v;i> 

Miienlii  ealh'(i 
I'.MMMKl.  'i'liriv 
iired.  and  L'd.nnii 
►  ]H'r  day.     The 

1  a  eoiiraMc  iimi 

As  (•(pni|i;nvil 

iropean  armies. 

iiid   I'mir  tillle^ 

side  mel  ••  lue- 

(Msuaities  :iiv 

tlie  other  mmv 

not,  nor  smuI. 

irr  ai'tillen  in- 

ISC.      Was  tliriv 

more  knii^lilly 
irt  (>r  coiiiiii- 
to  jiosteritv  ;!■- 
ous  in  vietii'  \ ; 
1   more  liemn' 

the  war  \\  'li 
the  iiide|M"  !■ 
'rei,L,nitv  ih-n'- 


••  ir/irrriis.  The  aliiiorreiit  conditions  which  have  existed  lor  more  than 
liiicc  years  in  the  islaml  ol'  Cnlia.  so  near  onr  own  liorder>.  ha\e  shocked 
tlic  moral  sense  of  lii(>  |ieo|)le  oi'  the  I'nili'd  States,  have  been  a.  disu^raec 
In  Christian  ci\  ili/.atioii.  culminal  iiiLj  as  tiiey  have  in  the  deslniclioii  ol'  a 
liiitcd  Sillies'  l)altleslii|i,  with  L'tiCi  of  its  ollieeis  and  crew,  while  on  a 
liieiidly  \  isil  ill  till'  liarlior  ol  ilavaiia.  and  cannot  loic^er  he  endured,  as 
li.is    liceii  set,  foilh   liv    the    rresideiit   ol'  the    I'nited  Slati'.->   in   his  message 


i.ia;  s  SI  itiiKNitiat  at  aitom  virox. 

tn  ('oiit;ress  ol'  .\]iril  11,  iS'.tS.  upon  wliieli  the  action  ol'  (,'oii,^rcss  was  in- 
vited ;  tlicnd'or(\ 

■•  1,'rxiilriil,  by  the  Senate  and  House  ol'  Hcpresciitativi^s  of  the  rnitcd 
Slates  ol'  .\meriea  in  ''on,nres.s  assembled  : 

"  h'irst,  That  the  people  ol'  the  island  or<'iiba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
lice  and  in(h']iendeiit. 

••  Srr„n(/.  That  it  is  the  duty  ot  the  rnited  States  to  demand,  and  tla^ 
•  i'lvi'rnment  of  the  rnited  States  does  heivby  demand,  that  the  ( iovcinment. 
"i  Spain  at  once  relinipiish  its  authority  and  government  in  the  islaml  ol' 
Culm,  and  withdraw  its  land  and  naval  I'oives  I'n.iu  Cuba  and  Cuban  waters. 


I  '  :  i 


.[■\iM 


fell 


\w\ 


.  I 


y\    ')]' 


i   a  . 


I'i'i 


m 


.1 '.        V' 


,1 1  :■'■ , 


M^"N      1]! 


!i,  t  !yi 


il 


«li 


nifj        TliJL'MI'l/S  AXD   nOMUJliS  or  Tin-:  XIX'"  cestuhy 

"  Thiril.  'I'liat    llic  I'rcsiilciit  nT  the  riiitcd  Stiitcs  he.  ;iiiil  lie  licivliy  i>.   i| 
I'crtcil  mill  (Miipowcit'd   In  use  till' ciitiiv  liiinl  and  naval  Inrccs  ol'  tin-  I  niti  ; 
Stalt's.  and  to  call   into  the  actn.d  sfrvii-c  (d'  tin-  liutcd  States  tlif  militia   ( 
tilt'  scvt'i'al  States  to  siieli  extent   as  nuiv  lie   neeessurv  to  eai'i\    lliese   resnli 
tions  into  ei'i'eet. 

••  Ftiiirfh.  'I'lial  the  I'nited  States  lieiehv  diselaiuis  anv  (lis|H(sit  iim  or  in 
teiiiion  to  e.vei'eise  so\ erei,niit_v.  jiii'isiliet ion.  or  control  over  said  Islanu 
exceiit,  lor  the  |iaeilieation  theieot,  and  asserts  its  (h'ternnnation  when  tint 
is  coniiilt'tcd  to  le;ive  the  ;;overnnient.  and  eontiid  (d'  the  Island  to  ii. 
|ieo|)le." 

This  resolntioii  was  signed  liv  the  I'lvsident  at  ll.'JI  o"<doek  A.  m.,  April  L'o. 
LSI  IS. 

It  was  on  l''el)ntarv  l."*.  JS'.IS.  that  the  eatastronlie  nd'eired  to  —  thelilowiu  • 


Moltliii    (  ASTI.i:,    SVMIAia).    (  IIIA. 

u]!  (d  the  Elaine  —  oecui'red.  On  April  l.'."».  tlio  fonnal  deelavatioii  of  war  wa^ 
made. 

Spain  had  three  fleets. —  Admiral  Corvera's  tlyinLT  sfpiadron.  tlio  Asiatii- 
Heet  under  Admiral  .Monlejo.  and  Ailmiral  <'amara's  tleet  ot  heavy  ariaored 
vessels. 

The  Amerieau  navy  's  always  ready  for  eiiierLjoncies.  and  even  with  the 
t;rud,L;injj;  appropriation >  lade  liy  Con.ijress,  the  "new  navy,""  while  not  pn^- 
sessing  vessels  of  suidi  iarye  size  as  those  of  some  other  nations,  was  miirl: 
more  formidalilp  thjiii  *vas  _L!:en«'rally  snpjiosed.  Con<;ress.  aijprehendini;-  tlie 
onteonie,  had  i;iven  the  President  .S.'><'.it(H».O0(l  to  put  the  country  on  a  win 
footiiiL,'.  In  reply  to  the  call  for  1L'."».0(I((  volunteers,  five  times  that  iniinl»  :■ 
offered  theius«  Ives. 

It  had  heen  more  than  fifty  years  since  the  rnitod  States  had  oncoiintereil 
a  foroi<,ni  foe.  and  since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  for  a  third  of  a  centur\, 
jieaee  liad  reij>ned. 

April  L*.").  l>y  cahle  to  Honji;  Konicj.  Conunodorc  Dewey  was  ordered  to  ti:  ! 
and  destroy  tlu'  Spanish  Asiatic  fleet,  which  he  proceeded  to  do  on  ^May  \-\, 


rruuY 

lincby  is.  (1 
111'  (lif  I'liil. 
till'  iiiililia  <  : 

,•    I  lu'SC    ITsnll 


|iositi(iii  or  in 
r  siiiil    Isl.iii. 
iiui   wlirii  tin' 

Islllllll      III      i. 

k.  M.,  April  I'll. 
—  tlic  lilowii  ., 


Ill  of  will'  \\.i~ 


.  tho  Asiat  n- 
'11  vy  lll'luninl 

Ivi'ii  with  tiii- 
lliile  not  \»'-' 

lis.  was  lllllrh 

iioii(liii;4  t  ill' 
try  on  ii  w  ji 
Itliat  nuuili'  !• 

oncounli'ivil 
l)f  ;i  f;ontii'\, 

lercd  to  li:  i! 
Ion  ]\Iay  1  i, 


AnMIHAI,   OF.OUOE   DEWEY. 


1  m 


r^iii  is 


AM 


Jfl 


I'll 


1 


li-J 


^|»li  f 


m 


1 1  i' 


■i  I     ! 


It    I      ! 


ffiji 


l|i 


■m 


I'l 


. 

1    Jl 

; 

i;t<f 

iiii| 

! 

:''i 

"lE 

fill 


■ii  -i 


I 


l|li:fl 


li!i 


:5'.ti       TiiUMi'iis  .i.\7>  \V(>\i)i:i!s  OF  Tin-:  .v/.v"  cFxirnv 

witlioul  tlu'  lii>>  dl'  a  Miiu;lf  man.  l''.nt('riii'4  Manila  Max.  M'uriiiir^  tnri 
do 's  and  niinr>.  In-,  wnndcrlul  latilc  at  Cavili'  is  tlir  adiniraLicn  ol  t 
W  dl'ld. 

SchicN .  w  it  li  his  ti\  in^-  sipiadrdn.  walclifil  in  I  lam  {it  mi  1  loads  lor  an  atta^ 
liv  tln'oncmv  on  ilio  Atlantic  coast.  Havana  \\a.^  lilockadcd  l>\  Samp^oi, 
sc|ii;idiim  .\|ird  L'L'.  and  his  .searchlights  sciMi  Irom  ilicCnoan  ca|iital  wc 
as  till'  iiandw  iitin'^-  on  the  .■>k\.  lorrdoominj;;  S|iani>h  rule.  His  tact;, 
wcri'l.o  laiic  no  ri-k  with  his  \fsscl.->  winlc  awailiii'^-  tlic  a|i|irarancc  id  t: 
Spauisli  .sliijis.  so  lie  failed  lt>  nnnru  the  L;rct'iin;4-  ot  the  siiorc  liattcfics. 

I'hc  iirsi  casiialtit's  id'  I  ho  war  were  in  Cardenas  harl>or  Max    I  I.  win  m  iii" 


M  M  N     01   I   K    o|-    cnri^l   I!    (    M  ic    \(,(i 

till'  W'inslow.  wlnlc  chasin'4'  a  decoy  ;^qinlMiat  loo  I'ar  under  the  lire  of  the  l.nnl 
liatteries.  I0nsi'4n  I'.au;iey  and  lour  sailors  were  the  iiis'  men  of  ilie  na\y  t"  '  !\ 
down  tlieir  lives. 

It  was  known  that  Cervera  had  sailed  Irom  Cadi/,  toward  the  West  Ind;.-. 
Sampson  made  a  lonr  id  I'orto  Kico  to  iuint  tiie  S|iaiiiard.  wlio  mysti'iioiiiv 
eluded  tin  si'.4ht  of  t  he  .\  mericans  San.lnan  was  lioiiiliarded  on  Ma\  !'.' 
On  Mav  .'!<»  S(ddey.  w  lio  in  the  meantime  had  arrived  oil' Sant  iauo.  iiis|ialilM  1 : 
"I  have  seen  the  enemy's  sliips  with  my  own  eyes."  ('ervcia  iiad  tlmn  l^.n 
ill  the  iiailior  ten  days.  <  (ii  the  .'ll^l.  S(diiey  I'ommenccd  a  liomlia.'dmeiit,  "i.l 
the  forts  at  the  month  of  Santiai^o  harlior  and  the  vessels  wilhin  re|ilic(l  ■■r 
an  hour.  .1  nne  I  Sani|ison  came,  and  all  hope  of  esca lie  for  <  'ervera  was  |.|i:  ,. 
<  hi    thai    ni-ht   l.icntenant   lliili.son  executed   his  iiojd.  heroic  plan  of  .siid 


M'iiriiiii'4   tdii 


llir  ii;i\\  t"  '  i\ 


-r 

^1 

'■         i'ii 

•)'(]« 

■      :   '1    US 

'■ 

i'lti 

I  "It 


^^i. 


'  •.;  m 


<  ''"Hi 


;.i 


390 


TlilUMPUS  AND    WOXDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CESTUliY 


iifM' 


tUi.i 


' 


tlu'  -MtMiiiuiU'  in  the  cluuiiu'l  of  the  liiirluir,  wliieli  was  accomi)lisliC(l  witho 
the  loss  of'  one  of  liis  seven  co-hei'(jes,  iilthoiigli  subjected  to  a,  deadly  Ir 
from  forts  and  vessels. 

The  lii'st  troops  landed  on  Cuban  soil  were  the  marines,  (J.")!)  in  luimbc  , 
under  [iieutenant-Colontd  lIuntini;ton.  This  battalion  had  bei-u  on  board  tli  ■ 
1 'anther  since  May  I'L',  and  tiie  men  were  eager  to  land.  After  Sampson  liii.l 
shelled  the  shore  and  adjacent  hills  and  woods,  on  the  afternoon  of  . I niic  I'l 
the  landing  was  made  and  the  American  flag  raised  for  the  first  time  i.  i 
S|ianish  territory  in  the  west.  >.'o  Spaniards  were  seen  until  after  the  teni-; 
had  been  erected  and  the  evening  shadows  were  falling.  Then  for  five  nighis 
and  days  there  was  no  sleep  for  these  men,  than  whom  there  wen;  no  greaii  i- 
heroes  in  this  short,  sharp  war.  With  few  ex(re])tions  <^hey  received  tli<u 
•'baptism  of  tire,"  and  nobly  did  they  ac(piit  themselves. 

I  am  told  that  when  almost  iitterly  exhausted  tlie  first  platoon  reached  tlic 
summit  of  Cusco  hill,  so  exactly  in  unison  was  their  fire  that  the  Spanish,  lic- 
lieving  that  machine  guns  were  opening  upon  them,  turned  and  van,  nevi  r 
again  making  a  staml.  The  first  to  consecrate  the  soil  with  Ins  life's  blnnd 
was  Dr.  -lohn  lUair  (iibbs,  who  left  a  $1<>.0(I(>  ])ractiee  in  '»ew  York  to  go  ,is 
surgeon  of  the  battalion,  and  who  had  greatly  ei.de'U'ed  'iiself  to  both  otli- 
(M'rs  and  men.  Sergeant  (Joode.  one  of  the  finest  t-a1)a'i  '\-\\>  'ii  .he  <'ori)s,  iiml 
four  UKMi  were  killed.  The  good  condition  and  h-'alil.  I'  this  ,;ictalion  durin,; 
the  whole  campaign  were  <lue  to  the  tine  organiz;'tiou  of  t.'.e  commissari.it 
and  the  strict  diseii>lin(>  maintained  in  this  corps. 

(Jeueral  Shaffer  :irrived  off  Santiago,  .Inne  L'O,  \\\':\\  a  force  <f  "I'A  otficrix 
and  1  f,.'>(i4  men.  (ieneral  (iarcia,  the  (Juban  comma. u',<'r,  with  four  thousainl 
insurgents,  was  at  Assuadero,  eighteen  miles  west.  Thcic  lie,  ;'hafter.  ainl 
Samjpson  held  a  consultation.  On  the  L'L'd,  the  disembr.i/me'.ic  of  troops  was 
liegun.  On  the  morning  of  the  L'.'Jd,  < ieneral  Lawtoii  wi.I.  his  division  ail- 
vanced  to  -luragua.  Major-(  ieneral  Wheeler,  after  landing  U(i4  of  his  fon-i'. 
pursuant  to  (Jeneral  Shafter's  orders,  moved  rapidly  to  the  front,  and.  jiassiiij; 
through  Lawton's  lines,  ])ushed  on  to  Las  (iuasinuis.  attacking  and  defeatiiij^ 
(ieneral  Linares  on  the  morning  of  -lune  L'4. 

The  entire  ,Vmeric;.n  force  was  pressed  forward  under  (Jeneral  Wliei'li  i. 
(ieneral  Shaffer  being  det-:ned  on  the  ships  to  attend  to  the  landim,  j  \\v 
armament  and  sui)plies.  On  the  L".>th,  the  commanding  general  left  hi'  -i  i. 
and  pitched  his  eam]>  on  the  Santiago  road,  and  on  the  next  day  <>•  i  ers  -..  n- 
given  for  an  attack  along  the  whole  line.  In  carrying  out  these  trdt^.'s,  '^  n- 
eral  Lawton  with  about  six  thousand  men  attacked  Kl  Caney.  a  snun'  •  - n 
about  five  miles  north  of  Santiago.  The  garrison  consisted  ic  r)2()  uk  ;i.  :1,' 
defenses  being  one  block-liouse  and  a  shore  fortification,  it  was  notuiiiii 
four  o'clock  that  (ieneral  Lawton's  success  was  complete.  His  loss  was 
4.'>7  killed  and  wounded,  and  but  'M)  of  the  enemy  succeede<l  in  escaping  .iinl 
reaching  the  Spanish  lines.  While  Lawtitn  was  moving  on  El  Caney,  tin' 
cavalry  division,  unmounted,  and  Kent's  infantry  division  were  ('rdered  in 
move  forward.  Crossing  San  Juan  IJiver  at  a  ])oint  about  five  hundi'd 
yards  from  the  enemy's  fortifications  on  San  Juan  ridge,  the  left  of  tin' 
cavalry  rested  on  the  main  Santiago  road  and  the  infantry  fovmed  to  []»■ 
left  of  the  cavalry.  These  troo]is  were  subjected  to  a  very  lica\;,  '*'"•"  m 
advancing  from  El  J'ozo,  in  crossing  the  river  and  in  forniinj,  ou  C'^d  i      " 


'y<;,iM^' 


)lislicd  withoi. 
I)  a  doadly  lii 

)(■)()  in  nuiubf  . 
u  oil  board  tli  ■ 
I'  Samiison  hml 
o()U  of  . I  line  1't 
i  tirst  tiim.'  mi 
at'tt'i-  tliL'  tciiu 
,  I'or  Hve  nigliis 
vert!  no  giH'ai(  r 
rei:L'ivt'd  tlnii 

ion  reaclu'd  lln' 
;lie  Spanish,  lie 
and  ran,  ncvi  r 
his  life's  1j1(mm| 
V  ^drk  to  go  ;is 
t'lf  to  both  otli- 
1  (111!  corps,  ami 
'attalion  ihiriiiLC 
(>  coniniissariar 

>  cf  "T'A  otticfis 
li  four  thonsaml 
IP,  ; 'halter,  ainl 
ic  of  troo])s  was 
lis  division  ad- 
54  of  his  force, 
lit,  and,  jiassiiiLT 
H'  ami  (h'featiiiL; 


LEADIMJ    WAltS   OF   THE   CENTUUY 


;«t7 


tliey,  however,  most  bravely  eh; 


irged  the  enemy  iii  their  strong  positioi 


Kettle  Hill  and  fSan  .liian  i  idge,  and  drove  tliem  jirecifiitately  from  their 
lUg  fortifications:  tlie  American   loss  lieing  l.">4   killeil  ami  l*',*?  \Vuiinded. 


(U'.NKItAI,    .lOSEril    WIIF.F.I.KTl. 

(('(i|iyriirlit  liy  Ainu'  DiipiMit,  ISHit.^ 

'I'liis  placed  tlip  Americans  in  a  position  commaiii'ing  tlie  fortifications  iirnund 
till'  city  of  Santiago. 

The  S]>anish  fleet,  consisting  of  live  arii'^red  cruisers  of  7. <•(»(>  ton>  and  'J 
tiirjiedo-boat  destroyers,  attempted  to  escape  hdiu  Sm.itiago  at  '.'  ><•  o'chx'k  nn 
•"^'inday  morning,  July  o,  just  nine  wi'ck^  after  the  destruction  of  >bintejo's 


m. 


m 


4  % 


'mv% 


t  t,  '  '  -'J  ; 


:^^% 


^  J;;!!, 


I!|  ■' 


i     li  ! 


,11,  i        11' 


m 


m 


m  i 


»  f. 


iiii 


^^ 


I  '!■ 


398         TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDKHS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 

fli'ot.     Sc'lilcy  and  Sainpsdii  dosti'oyod  the  vessi'ls  and  made  prisoners  of  \  • 
oHiecrs  and  1(100  men  ;  .■».")(>  wcic  killed  and  1(!((  woiiniled. 

i''iglitin,Lr  more  or  less  severe  occurred  until  the  Idth.  when  negotiatioi  ■> 
for  surrender   wen;  inaugurated,   resulting  in  the   capitulation  of  JSantiai;  ■, 


THK    Tlil.t'K    liKl'OHH    SANriAOO. 

July  IC).  the  S])anish  fortifications,  twenty-four  thousanil  jirisoners.  and  a 
large  amount  of  arms  and  anununition.  At  noon  on  Sunday,  .luly  17,  I^'iS. 
the  American  Hag  was  hoisted  over  the  headipiarters  at  Santiago. 

(Jcneral  .Miles  started  on  the  invasion  of  I'orto  JUco,  -July  1'<"J,  and  reat  i;''il 
Ciuanica  at  daylight  next  morning.  He  landed  with  three  tl  ousand  Ivc 
hundred  men,  marulied  toward  Yauco,  live  miles  distant,  which  he  entend 


i 


LEADIXG    WARS   OF   THE   CENTURY 


;J9S> 


;i  r  11  skirmish,  ami  was  rccoivcd  cntlmsiastioall.v  by  tlic  citi/.piis.  as  lio  also 
u  at  I'oiici',  where  lu;  was  joined  l»y  (Jeiieral  Wilson,  who  had  come  with 
t'  war  sliijis,  and  who  was  made  j^overnor.  The  army  continued  on  to  Sua 
,1    .11  along  the  military  road,  meetiii;,'  very  little  oiipositinn. 

:  uly  -(),  the  French  aml)assa(h)r.  .M.  .Iides  Candton.  aetini;  for  Spain,  made 
(1.  itures  for  peace.  The  protocol  was  signed  on  April  L'l.  liy  .M.("and)on 
fi; 'i  Secretary  of  State  J)a,\.  A  cessation  of  hostilities  was  proclaiim d.  At 
til.   very  moment  of  the  signing  of  the  ])rotocol.  the  last  naval  liattle  took 


I'   g 


Ri  Mi% 


ii  iHi^ 


!j:. 


r   « 


\  f  i. 


*'■ 


■'.i 


AGUINAI.nO,  THK    TA(iAL    I-E.VDKIt. 


place  at  ^lanzaidlla.  Ctdia.  and  an  artillerv  enjj,  •;i'iiient  at  A\l(oiiiro  in  I'orto 
i!ico. 

Tlie  one-hundred-days  Spanish-American  war  was  con(duded  by  the  treaty 
(if  Paris. 

It  will  he  only  in  the  retrospect  that  we  may  tell  tin'  results  oj'  this  eon- 
tlii't.  As  the  future  unfolds  them  to  our  \  lew.  it  may  lie  that  it  will  have 
hcen  more  momentous  in  its  consei|Uences  than  we  can  now  determine.  ( >ne 
tiling  it  has  proved,  that  is,  that  this  nation  is  really  rnni!f<'</  :  for.  from  all 
M'ctions  and  from  all  grades  of  life,  men  flocked  togetlu-r  to  light  and  (;on- 
Hiur  under  the  old  Stars  and  Stripes. 


h1  , 


(I  '  . 


!     ■    'I    •III 


m\ 


ly 


400  TlilUMl'Ua   AMj    WuyDEUS    OF   THE   XIX' "   CEyTUliV 


II.    i'(ii;i:u;N    \v.\i;s. 

NAi'OMOdMc  Waijs.  — Tilt'  loiii;-  cuiitt'st  l)ft\Vft'ii  Fi'aiK'O  and  Austria  l)c;_ 
wlu'U  llu'  (lirondist  uiiuistry  of  Fniuct'  (U'claifd  war.  April  L'O,  IT'.tl.'.  i 
the  I'Xi'i'iitidii  (•!'  Louis  XVI.,  .lauuarv  L'l.  17'.l.'>.  tiit'  Ki'volutioii  threw  {\n^-,\i 
the  gauntlet  tn  all  ancient  Kurupe.  Kngland,  whose  syiupathit's  hud  hitlui  . 
been  more  or  less  witli  Franee,  l)e,<;'an  to  take  measures  tu  hrini;'  alioiit  iw  .r 
cordial  relations  witii  the  other  powers  of  Kuro[)e.  Spain.  I'ortiiLral.  AustiM. 
Prussia,  and  Kussia.  loi'  the  time  seemed  to  loiLfet  their  several  j^iievanees  .i^ 
they  found  themselves  eonfronted  with  a  totally  new  move  on  the  ehesshoanl 
of  Fhiropean  autonomy.  The  year  171*4  saw  tlu'  l-'reiieh  Kevolution  pidMrc--,- 
\\\'^  triumphaidly,  and  all  Kurope,  except  Kn<j;lund  and  Austria,  appeal,  u 
ac(piiesccnt  iu  apathetic  indifference.  In  179.">  the  royalists  made  a  suprciui. 
effort  to  recover  jiower.  but  wen;  crushed  by  the  ".Man  of  Destiny,"  and  ilic 
J)irectory.  consisting  of  live  membor.s,  of  whom  Carnot  was  one.  came  iiiid 
])uwer.  Dominated  by  the  martial  genius  of  Carnot.  "  the  organizer  of  vic- 
tory." the  Directory  won  the  contidence  of  the  army.  Scherer.  the  cum- 
mander.  lacked  the  (pialitications  to  undertake  a  siu'cessful  campaign  against 
Austria,  and  lioiiaparte.  succeeding  him.  soon  infused  Ids  own  s])irit  into  ilic 
army  and  bound  it  to  himself  with  a  devotion  that  nevi-r  failed, 

Farly  in  the  year  l.SdO,  Napoleon,  having  been  made  first  coiisid.  took  ii|. 
his  abode  in  the  old  palace  of  the  kings  id'  i'"rance.  the  'I'liileries.  'I'iie  iii- 
tory  of  Napoleon  for  the  ensuing  lifteen  years  is  the  history  (d'  ICurope.  li 
is.  tliercd'ore.  liest  to  begin  with  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  onin 
tt,  appreciate  tiie  situation  at  the  dawn  of  the  iMiu'teeiith. 

.Austria  and  England,  with  several  small  (Jerman  |irincipalities.  were  siill 
in  arms  against  France.  The  plans  and  movements  of  tlie  armies  undi  r 
Mapoleou  showed  Inm  to  be  verily  a  master  in  nniitary  skill.  ( >peniiig  tl;is 
camjiaign.  he  hd't  Massena  with  about  eight  thousand  soldiers  to  hold  the 
territory  fr<im  Nice  to  (!enoa.  so  as  to  keep  the  .Austrian  army  in  Italy  iiu>v. 
]b'  sent  the  Ikhine  army,  under  Moreau.  to  threaten  liavaria  and  to  srciiiv 
the  most  im]iortant  position  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  Mori'.ia 
drove  the  .\ustrians  to  I'lm.  and  disposed  his  hd't  Haid<  to  sujiport  Mapolcmi. 
]\Ieaidime.  he  himsidf  was  recruiting  another  army  lor  operations  on  \\\v 
I'o.  l>aroii  (h'  Melas.  commainling  the  .Austrian  troops  in  N(U'thern  lta!\. 
besieged  Massena  in  (Jenoa.  which,  after  severe  sulfering.  snrrendeicd.  li;i\- 
ing])e  M(das  free  to  join  the  army  (d'  the  i'o.  Najioleon  was  between  dc 
.M(das  ami  Austria.  (ieiuM'al  ( >tt.  with  eighteen  timusand  men.  attempted  tu 
reach  I'laoentia.  but  l.annes.  with  twtdve  thousaml.  dtd'eated  him  at  .Mmiir- 
bfdlo.  forcing  him  back  to  .Vllesandria.  Nap(deon  hastened  across  the  I'l.  io 
Stradella  to  intercept  De  Mtdas  and  prevent  his  breaking  through  the  Fn  ihli 
lines  to  Tlacentia. 

Tlu'  inght  (d'  Jum^  1.">.  1S(»0.  the  I'rench  army  was  scattered.  watclii;iL; 
along  the  i'o  and  the  Tessiuo  for  the  Austrians.  while  tli'dr  army,  foriy 
thousand  strong,  with  ten  thousand  more  not  far  distaid.  was  ready  at  (i.i\- 
break  (d'  the  14th  to  cut  its  way  through  the  armies  (d'  {■"ranee,  and  n,"  :i 
]Maceidia.  The  French  force  was  but  eighteen  thousand,  but  X'ictor  v.  :ii 
his  division  held  his  ])Osition  firndy,  and  the  great  leader.  Kellerman.  \v;i-  n 
command  of  the  cavalry,     l.ackward  ami  forward  surg(^d  the   battle  u  di 


i.i:m>is(!  iii/.'.s'  or  the  cKMunv 


401 


\  iii^  I'drtiiiit'.  and  itl  iioon  victory  st'ciunl  ipcrclicd  u|Hin  the  imiiucrs  of 
-tria.  De  Mi-las  was  so  (•t-rtaiii  thai  tin-  lialtlc  was  won  tlial  liu  giillu)tt'(l 
k  to  Allt'saiidria  and  st'iit  disiiatdics  to  that    I'I'I'cct    to  thf  i^dvcfiiint'ids  (d' 


U1'0]H 


(iciioral  ih^  Zacli  was  Itd't 


to  drive  the  Ffi'iitdi 


in  coinniand   to  condiict  the  |)tii'siiit  an 
N 


icfoss  the  Nci'ivia.      Najioh'oii.  iiisinaycd.  ho|iin;4' aL;ainst 


out 


('  tliiit  iJcsaix.  wlioni   he  had  sent  towards   Novi  tlie  day  hid'oi'c  to  hioU 
ill  that  (jtiartcr  tor  iK-  .Melas.  ini|;iit  liear  the  thunders  of  the  battle  and 


MmmMM 


^i- 


mi 


M. 


WriJ*' 


!i!  if! 


M' 


H 


\M. 


^' 


lglllj#L-Ci 


40-J 


THIUMI'lIS  AND    WOMUlllS     )F  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


I't'turii.  saw  liiiii  in  tlif  (listiinct'.  Imrniiig  with  his  troops,  wlio,  tli(i\igli  wo-  i 
anil  lii'i'il,  wiTL'  ciigcr  lor  tiu'  tiyht,  iind  Napoh.'uu  saw  already  the  tide  i 
batth'  turiit'd. 

IH'saix  liad  found  no  trace  td'  the  Ansirians,  but  lie  had  heard  the  sound  i 
battle  at  day  dawn,  and  he  knew  that  De  Melas  was  there,  and  that  there  i,,- 
was  needed,  and  not  at  Novi.  He  roused  his  division,  and  hastened  bark 
to  Napoleon.  A  short  coniereuee  witli  his  chief,  to  whose  questioning  In- 
answered.  ■• 'I'be  battle  is  lost,  liut  it  is  oidy  three  o'clock,  there  is  yet  tiini' 
to  win  another,"  and  the  battle  of  Marengo,  glorious  in  its  c.onsequellC(^s  ti. 
Napoleon,  stupendous  in  its  carnage,  was  won;  but  Desaix,  the  brave  pala- 
din, lay  dead  uiKtn  the  Held.  ])e  Melas  returned  from  ,\liesandri;i  to  inci  i 
the  victorious  army  he  had  left  —  Hying  in  disorder  —  thoroughly  routed. 
On  December  1',  .^Ioreilu  and  Ney  won  the  held  of  Ilohenlinden,  and  \W 
"  l)eace  of  Luneville"  was  conclud(Hl.  February  It,  ISOl. 

The  result  of  this  campaign  was  the  cession  of  Au  ria's  strongholds  ui 
the  Tynd  and  JJavaria  to  France,  as  also  a  nnndier  of  important  holdings  in 
Italy.  Fran(!e  secured  the  left  bank  of  the  Khine,  the  JJelgian  provinces  and 
Tuscany,  and  tlio  king  of  Naples  (dosed  liis  harbors  to  F^igland.  In  ^rarcli. 
1801i,  by  the  '•  treaty  of  .Vmiens,"  peace  was  (concluded  with  F^ngland. 

The  coalition  of  Denmark.  Sv  •  den,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  with  Frame 
against  England,  in  ISdO,  fomented  by  Xa|)oleon,  broke  down  in  l.SOl,  after 
Nelson's  battle  of  Copenhagen. 

England  had  secured  the  supremacy  of  the  sea  and  (h)minion  over  India. 
rescued  Tortuga],  Najdes,  ami  tlu;  States  of  tl'.(!  Church  from  France,  and 
restored  the  Sublime  Torte  to  'I'urkey.  Finding  Naimlecni  again  militatiii'.; 
against  her  interests,  and  resenting  his  emuoacdiments,  F^nglaiul  declared  war 
against  France  in  the  spring  of  180.'?.  Kussia  espoused  the  cause  of  Kiil;- 
land,  Prussia  ludd  off.  and  Austria  was  friendly,  though  not  in  lighting  trim. 
The  third  coalition  ccuni)rised  Kngland,  Russia,  and  Austria. 

I'owerless  to  hurt  England  on  the  seas,  Napoleon,  who  had  the  year  previ- 
ous been  ])roelainied  emi)eror,  attacked  Austria,  invaded  her  territory,  cap- 
tured her  army  at  IJlm.  ])roceeded  to  Vienna,  and  occujued  a  great  part  of  tlie 
valley  of  the  i)anube.  On  December  2,  ISOa,  the  "Battle  of  the  Three  Kni- 
])erors  ''  (the  battle  of  .Vusterlitz)  was  fought.  The  "  Peai^e  of  I'ressburg."  con- 
cluded I)(,'cember  2(>,  left  Austria  shorn  of  her  ancient  prestige,  her  title  of 
(lerman  lOmpire,  and  of  a  great  j»art  of  her  possessions.  The  '•  Sun  of  Au.s- 
terlitz"  melted  the  third  coalition.  In  the  meantime  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, 
won  by  the  immortal  Nelson,  crushed  the  naval  power  (d'  both  France  and 
Spain. 

In  September,  18(1(5.  I'russia  decdared  war  against  France,  and.  to  the 
amazement  of  Furojjc.  alone  undertook  to  engage  armies  flu.shed  from  tlieir 
recent  victories  and  still  in  (Jermany.  October  14.  Nai)oleon  utterly  defea led 
the  Prussians  at  deiia  and  .\\ierstadt,  ami  entered  P>erlin  a  concpierer,  iln.' 
king  having  fled  to  Kdnigsberg.  Russia  came  to  the  aid  of  I'russia,  but  ar- 
rived too  late  to  accomjilish  anything  excejit  to  (du>ck  the  advance  of  I  lie 
French,  whose  armies  wintered  on  the  Vistula.  The  next  summer,  however, 
the  iJussians  met  their  final  defeat  in  this  cam])aign  at  Friedland,  and  Kiiiiius- 
berg  was  taken.  The  "  Treat}'  of  Tilsit"  ended  the  operations  of  this  fouiih 
«'oalition  .Julv  7,  1807. 


LEADisa  WAiis  or  TNI-:  cK.yruiiv 


uy.\ 


strongliolds  m 


lion  over  India. 
)ni  Fi'iincc.  ami 
iLTiiin  niilitiitiii','^ 
1(1  doolarcd  war 
canse  of  Kni,'- 
Hghtiiig  tiiiii. 


riu!  Ht'tli  (ioulition  against  NapokMiu  ('(ini[iris('(l  England.  Anstria.  S|(jiin. 
;,,  1  I'oi'tngal.  Tlif  dt'i'isive  l)attlt'  <jt'  this  canipaign  was  at  Wagrani,  •Inly  ."» 
;,  1  (■»,  l.SO'.t.  and  terriltlo  as  were  the  eonsiMinenees  id"  liisdtd'eat  to  Anstria.  so 
(■i'|il)le(l  was  Najiok'un  that  he  willingly  granted  tlie  armistice  of  /naiui  and 
1,^  cUnh'd  the  "  I'eace  of  N'ienna."  When  the  tilth  coalition  ended,  Napoleon 
iiid  ac(|iiired  the  lUyrian  [irovinces  and  part  of  thi'  Tyrol  for  l''rance,  and 
t\  ■iitiially  the  Hniperor's  (hmghter. 
M  iria  Louisa,  for  his  wife. 

In  ISIU  iMnie  war  with  Uussia. 
aiiii  that  most  disastrous  campaign 
which  cost  France  mon;  than  thn-e 
jiuiidred  thousand  soldiers  and  Na- 


polcou  his  empire.     Unssia, 


!•: 


nu- 


iiiiid.  I'nissia.  and  Sweih'ii  foruu'd 
ilition  now.  and  Turkev  had 


the  co; 


iiiaile  peace  with  Missi 


th 


a.    Xa'ioleon 


crdssci 


I  the  Niemeii  in. I  line.  halt,(!d 


il  Wilna  to  jiut  his  iic 


w'  conse 


ripts 


in  iK 


ttei'  order,  addressed  words  of 


SVlIlp, 


ithv  to  I'olan 


id  tools  mca- 


siiii'S  to  kei'p  Austria  couciliiitcd. 
'flic  Ikussians  retreated  iMd'ore  him. 
lie  met  and  fought  and  defeated 
tlicm  at  Smolensk,  August  17;  they 
retreated  in  good  order.  Wurniiigand 
(lest roving  all  in  their  reaidi.     'I"he 


^V 

^H 

1 

IfSte^^C^^^^^^^^^^^^II 

ten 


ilile     battle    of     iJorodiiio 


was 


AKMIIIAI.    IIOItA'riO    Msl.SON. 


Idiight  Septendjer  7;   the  ihdeated 

llussians  again  retreated  in  good  onh'r.  imrsuing  the  same  tactics.  Napoleon 
reached  Moscow  Soptendier  l.'t.  hut  the  heroic  measure  of  Russia  in  (h's^my- 
iiig  that  city  was  eipial  in  its  results  to  several  victories.  Octoher  1").  the 
I'rciich  troops  commenced  tlieir  fearful  retreat.  The  Itiissian  armies  grew^ 
hold,  they  harassed  the  I'i'encli  troops,  weak  from  hunger  and  cold,  and  from 
Moscow  to  Wilna  their  progress  was  one  continual  guerilla  warfare.  From 
\\ilna.  tlieir  tlight  to  France.  December  ;"»,  was  even  nmre  disastrous.  Of 
tlic  grand  army  that  set  out  in  the  spring  not  one  fourth  ever  returned. 

A!':; 

VWM 


irs   in 


Spain   had   fared  badly  for   France.     Wellington  defeated  the 


h  army  iii  Spam,  and 


tiiiall 


y  expelled   it.      France,  though  sometim(>s 


sliiikon  in  her  devotion  by  the  conscription  that  was  draining  her  (diildren's 

hi 1,  still  had   faith  in  Napoleon,  and  in  ISl."!.  having  raised  another  grand 

aiiuy,  he  undertook  to  subjugate  Prussia.  His  tirst  victiuy  was  on  the  |)lain  of 
Lutzeii.  The  Prussians  and  Russians  retreated  in  good  order  through  Dres- 
den. Xapoleon  ]mrsneil  and  drove  them  from  IJanken.  on  May  L'O  and  LM, 
and  establislied  liis  liead(piarters  at  Dresden.  Austria  now  joined  the  allies. 
Ill  their  attack  upon  Dresden,  .Vugust  L'('»  and  L'7,  they  were  defeated,  but 
Uussian  troops  and  the  King  of  l>avaria  coming  up  made  Napoleon's 
]iositiou  untenable.  The  allies  were  awaiting  him  at  liei])sic.  The  battle 
raged  for  three  days,  and  Napoleon  withdrew  on  (.(ctober  !'.».  utt(.'rly  de- 
Icatcd. 


m 


It: 


m 


m 


!!l! 


w 


401       TiiiL'MJ'iis  AM)  \\()\j}f:i;s  or  Tin:  XIX'"  cestuuy 

.laiiuiirx  L'.'!,  ISII,  Niipolcdii.  Iiavini,'  raised  aiidilnr  aniiv.  Iclt  l'iiri> 
iissuiiH'  fommaiKl.  'I'lic  alln'.s — KiiLfliiiid.  Aiistriii.  I'l'ussia.  and  IJiissiii 
wciT  iiioi'c  dt'lcriuiiicd  tliaii  I'Vcr  In  ciiisli  him.  .Many  liatlit's  were  rini',,.  . 
and  ihc  tnrtnncs  ot  war  varii'd.  Iiliiciicr  dtd'catfd  iiini  at  !.a  Totliicrs  on  i  ^^ 
Isl  (d  I''rlii'naiv.  Na|pnlr(in  was  tlic  victur  al  Mimtcnan  ;  unsncccsstul  • 
Snissiins.  .Maicli  .'1;  \  irldiidus  at  Cravonnc  Maicii  7:  and  d  t'catcd  liy  rdnci,  \- 
at  l.aiin.  Mairji  •(.  With  nicircllian  liaii  his  army  lo.st,  Na|i(d('nn  wori'ifd  t  i:i' 
allii'S  in  thidr  real';  Init  lUuchcr  marclicd  im  Paris.  Tiic  prcstii;!'  of  Naimli  n 
aJid  Kr.inco  in  iMiropc  was  at  an  end. 

'riic  I'^miircss  and  tiic  rfj^cncy  retired  to  lUois.  ( »n  .Mareh.'ll  I'arissnri.  i- 
(h-red.  and  the  I'lmperor  (d'  IJns.sia  and  tlic  Kiny;  of  Prussia  eidered  the  eiu,, 
A  [irovisional  .tiovernnient,  with  TaUeyrand  at  its  liead,  deposed  Na])ole()ii  ih 
April  L'.  and  on  .\iiril  (»  lie  alniieated.  -May  ."!().  the  l'"irst  I'eace  oi'  I'aris  \\,i^ 
conehiih'd  iu'tween  l''ranee  and  the  allies.  l''ranee  was  to  have  her  houinliinf, 
as  they  were  in  17'.>L'.  and  also  iier  I'oreign  poss(?ssions.  except  'I'ohago.  m 
Lucia,  and  Mauritius,  which,  with  .Malta,  were  ceded  to  l^ni;land.     The  iJoiii- 


bons.  in  the   person  (d'   Louis  Will.,  were  restored:   Imt  tiie  l":-ei 


u'h  peo 


were  not   eoident.  so  that  when  Napoleon  appi^ired  al  Cannes  on  ,Mar( 
ISl.".  he  was  i^reeted  with  joy.  even   liy  the  troops  sent  out  to  o| 


ijiose    nilii. 

This  astoidshing  news  was  eommunieated  to  the  ( 'oie^ri'ss  cd'  the  .\llies  asscin 
liled  at  \'ienna.  The  allied  arnues  at  once  i,'athered  on  the  hoi'ders  of  I-'raiii.', 
AVeliim;ton  landed  in  Flanders,  and  lihadier's  I'russians  joiiu'd  him.  Wil- 
linyton.  iindiii,!.;  Napoleon  in  i'roid  ol'  lum.  tell  hack  to  Waterloo,  hst  liir 
approath  of  tin,'  I'russians  shoidil  he  cut  off.  Napoleon  hurled  his  force  cm 
IMucher  at  Fluores.  and  victoriously  drove  him  from  the  lield  on  the  \'a\\. 
Isey.  who  had  been  sent  to  eoid'ront  \\'idlins.fton,  fought  at  <jMiat re  Iti'as.  aiiu 
tlu'  following;'  day  joined  Napoleon.  On  the  l.Sth  of  .luue.  1S1.">.  Na]Hileiiii 
nui 


do  Ids  suiireiiH'  and  tinal  elfort  to  recuperate  his  lost   foi'tunes  aiul  t 


O     li 


establish  his  empire. 

The  story  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  than  which  none  ever  fought  was  nmiv 
derisi\('  in  its  eonse(iueiu'es.  has  been  told  and  retold.  The  battle  was  at  \'w>\ 
undecided,  victory  secmiuL;'  to  imdine  to  Napoleon,  thoiit;ii  the  Knt,dish  and 
(iernians  with  uidlinchin,<;-  heroism  still  held  the  tiidd  until  the  afteriiooM, 
when  ])lueher.  with  his  I'russians.  at  last  arrived.  Napoleon  pcM-eeived  tli:ii 
the  supreme  moment  was  at  haml.  and  that  his  oidy  hope  was  to  crush  A\'rl- 
liiiijton  Ijtd'ore  lUueher's  advancing'  columns  could  lie  thrown  into  line  (d'  battle, 
lie  sent  loi'ward  his  ma,i;'iuticeid  imperial  (iuard.  'I'hey  ehari^'ed  with  chivaliir 
splendor,  fought  with  heroic  desperation,  were  I'cpulsed.  —  and  the  stai  nt 
>.'atiol 


ijioleoii  set  to  rise  no  more. 

I-'indin.ij;  his  cause   irretrie\ably  lost.  lea\in;4  the  remnaid   of  his  arii 


i\   111 


eommaml  of  Marshal  Soult.  Napoleon  tied  and.  failing'  to  find  a  passa.yc  i^ 
America,  surrendered.  'I'his  battle,  mauniticent  in  its  results,  eiisureil  tn 
Knylaud  a  Iou.l;'  peace,  and  raised  her  to  the  first  raidv,  for  unlitary  j)rowc->, 
anionic'  the  nations  oi'  the  W(uld. 

NaptdeoiTs  skill  at  Waterloo  was  up  to  the  highest  standard  (d'  Ins  iiin-t 
<jlorious  work;  but  he  was  oxcrwhtdmed  by  pre])omlerance  in  uumln  i-. 
ills  eidire  foriM'  with  which  he  conducted  this  eampai.L-ii  was  l)arely  Idl.m'n. 
while  the  combined  armies  of  W(dlin.!j;toii  ami  ithicher  iiuml)ered  _'L'(*,t!<i(i. 


The  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  th 


e   aticii'ti  rri/i))ir,   replacin,<;'  d 


■tl 


etnro;-  1 


XTUliV 


.   It'll    l'iin> 
and    l!iissi;i 

fs  were  liMi'.     . 

I'otliicrs  nil  ; 

iiiisiicfcsstul     ' 

iitrd  ii,v  lUur:.   ; 

I'nii  Wdri'it'll  1  '  .' 
l;'('  nt  Napiiii   ■;< 

!1  I'ai'is  Mill'  I 
itt'fed  tilt'  II!  \ ., 
t'd  Na|iiilt'tiii  111! 
('('  til'  l'ari.>  w.i^ 
litT  lidiiiiiiaiii'. 
i'|it,  'l't)l)ag(i,  M. 
ml.  Tlu'  l5iiui. 
■  I'vt'iit'li  iu'ii|iii' 
I's  im  .Mart'li   I, 

til  (IpJUISI'     llilll. 

ln'  Allit's  assriii 
rtlci's  of  Fraiiri'. 

It'll  llilll.  Wrl- 
itt'lilMI.    IfSt     lllr 

It'll  liis  I'lilrr   mi 

111  till  tilt'  l.'ltll 

iiairt'  I'.ras.  aim 
isl.*!.  Na]iiili'i'ii 
iiit's  autl  to  IV 


i;^dit  was  iiinrc 
tk'  was  at  lii>! 
l''.i!t,disli  ami 
tilt'  al'tt'i'iiiMiii, 

ItTI'I'lVfll  tll.ll 

tn  flush  W'rl- 
JiiH'  td'  liaitli'. 
with  rliivali  ir 
111   thf  star  III 


hi 


d'  his  anii\  in 

a  [lassai^i'  I" 

ts.  fiisuri'd  I" 

itary  jirii\\r->, 

I'd  tif  his  iiiii^t 
ill    uiiiiiliii-^. 
handy  KM. nun. 
vd  JL'O.tMKi. 
•iii,i;'  di'tliriiii''il 


iiii 


m 


m 


m 


!! 


1(N> 


TIUrMI'US   AM)    WoS'DEliS    ()F   THE  Xl\"'   CESTLUY 


\\    IIh 
or  111. 


iiiuiKii'cli.s  ii|inii  tlu'ir  lioi'i'ilitary  (loiiiuins,  but  the  |ianelini;  oiil  ot  tlic  siiial. 
tfiritoiifs  sliowi'd  tlif  Powers  In  lie  iiuitc  as  iirliitrary  as  Mapolt'du  liini.s<  , 
Tilt'  sciiii-dt'cailc  ot  iia>sivi'  sulmiissicii  to  tliii  •■' iiolicics  of  iiriiiccs"'  u, 
lii'nktii  in  ISL'd  liv  ^t'licral  it'volts  in  I'airoiit'.  Siiaiiisli-Aiiit'iicaii  colouii 
iii(lij,Miaiit  at  I'Vciii-li  iiiU'i't'ci.iici'  in  Spaiiisli  matters.  Itcjran  their  stnij,'),'!. 
I'nr  ill(|e|ie|lileliee. 

(Ii!i;i:k    Wai!   koi;    Im»i;i-i;mii:n(K.  —  Since  tlie  caiiture  ol' ("(instant  inup 
l»y  tin'  TniUs,  in  1  l.l.'i,  (ireeee  liad   been  snlijeet    to  Tnrkey.     (  Mlt    ot    tlie  i| 
I'eats  of  several  rebellions  aLjainst  the  j^'reed,  tyranny,  ami  Itrntality  ot   il 
.Moslem,  —  pai'tienlar'y  !'uni    the  revolutions  of   177('         '  l7*.Ht.  —  ■^ir 
secret   society  ot   the    I leta'fia,  cement injL,'  the  union  ic  (li'eeUs   f 

stru;4;j;le  be<,'inninj,'  in  IHLM.  It  is  claimed  that  ten  thousand  (ireeUs  \\'\,> 
slan;:,ditere(l  within  a  lew  days,  and  thirty  tbousaml  in  less  than  tln.c 
months. 

.Mahmoud.  havinj,'  I'iiih'd  in  I.Sl,'."»to  crush  the  rebellion,  called  Meheiuet  \li. 
the  I'asha  of  K,!j:y|it.  to  his  aid.  Meheniet  sent  Ibrahim,  his  .son.  with  lus 
army  and  navy,  traiiu'd  in  the  tactics  of  Knropean  warlare.  into  the  i'elo|inii- 
nesns.  N'ictoiy  and  devastation  marked  his  course.  Never  was  iiraml'  i 
(.iui'ai;e  nor  hd'tier  bra\'ery  displayed  than  by  the  (i reeks.  'I'lie  siej^c  ol'  ,Ml^. 
suloii,:;lii  lasted  from  April  iT.  I  SI'*!,  until  .April  L'L'.  iSl'd.  Athens  was  ean- 
tured, -lune  1'.  ISL'T.  'I"he  fleets  ol  i']n!,fland.  France,  and  IJussia  were  cruiMUL; 
on  the  coasts  to  prevent  attacks  by  the  Turks  on  the  islaiuN.  Aiiproachiii- 
tlie  bay  <d'  N.ivariiio.  tliey  were  attacked  by  the  Turks  and  l\i,'yptians.  wlin>f 


combined  fleets  weie  thcreuiion  annihilated  on  October  L't>.  ISL 


The  Siili 


was 


lorced  by  the  )iowers  to  coiistMit  to  the  establishment  ol  the  kin;4(lom 


i>las.  \v 


ho  di 


led   tlie  Sultan  1. 


(ireeee.  and  his  delay  to  do  .so  was  punished  by  Czar  ' 

war.  crossed  the  Ualkans.  ami  at  Adrianople  in  1S1,".>( 

recogidze  her   indepeinh'iice.  ;.;rant  Christian  t^overtiors   ...  Servia.  Moldavia. 

and  Wallachia.  and  to  vicid  ISes.sarabia  to  IJussia. 


.MiNoi;    JM  i.'oi'KAN    Wai; 


r 


French    KN'Volntion    ol'    iS.'ttl.   pla 


cnr;- 


Louis   I'liilippe  on    the    throne    of    !•' ranee.  brfni},'ht    about    l!elL,num"s    inilc 


iiemlence 


The  I'olisli  insurreotioii  of  IS.'!!-,'!!.'  lost  Poland  her  last  vesti,i;e  of  libert; 


enchaininj,'  her  irretrievably  under  'ilio  tyranny  of  Kus.sia. 

From  ISIO  to  IS,")!'  En.udand  was  eii<,'aged  in  (pielliiit,'  periodic  wars  i 
Indian  possessions.  In  1NI1.  her  army,  numbering,'  seventeen  thousand 
jierished  in  their  retreat  from  Afu:hanistan.  So  with  I' ranee  in  .\l,i,nn 
.Morocco.     And  revolts  in  Spain  were  more  or  less  successful. 


11    IhT 
liHii. 


s  ami 


In   ISIL'.   Hiuiland's   war  with  Chin 


lused  l)y    S('izur<'  ol  opium,  vesuH 


ill  the  cession  l)y  China  of  llont,'  I'^oii.ij:,  the  ireedoiii  of  live  other   ports.  , 
81' 1, (»(»(».( MM  I  imh-mnity. 

In   ISl.S,  the   revolutionary   spirit  broke  out  lioreely.  and  the  people  m 


roll ;_' leaps   for  liberty  and  constitutional  Li'overnment.      In  Fiai 


ice.  It    n\(r- 


tlirew  Louis  l'liili]ipe.  establishinj,' a  republic,  with  I.ouis  "Naiioleoii  I'resi.li  ni. 
In  all  I'Jirope  its  echo  resounded.      Kiots  in  \'ieiiiia  bu'ced  Metteinich  to  ll  ■■ 


to  Fnulaml:    Ferdinand,  to  tak''  lefutic  in  the  Tvrol  and  to  abdicate  in  I; 


I   .ii' 


(u  Ins  so 


11.  Francis  .loseph.      I' 


reilericK 


AVill 


lam  was 


compelled  b\'  tin 


tioiis  in  Uerlin  to  promise  a  constitution.     The  Franklort  .\ssembly.  in  I^i'i. 
offered  Frederick  William  the  title  and  preromitive  of   l^mperor  of  (ieriiM'  .. 


:.V77  7.'J- 

it  (it  tlu'  .small  r 

l|l(lltMI|l     llilllSI'il 

!' 'li'''''^'''"^  '  ^^1^ 
it'rifiiM  culoiiio, 
1  tlii'ir  stni;,';,'!.  s 

['  C()nstiiiitiiiip|iii' 
Out  111'  tilt-  i|.- 
hnitality  ni  tiir 
"'.Ml.  —  ^rcw  1  III' 
( irt.'cks  lor  I  lie 
iiiil  ( i recks  wi'if 
U>Ms    than  I  III'  I' 

i'd  Mflu'iiii'l  \li. 
Ills  sun.  with  ills 

lltn  till'   i't'l(i|H'll- 

cr  was  i^tniinli  !■ 
riic  si(';j;f'  ol'  .MiN- 
Atliriis  was  i-aii- 
sia  were  iTiiisiir^- 
s.  Ap]iriia('liiii, 
,\i;yiitiaiis.  w  liiiM- 
■<L'7.  The  Siili  iM 
f  t  lie  kiii.u'dniii  m|' 

as.  wild  ilrcl 1 

cil  the  Sultan  In 
vTvia.  M(ilila\i;i. 

1S.".(».   iilaciu',' 
i('li,'iuui"s    imlc- 

'sti,i,'t'  i>l'  lilicrlv. 

(lie  wars  iu  Iht 
u  tliousaud  unii. 
('  iu  .\l.ij;iirs  ami 

(ijiiuui,  vosuliiil 
itluT   |iurls.  iiiiil 

lllC    |1(M1|)1('    lllll'li' 

i'"rau('f.  it  M\  ry- 
Icou  rri'siiliiii. 
cttcruich  til  I'  ■'■ 
iliilicatt'  iu  i;i   "f 

■d    llV   till'  cnl    li- 

scuililv.  in  1^1''. 
ror  (if  <  ifnni"  . 


I.EADINd    WMtS    OF   THE   CLSTUHY 


m 


;,  I  thouijli.  ln'causc  (it  his  respect  l(ir  the  ll;i|isl»urKs,  he  ilcolinetl  the  lidUur. 
1  still  tdiik  a(lv;iiitu^,'e  of  the  seutiuuMit  that  lu'duiiiled  the  dfi'er  to  so 
>    I'lii^'theii  the  (lyilasty  that  later  it  uiii^dit  he  held. 

.luuxarv  rose  aj,'aiu>t  Austriii  iu  IS  IS,  nud  aliiuist  wou  iudtjii  udeui'e, 
I  '^siith  priKdaiiued  lluii<^rar,v  :i  repulilic,  and  Nicholas  iuiuiediiitely  nciit  aid 
I  Austria.  The  iJussiuu  aiiuy.  l.'!0.(Kt()  strnuj,'.  jdiucd  the  Austiiaus.  'I'he 
|l.!U,i,'iiriaus  retreated  to  Tiuuesvar.  where  they  were  ihd'ealed  with  great 
hi  ,iii;hter.  aud  (Jeorjjy  surreiidtM'ed.  .Vu^'ust  '.I.  |SI'.».  'I'lu'  name  (if  llayuau. 
tie  Austrian  coiuiuiuider,  is  htdd  in  execration  lor  his  awful  cruelty  to  the 
ci.iii|uel'e(l. 

in  the  ineautime  Italy  rose.  Louibardy  drove  out  the  Austriaus.  Charles 
Ail'crl.  kin;,'  of  Sardinia,  had  deidared  war  on  Austria  and  crossed  the  iMinciu, 
April  S.  ISJS.  Kadetsky.  coniiuaudiuK  the  .Vustriaus.  lost  (Jorld  aud  yielded 
I'schicra  in  .May.liut  iu  -lune  he  Idrced  the  I'apal  troops,  who  were  assistiui,' 
<  liarles  Alhert.  to  surrender,  aiul  conipletcly  routed  the  Italians  at  Custoz/.a. 
.Inly  l'."».  and  cutereil  .Milan.  Charles  .Mlicrt  was  a,i,'ain  defeated  liy  Itudet- 
skv  at  Novari.  .March  L'.">.  ISIU,  and  Venice  was  captured  .August  L'.'!.  Charles 
Alliert  resigned  his  crown  to  his  son.  N'ictor  ICuiuiauuel,  aud  died  shorll\ 
alter. 

I'ope  I'ius  IX.  was  forced  to  Hee  from  Ijonu'.  Ma//.ini  estalilished  the 
UdUiau  repulilic  in  Novendier.  .Vustria.  liy  the  close  of  the  suuiuier  of  IStJI. 
had  regained  control  of  her  dis|iute(l  possessions.  I.ouis  Napoleon,  taking 
]iart  against  Italy,  oecupieil  Itonic  with  his  troops.  .Inly  L'.  ISI'.I,  and  drove  out 
.Ma//ini  aud  (iarilialdi. 

Tni-:  CitniKAN  Wai;.  —  In  IS.'i.;,  Louis  .Napoleon  wanteil  war.  lie  fonu-nted 
tmulile  lietween  the  rorteaiid  Nicholas,  which  ended  liy  a  tU'daration  of  war 
li\  INissia.  The  Czar  clainwd  aud  demanded  the  protectorate  of  ( 'liristians  in 
Turkey.  Austria,  France,  aud  Knglaiul  op|iose(l  the  demand.  Nicholas  had 
intimated  to  the  ISritisli  minister  at  St.  I'eter^liurg  that  Kugland  aud  Kussia 
should  share  the  partition  ot  Turkey,  —  showing  that  he  was  I'cady  to  carry 
eat  the  will  and  aims  of  Teter  the  (ireai  and  Catherine.  The  Itussiaii  army 
was  thrown  across  the  I'rtith  into  .Moldavia,  and  was  at  liist  worsteil  liy  the 
Turks.  In  (hd'creuce  to  tlie  wishes  of  .Austria  aud  Prussia.  Micholas  with- 
<lrcw  his  army  from  the  Dauubian  provinces,  and  so  secuved  their  neutrality, 
lie  (lislodgeil  the  Turkish  Heet  at  Sin(i]ie,  Noveuilier  I.  IS.V!. 

I'aiglaud  and  I'rance  allied  with  Turkey  and  declared  wai'  against  IJussia, 
March  IJS,  iS.-fl.  The  allied  fleets  aud  tnxips  proceeded  to  the  lUack  Sea. 
Scliastopol  was  the  great  arsenal  of  Kussia.  Twenty-seven  thousand  Knglish, 
thirty  thou.saud  Frencli,  and  seven  thousand  Turks  were  hiudcd  iu  the  l>ay  of 
I'.npatoria.  thirty  miles  aliove  Scliastopol.  Septenilier  II.  iS'i-l,  towards  whitdi, 
live  (lavs  later,  the  southerlv  march  began.     The  allies  waded  the  river  .Mma 


under  territic  tire  fi'om 


the  1; 


irge  Russian  armv.  aud  wou  a  brilliant  victory 


Tl 


ic  attack  was  remar 


kabl". 


in  t'lat  it   won  \ict(iry  uvei'  superior  uunihcrs  in 


scel 


iiiugly  imiireguabh'  positions,  aud  in  s]iitt!  of  otlicial  liluiidei's.      Mentschi- 
'.  the  Itussiau  general,  withdrew  the  crews  from   the  ship 


tl 


IS  m  tlie  narimr 


nut  them,  eighteen  thousand  strong,  iu  comuiaud  of  the  liatterie 


Witl 


1h>  own  army  he  marched  out  of  Scliastopol.  leaving  twenty-tive  thousaud  de- 
li'udci's  to  tlie  city.  Admiral  K(jriiihilf  and  his  alile  assistant.  Colonel  \'ou 
Tndlelien.  umh'rtook  to   strengthen  the  (h>fcuses  aud  to  ins]iire  the  lroop>. 


I 


It  I 


11 


^j 


Hlil: 


III 


1 


^:i;i  Ji 


i\  Hi 


^liijll 


1:1). 


m 


iiii' 


408         TRIUMPHS   AXIf    \\().\J)/:iiS  OF   THE  X1X">   CENTUllY 

( >ii  Octulicr  17.  till'  siege  ,i,^uus  oT  the  allies  were  in  iiesition.  Tlie  Eiil;.. 
stormed  the  -iil-urlis  of  tlie  eitv.  the  Miilakoi't'  aiid  the  Kedaii;  the  Krein 
stdiined  llie  ciiv.  lUitii  were  iiusueeessrul.  Kiissiaii  tnii>iis  [loiired  in. 
Seliasttipiii.  and  invited  battle  nutside  ol  the  tnititieations.  At  the  harlun-  ■ 
liahiklava.  'ruikish  triKips  reeniled  troni  the  Kussian  advanee.  and  Sir  Cdln, 
("ani|»liell.  with  the  lli;4hlanil  J>ri,nade.  saved  the  sliijipinj;  and  stores  \\^ 
tinielv  cheek  to  the  Kussians.  Tlie  hattle  id'  IJalaklava.  <  letohor  L'.l.  -a\,- 
the  town  to  tho  llritish  alter  stuliliorn  tinhtiiii^-.  more  tiian  two  thirds  ,.: 
the  I,ii;ht  Urinaiie  iiaviui;'  been  saentieed  to  J.urd  l.nean's  miseonstruetinu 
oi'  orders. 

At  lidverman.  on  Novendier  .">.  sixtv  thousand  IJussians.  in  i'o'-;'  and  rain, 
surprised  the  jiritish  Household  (iuanis.  and  lor  six  hours  vaiidv  strove  i,. 
erush  tln'm.  (leneral  l'>os(piet,  with  the  g-enius  of  the  sohlier.  guesst'd  ihr 
point  (d'  severest  attack,  and  sent,  reinroreenieids  to  the  (inards.  Tlie  K'li^- 
sians  were  finally  driven  hack.  I.itlle  good  resulted  from  these  two  stidiliorn 
battles.  Winter  put  an  end  to  active  operations.  Kain.  hurricanes,  insulli- 
cient  shelter,  lack  of  supplies,  and  extreme  cold  produced  fearfid  niiseiv 
among  the  soldiers.  Itnssia  suffered  as  severtdv  as  did  the  allies,  liesido 
having  hail  her  fleet  on  the  lUack  Sea  destroyed  and  her  army  beaten. 

In  April.  iS.'i.l.  the  biMubanlmeut  began  again.  In  .May  the  allies  captured 
Kertch  and  \'enikale.  thus  cutting  off  IJussian  sup]ilies  from  the  Caucasian 
provinces,  in  .luin>.  Marshal  I'elissier  succeeded  Caiirobert  and  siippesstully 
stormed  .Manelon  ;  and.  after  the  abortive  attacks,  tliino  IS,  of  the  French  mi 
the  Malakoff  and  the  Knglish  on  the  Ifedan.  (Jenoral  Simpson  succeeded  Lord 
IJaglan.  .\ugust  1('>.  the  Ifussians  crossed  Tehernaya.  b\d  were  repulsed  by 
the  French.  On  Septend)er  S  the  French  carried  the  Mahikoff;  the  l)riti>li 
failed  to  carry  tht;  Hedan.  The  Kussians  set  tire  to  the  city  and  ships  ami 
retired  to  the  northei'ii  ])!irt  of  the  harbor,  where  tlu'y  held  strongly  in- 
treuelied  positions  opposite  the  allied  armies  aiul  beyond  the  reach  of  tlie 
allied  fleets.  Itussia  \vas  driven  from  the  lUack  Sea.  had  lost  her  prestige 
ill  the  I'.alfic  Sea.  ISomarsund.  on  the  .Mand  islands,  and  the  arsenal  nf 
Sweaborg,  in  the  (iiilf  of  Finland.  She  had  saved  (Jroiistadt.  and.  ;ir 
terriblt^  sacrifice,  had  captured  Kars  from  the  Knglish  General  William^ 
with  his  army  of  Turks.  Her  vast  territory  was  eom|iaratively  intact.  'I'lie 
nations  -were  not  satished.  The  I'eace  of  I'aris  increased  the  ]»restige  nf 
Loni.s  Napoleon  :  it  iiostponed  the  Eastern  (^lucstion  by  jintting  the  Chri'^- 
tiaii  subjects  under  the  nominal  protection  of  the  Powers,  but  virttiallv 
under  that  of  the  Sultan.     'I'he  treaty  of  jieace  was  sigiu'd  .March  .'!().  iS.'ttl. 

W.\i;s  IN  riiK  Fast.  —  in  IS.'tT.  the  Indian  .Mutiny  was  eaiised  byth" 
i«troductioii  of  I'^nfield  rifles.  l)clhi  was  taken  after  desperate  fighting. 
September  L'n.  ("awniioie  .ind  Lucknow  were  the  theatre  of  horrible  scene-. 
The  reliellioi'  was  finally  crushed  in  IS,"»1». 

in  the  meantime  war  with  I'crsia  was  begun  and  ended  by  the  recapture  •  I 
Herat,  in  .Vfgha.nistaii.  In  I)ecember.  liS.17.  Knglaml  and  France  made  w  '. 
on  China  and  cajitured  Canton.  They  secured  many  concessions  by  t!.i' 
Treaty  of  Tien  Tsiii,  and  .*iL'.Ol  10.00(1  indemidty. 

\V.\u  r.KTWK.r.N  .\rsTi;iA,  Fi.-am  i:.  and  Saimh  «ia.  —  In  iS.V.t.  I.ouis  Nap 
Icon  made  a  .secret  allianoe  with  Italy,     (ienera'.  disarmament  was  pro]iosi 
Sardinia  agreed  to  it;  Austria  .stood  aloof.    Ou  April  !.'."•,  IS't'.t,  Austria  ordei'  ; 


77;/;}' 


'I'lie  Kiiijli^ 
11 ;  till'  l''niii 
s    iioiUH'tl  in;  ■ 
;  tlif  luirlitii  . 

and  Sir  ('dliii 

illul    StOl'CS     111 

olier  LV*.  L;;i\r 

two  thirds  .m 

lisfoiistriiftU'i, 

t'ii'4'  aiul  rain. 
liiily  stnivr  i  i 
■r.  giu'sst'd  till' 
•ds.^    Tin'  i;ii^- 

i'  tWI)  stulllMilii 

ricaiu's.  iiisiilli- 
I'cart'ul   iniscrx 

allies.  lM'si(lr> 

lu'ati'U. 

allies  caiitunil 
1  the  Caucasian 
lid  suocpssrully 
■  tho  l-'rciicli  I'll 
siu't'ccdcd  l.nril 
re  i'(']iidst'd  liy 
.If:  the  Uritisli 


an 


d  sliij 


IS  and 


jld   stniii<,My  in- 

[('  reach  of  tiic 

[si,  her  jiresti;^!' 

he    arsenal   ni 


istadt,  and.  at 
leral  Willianis 
y  intact.  Tlic 
he  ))restii,'e  of 
lint^  the  Cliri-- 
hnt  virtnallv 
Irch  .'50,  IS.'));, 
loaused  hy  th^' 

'rate   tit,ditin,. 

irrible  scein- 


le  recaittnrc  • 
Ince  made  \v 


Issions 


l.v  tl 


i:  vl  I  i 


;    ;i  I 


'}'  mm 


.■\thrMt,   X 


h.  Lonis  Nap 
[was  [irdjiosi 
Instria  orders 


!>  t 


»M 


ih 


y 


iH 


iii 


Nil, 


[t, 

1  ^     1^^ 

1U»  TKIUMI'liS   AM)    M'0A7>/.;A'.S    OI'    Till:    \l.\<i'   CESiriiY 

tlir  ilisaniKiiiiiMit,  ot  I'iciiiiiniil.  On  lli*-  LTtli,  Kiii^'  N'iclur  iMiiniiiniicI  ]ii 
«'l;iiiiu'(l  \\:ir.  <  >ii  tin' ."tOt  li,  l'"r('iicli  tniitps  wcic  in  'riiiiii.  On  Mii\  1."..  I^du 
NiilioliMMi  liimsi'lt  (liscniliarkcd  ill  (it'iui;i,  wlicrt'  lie  was  met  liy  Nirtor  I'Iuim 
micl.  Tilt'  Austnaii  Imcfs  cnis.scd  (he  Ticiiio.  ( //  roiilr  lor  Milan.  Iml  licsilali 
lii'cansc  (it  tlu'  l''n'iicli  advance.  Tin' (>|ieninj:;  battles  at  Monleliello  ami  Itali 
tro,  iMa_\  L'tt,  30,  and  ."»l.  were  lavuialile  tu  the  allies. 

\t.  Maj^cnla.  dune  I.  the  .\nstrians  nn-t,  with  terriltlr  defeat.  Tin-  lorccs  i 
the  allies  nnndii'ved  .V>.()(l(t.  and  their  loss  was  KHU);  the  .\nstrian  arnu  i 
7.\(M10  lust  Itt.tKMt  killed  and  wimmled  and  7(HM»  |iiistiners.  The  ('(•n(|ner( 
entered  Milan  on  .InneS.  I''raneis  doseph  tell  hack  to  '  .e  line  ol  the  Mini  ■■. 
ami  at  Solt'erino  the  decisive  hattle  id'  the  eam|iai};n  was  i'onjuht  on  .Inne  '.'I. 
Napoleon  eoniniandeil  the  allied  ai'niies.  which  nninltered  aiiont  l.">(l.(l(K» ;  Hi,  \ 
l'on,y;ht.  i'or  sixteen  hours  a,i;ainst  the  Anstrian  i'oi'ce  of  I7(l.<t<l0.  },'aiidn;,'  a  Ic.m 
till  victorv.  This  hattle  cost,  ,\nstiia  L'd.tKKt  men  :  the  l'"rencli  Inst  in  kill<<| 
ami  wcMinded  iL'.OtMt  and  the  Sardinians  ."((MM)  men. 

The  allies  crossed    (he    Mincio  and    '"mI  siep'  (n    I'cschiera,  hnt    while  ;ill 
l'",nro|)e  e\]ieeted  anoiher  ii^hl.  an  ar        liee  td'  iive  weeks  was  a.ureed  to,  ami 


Naiioleon.  ludvnown  to  his  allv.  met.  I''raneis  at  N'illalranea  and  made  a 


upon  which  was  based  the  Treaty  ot  Znrieh.  siirneil  Novendiei'  H>.  .\nsiiia 
,u;ave  Lomhardy  to  Na|H)leon  iortiie  kinij  of  Sardinia,  as  also  tin'  I'ortresses  nj 
Mantna  and  reschier;i.  Italy  was  (o  liecome  a  conledi'ialion.  wdli  (he  i'ii|ic 
as  |H'esiden(.  of  which  .\nstria  was  Id  ho  a  mendtei'.  hecanse  of  her  holdings 
in  N'enetia.  Tnscany  and  Modena  wei'o  to  he  rcstoreil  (o  theii-  princes.  (i;iii 
haldi's  brilliant  cominest  (d' Sicily  ami  Naples,  in  IS(>((.  and  Sardinia's  }^ro\viii',' 
power,  staitled  I'ai rope,  but  (he  nations  dared  not  interfere.     The  ;_;('neiiil  p;ii 


hami 


nt    ol    Italv  nu't   in   ISdl,  at  Turin,  and   made  \'ictor  I'^mniannel  kiie. 


llal\.      b'ome.  under  the   I'opo,  and  N'enetia.  under  .\us(ria.  were  as  yet   di 
mendiered  from  "  ^'ounsj;  Italy." 

W  \i!    wrrn    1>i:\mauk. — Christian    IX.  su( eded  to  the  throne   of   Iti 


n- 


mark  Novendier  ir».  ISd.'i.  lie  endeavored  (o  incorpoia(e  Schleswii;  with 
l>enmark:  the  (Jerniau  popnlatiou  repudiated  him  and  ajipealed  to  the  ('••ii 
fcijeracy.  The  I>ie1  sent  troops  iid.o  llolstein.  Hismarck  induced  .Vnstri.i  te 
join  I'russia  in  setting:  aside  the  Lomhni  treaty  of  IS,-|."..  and  the  allied  triMi|i-, 
forced  the  hanes  back  to  the  iutrenchmenfs  of  Diippel.  The  capt\ire  of  |»n|i- 
pel  by  the  I'russians.  .\pril  IS.  proved  the  etlicit'ney  of  needle  j,'iius  and  rdliil 


eauiion. 


line  _'. 


(he  allies  crossed  (he  chanm'l  to  (he  Island  of  Alsen  jm 


on  the  L'Stli.  captured  the  Danish  stron>j;hold  Deniiewerke.  hit  lierto  considerni 
impK'Unable.  The  Treaty  <d'  Vienna.  October  ."tO.  lS(il.  closed  the  war, 
I'rnssia  and  .\ustria  toLTcther  were  to  control  (he  duchies. 

Tin:  Srvr.N  \\'i:i:ks"  Wau.  —  The  arran.u;enien(  between  Prussia,  and  Au^ 
Ilia  respectiiiL;  the  I>anish  duchies  caused  llie  ••.Seven  Weeks'  War"  (d'  iSiiH. 
Idsmarck    induced   \'iel(U'    Mmmannel    to    form    an    alliance   a.ij;ainst    ;\ii-lria. 


M 


ircu  -. . 


The  I'riissiai 


IS.  on 


.lune  7.  without  a  blow  forced  tlu'  .\iis(  ri.in-  li 


(iri'  from  llcdstein.  iu'noriiej:  (he  protes(  (d' the  I*"ederal  I>ie(.      .\us(ria 


n 


noi  iirepared  lor  war. 


I  ler  arm\ .  (o.nedier  wi(h  th.it  of  Saxony,  iimountn'  ti 
two  hundred  and  sex-enty-one  thnnsand.  With  I'lnssia.  fully  eipiipped  nn 
on  a   war   inotiie^   with  thri'e   armies,  besides   the   reserves,   the   'nanil    l-i  > 


^tiiiiated  at    three  hundred  flioiisaml,  the  result  was  a   fore|,'one' 


conchi--i":i. 


rusMa  ileciareii   wa 


r.  dune    l."».  ISCiCi.  a 'gainst    llaiiover.   Hesse,  ami   Sa\' 


riiiiv 


'.iiiiiiiiiiiit'l  ]ii 

Miiv  1.">.  1,1111 

•  N'iclur  I'liii'i. 
I,  lull  licsiliiti 
M-llo  iiiul  l'>:il' 

'I'llf   ^(l^(■l■^      I 

islriim  iinn\  i 
riir  ('(HKpit'ic 

•  (il  tlic  MiiK  '. 
ilil  oil  .luiio  L'  I, 
It   1. "■.(».(>( HI;  IIm  \ 

I.  .i^iiiniiii;  ;i  Itii 

Il    Inst    ill    liilli'il 

II,  but  while  :ill 
s  iinri'cii  III,  :iiiil 
il  iiiadr  ;i  jHMic, 
MT  10.  Aiislriii 
llic  rdrti'fsscs  111 
1.  with  Ihi'  l'<'|" 

of  her  h(>liiiii'4> 
r  pi'iiu'es.  ( i:n  1 
rdiii ill's  {^niwiiiu 
I'll!'  li't'iwriil  i>ai- 

iiiiimii'I  kiii;^  "i 
writ'  iis  vrt   ili> 

tlll'dllC     (li      l>r|l 

Schlrsw  i|4  uiili 
led  to  the  C.m- 
iiccd  Aiistna  In 
ic  iillit'il  lriMi|is 
•:i|)(iirc  oi  l'n|i- 
ifiiiis  iiiiil  nlli'il 
III  of  Alsrii  ami. 

Il'l'tl)  cnlisiilrlril 
liiscil     till'    V,  al, 

'rnssin,  iiinl  An- 

Wiir"  o\'  l^'ii' 

i;4ililist    Au-lil:i. 

Ill-  Austrian-  l" 

•t.      Aiist  lia  \\a- 

liy.  llllinllllli'ii  III 

ly  n|!ii|i|"'il    Mill 

til,.  n|';i|i(l  |..|:,1 
jfnlic'  r(iliclu--'"Ii. 
>('.  ;ili(l   Saxi'iv, 


I  1 1 


41'J 


TRIUMPHS   AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


iiiid  next  (lay  tliivw  litT  arniics  into  the  hostile  states.     On  the  17th  Fraii' 
•Idseph  published  his  war  inaiiit'esto.     Italy  declared  war,  on  the  L'Oth,  af,Miii  ' 
Austria  and  Havaria.     In  fourteen  days  Prussia's  innnense  army  was  niuli  - 
iy.ed.     In  five  days  the  northern  states  to  the  Main  were  disarmed,  and  l!..' 
Saxon  army  was  t'oiced  to  retreat  toward  liohemia. 

(Jeneral  Itenedek  was  eoinmander  of  the  Austrians.  Upon  news  of  I'm,  . 
sian  vietiuics.  he  advised  Francis  Joseph  to  make  terms  of  jjcace  with  Wil- 
liam. I'lussia  i()n,i,dit  I'or  (Jerman  nnitication;  Austria  to  protect  her  prii;-. 
It  was  supposed  the  Austrians  would  iirst  enter  Saxony  and  dispute  thr 
I'russian  advance,  hut  IJisnuirck  had  determined  the  war  should  be  brief,  I..!' 
I'russia  w:is  now  master  of  the  situation.  On  June  2.'i,  the  Trussian  army 
nuuched  from  three  ])oints  towards  Joseplistadt,  where  I'.enedek  wiis  prejiar- 
int,'  to  lii^ht.  On  the  L'Tth  the  Austrians  were  driven  back  at  Soor,  next  d;iy 
at  Skalitz.  and  on  the  L'iJth  at  (iitsohen.  Archduke  Leopold,  on  the  L'Stii, 
and  Count  Clam  (Jallas,  at  (Jitschen,  both  attacked  the  enemy  in  disobedi- 
ence of  orders,  and  thus  forced  IJenedek  to  fall  back  from  his  stroii!;c><t 
position  towards  Kiiniafgratz.  Tlu'  Austrians  were  also  defeated,  on  the  L'Nth. 
at  Kuniginhof  and  Sehweinschadel.  and  their  lo.ss  by  this  time  luimbenil 
over  tliirty-tive  thousand.  IJenedek  asked  permission  to  retreat  into  Moravia 
and  await  reinforcements,  but  news  of  the  Austrian  victory  over  the  Italians 
at  Custozza  reached  Vienna,  and  immediately  battle  was  enjoined  ujxm  IJeiic- 
(h'k.  Itenedek  placed  live  hundred  j,'uns  in  position,  spanning  a  league 
between  the  Elbe  and  liistritz. 

On  July  2,  the  king  of  Prussia  assumed  command  of  the  I'russian  liosts 
and  ordered  attack  for  the  next  day.  The  Crown  I'rinee,  several  miles  away 
with  his  army,  received  orders  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  od  to 
advance  his  Silesiau  army  from  Kiiniginhof.  At  eight  o'clock,  Prince  Kreil- 
erick  Charles,  with  a  hundred  thousand,  attacked  the  Austrian  centre  lyin.; 
against  Sadowa.  (Jeneral  Herwarth,  with  four  hundred  thousand  men.  at- 
tacked the  Austrian  right.  The  whole  Austrian  army  was  hurled  against  . 
these  two  commands  for  five  liours.  Prince  Frederick  Charles  forced  ])assa!,'f 
through  the  Pdstritz  and  took  Sadowa,  but  cnuld  not  take  the  heights.  At 
one  o'cdock  retreat  was  l)eing  considered,  but  tlie  Crown  Prince  coming  up 
with  his  troops  the  heights  were  taken  at  four  o'clock.  The  fighting  nn 
both  sides  in  this  battle  was  determined  and  heroic.  The  Prussian  loss  was 
over  ten  thousand,  and  the  Austrians  lost  twenty-seven  thousand  killed  ami 
wounded,  nineteen  thousand  j)risoners.  with  174  canium  and  11  colors.  At 
Lissa,  on  July  20,  the  Austrian  navy  destroyed  the  Italiasi  fleet.  Jidy  L'L', 
an  armistice  of  four  weeks  was  granted.  The  Teaceof  Prague  was  conchidnl 
August  L'.'i.  Her  defeat  cost  Austria  Venetia  and  the  (piadrilateral.  nanii'lv. 
the  fortresses  of  Peschiera.  Manttia.  Verona,  and  Legnano,  dejtrived  her  I'f 
any  part  in  (Jermany  or  (Jerman  affairs,  luid  ITolstein  and  Schlesv.ig.  ami 
obliged  her  to  ])ay  4(».()()0,00()  thaler.s,  one  half  of  which  .she  was  to  retain  iii 
lieu  of  the  duchies. 

Austria  emerged  from  the  "Seven  Weeks'  War''  with  her  ideas  somewliat 
liberalized,  and  though  her  territory  was  diminished  lier  juogress  and  pms- 
perity  increased.  The  dual-Austro-IIungarian  em])ire  was  fonned  by  Kramis 
Joseph,  he  nding  at  Vienna  as  Kmperor  of  Aiustria  aiul  at  liuda  JVstii  i^ 
king  of  Hungary.  This  war  also  eiuled  the  (Jermanic  confederation  of  lSi">. 
and  the  North  (Jerman  Confederation  under  Prussia  arose. 


ling  a  league 


LEADING    WARS   OF   THE   CESTUllY  413 

At  tlu'  peace  of  Vienna,   OetoluT  o,  Austria  iccogni/.iMl   tlic   kin.Lfddui  ol 


and  wi 


til  ti 


le  ae(jiiisition 


.1    V 


eiieti.i  and   tlic 


iinadnlateral 


iorti'i 


.Seven  Weelvs'    War'"   liad   greatly  ludiied  on   thi'   eausc   of    "rnited 

Ajiril.  l.S()4.  Litnis  Napoleon  sent  an  army  of  twcnty-tivc  thousand  to 
^t.,.11  the  Austrian  Arehduke   .Maximilian   on  the  throne  of  Mt'xieo.     At 


•ly.^ 


ti  it  time  the  UnittMl  States  was  occupii'il  with  the  Civil  Wiir.     This  endt 
Nijpoleon  was  summarily  riMiuired  to  withdraw  his  torces  from  tlie  Amer 


itinent,  whieh  lie  did.     Maximilian   was  thus  left  to  his  faie.  and 
g  condemned  l»v  court  martial,  was  shot  at  (^hieri'taro.  dune  lit.  iSd 


lean 
ifter 


liir.  Ki!A.M(»-1'kissi.\.n  Wak.  —  Prince  Leopold,  oi'  liohenzollern.  was 
(li  .  red  the  throne  of  Spain  after  Isabella  had  H(!d  from  .Madrid.  I.eo])(>ld 
(!•' lined,  hut  Napoleon  demanded  that  the  Kniperor  William  should  giiar- 
111  Ice  never  to  i)ermit  Leoi)old  to  accept.  William  refused  to  accede  to  the 
ill  iiiand.  and  Napoleon,  urged  b}'  the  war  party,  declared  war  .Inly  1".».  iSTd. 
Oil  the  same  (hiy  the  Confederaticni  placed  its  forces  in  the  hands  of  William. 
a>  did  the  South  Germans.  This  spontaneous  uprising  of  all  (iei'iuany  was 
u.iinoked  for.  NajKileoirs  army  numbered  three  hundred  and  ten  thousand 
imn.  In  ten  days  William  had  nearly  half  a  million  soldiers  ready  to  march 
against  the  enemy.  August  1.'.  the  first  tight  took  jdaceat  Saarliriickeii,  a  little 
tiiwn  over  the  German  frontier.  Na]Kdeon  and  the  young  I'rince  Impeiial 
wire  jiresent,  and  the  force  of  I'hlans  v.as  driven  back.  August  4.  the 
Cn. wn  I'rince  of  Prussia  drove  the  right  wing  of  ^lacMalion's  army  back  at 
Weissenburg.  and  on  the  (Jth,  again  was  MacMalmn  defeated  at  Wiii'th.  The 
(Icrmans,  having  separated  Mac^Iahon's  army,  advanced  into  Alsace,  in  the 
icantime  <!eneral  Steinmetz  carried  Spicheren  by  storm,  and  the  whole  (ier- 
t  forward.  Together  with  the  Crown  J'rince.  Steinmet/..  on 
the  14tli  of  .\ngust.  defeated  Marshal  I'lazaine.  at  <'ourc(dles.  who  retreated 
to  Met/,  and  then  endeavored  to  jiush  on  with  his  hundred  thousand  men  to 
Chalons.  Von  Moltke  hurried  on  the  Crown  I'liiice  to  intercept  iSa/aine. 
and  Jit  ]Mars  la  Tour  was  fought  the  fiercest  l.Mttle.  so  far.  of  the  war.  On 
tlier  side  the  losses  amounted    to   seventeen    thousand.      (Jravelotte   was 


11 


iiKiu  armv  wen 


Cl 


:ht. 


on 


A 


ngus 


t   IS,   betwei'U    the   armies   (d'   Steinmetz    and    the   Crown 


I'vince.  King  William  commanding  in  person.  The  battle  lasted  all  day 
tietween  two  hnndred  thousand  (iermans  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand  French.     The  (Jermans  lost  tweiitv  thousand  men,  and  succeeded   in 


tiMcing   Uazaine  into   ]\Ietz. 


Altl 


loiu 


:h.   ii 


1   one   s( 


)rt. 


an  undecisive 


battb 


<iravel()tte  j)erhai>s  f.ettlcd  the  fate  of  the  Kmpire.  Mac.Mahon's  jdan  was, 
Willi  his  one  hundred  and  twenty -live  thousand  men  reorganized  at  Chalons, 
to  prevent  the  German  advance  on  Paris.  He  was  overruled  and  sent  to  the 
cf  of  I>azaine.     Defeated  in  several  small   fights.  .Mac.Mahoii  was  obliged 

)eeupied 


ivll 


hove   >edan  oiict'  ( 


til  fall  back  on  Sedan.  The  heights  and  ridgi 
li\  hostile  troo]is,  surrender  or  annihilation  was  the  outcome.  Mac.Mahoii 
was  wounded,  then  Duerot,  and  the  command  fell  t  Wim])ffen.  Sedan  was 
forced  to  surrender,  Se])tember  1.  and  Napoleon  himstdf  gave  his  sword  to 
King  William.  I'aris  was  maddened.  The  Kin]>ress  escaped  to  England. 
.Napoleon  was  taken  to  the  <'astle  of  Wilhelnishuhe. 

A  month  had  hardly  passed  since  the  uiitl>reak  of  the  war.  and  on(>  of  the 
twii  great   French  armies  with  the  Emjieror  hud  been  caiitured;  the  other 


!l 


1  i 


1 


1 1 


414 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


lUi 


■I  ■ 
1^ 


|| 


m\    ■  \: 


H     k 


was  besii'gt'd  in  .Metz.  ( iaiiibctta  iind  otlier  proiiiiiuMit  men  in  Taris  set  - 
tlie  ,L,'()vt'riimoiit  of  tiic  national  (U't'ciiso.  A  rcpiiblii'  was  proclaimed.  'I"  ■ 
defense  of  I'aris  was  zealously  undertaken.  hary:e  supplies  of  provisio  . 
were  gathered.  Kortifieations  were  strengthened.  The  siege  began  Septem- 
ber \\).  1S70,  and  ended  .lanuary  L'.S.  1S71.  The  direst  biniine  attendecl  :. 
(ianibetta  lett  I'aris  in  a  balloon,  and  at  Tours  sneeeeded  in  lorming  i,,,- 
army  of  the  Loire  and  tiie  army  of  the  North.  IJotJ!  were  defeated.  Str.is- 
bourg  was  i-aptured,  ami  Metz  surrcndiM'ed  witli  a  liunlred  and  seventy -tlii.c 
thousand  men,  among  them  tlirt-e  marshals  of  France.  '\\\v  entire  (Jerin.'a 
loss  in  tliis  war  was  iL'D.TOO  men. 

-liinuary  17.  1S7I,  Tliicrs  was  clectted  President  of  the  Third  Ivepublic 
Ivnowingthe  impossibility  of  furtlier  resistance,  with  half  a  million  (icriniiii 
soldiers,  flushed  and  inspii'ed  by  constant  success,  on  the  soil  of  !•' ranee,  hik^ 
I'liris  in  their  iinaeonda  coils,  he  counseled  th;it  peac'c  be  asked.  Tiiiei>. 
Kavre,  and  I'icjird  negotiated  with  William  and  I'dsmarck.  An  iirmistici  ni 
twenty  days  was  permitted,  that  the  National  ( 'onvent  ion  then  at  l)orde;iiix 
might  ratify  terms.  In  the  meantime  the  house  of  llohenzollern  reached  ili.- 
summit  of  its  gratitied  ambition,  when,  on  March  IS.  William  was  erowiieil 
at  N'ersailles,  I'anperor  of  (iermany.  The  cession  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  .iml 
.1i!l,(l()(»,(K»(MHH»  indemnity,  was  the  pru-e  of  peace. 

No  ])atriot  namt^  in  all  iiistory  deserves  more  reverence  than  that  of  Lmiis 
.\dolphe  Thiers.  Tjion  him  <levolved  the  task  of  making  peace  with  tlie 
<ierman  foe.  of  iiuelling  the  civil  war.  and  cd'  so  managing  the  Hnances  nl 
France,  that  her  peo]»le  within  two  years  were  enabled,  to  the  astonislnnenr 
of  the  world,  to  ]iay  the  enormous  indemnity  extorted  by  the  (MM'mans.  ami. 
by  .September.  1S7.'>,  the  last  franc  was  paid  and  the  last  (iernmn  sentinel 
removed  from  the  soil  of  Fran(;e. 

The  civil  war  between  the  Ifepublic  and  the  Commune  settled  the  question 
once  for  all,  that  I'uris,  acco\intable  for  all  the  errors  and  vicissitudes  of  the 
country,  is  m)t  Frmitu;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  hi>pe  lliat  out  of  tiir 
une(|ualed  horrors  of  those  awful  days  of  carnage  the  republican  governiiient 
of  Frances  arose  to  remain  in  iier])etuity. 

(Jaribaldi,  taking  advantage  of  tlie  fall  of  Louis  Na])oleon.  and  caring  iidt 
for  the  king's  promises,  took  possession  with  liis  troo])s  of  the  city  of  Ifonir, 
September  L'O.  l.S7(>,  and  on  .Inly  2  of  the  next  year  Victor  Kmmanuel  erecteil 
liis  throne  in  the  (^)uirinal. 
.  Tinco-KrssiAN  Wak. —  In  l<S7r»,  the  IJosniaiis.  Turkish  subjects,  revolleil. 
They  maintained  their  str\iggle.  and  the  enraged  Turks  sent  Mohamnieihiii 
troops  among  the  defenseless  Ibdgarians.  destroying  nmuunbered  thousands 
of  men,  women,  and  children.  Czar  .Mexander  declared  war  A])ril  \,  IS77. 
His  army  crossed  the  Italkans  and  occupied  Shipka  I'ass.  Osman  J';i-ii;i 
developed  unexpected  military  genius  and  skill.  For  live  months  he  clieiknl 
the  onward  march  of  the  Russians  and  won  world-wide  admiration  by  lii- 
defense  of  I'levna.  \\\  the  tirst  of  Decembei'  I'levna  was  invested  >  "Ui- 
pletely  by  the  Hussians.  Driven  back  whenever  attempting  to  m.ake  a  sniiie. 
starvation  compelled  Osman  to  surrender  with  forty-foui  thousand  trcujis. 
Adrianoi)le  was  oceu])ied.  The  Treaty  of  San  Stidano  was  wrested  in  siulit 
td"  Constantinople.  It  greatly  reduced  Tuikish  power  in  Kurope.  and  coii>ii- 
tuted  IkUssia  heir  to  Turkey  in  Kurope.  Bulgaria  was  to  be  protected  by  liliy 
thousand  liussian  troojhS  for  two  years  and  to  have  a  Christian  governoi. 


ruRY 

r;iiis  set  ■  ' 
laiiuod.  T'i  • 
of  pi'ovisin  - 
('S^au  Sfptt  ,,,- 
!  atti'iult'd  :. 
L  fonuinjj;  i  :.'■ 
patotl.  Sti..- 
sevonty-tlii'  u 
•iitive  (.JeviiiiU 

linl  Kopiililii-. 
illioii  (it'riiiiiii 
i)t'  Fraiict'.  ;iiiil 
skt'tl.  Thiir-. 
11  armislifi'  uf 
n  at  I'xu'dtMii^ 
I'll  roaeluMl  ilir 
a  was  (M'dWiH'il 

I  Lorraine,  uml 

II  that  uf  Lniii-; 
licacc  with  lln' 
the  tiiiaiiei's  lit 
('  astonislmii'iit 

(JtM-iiiaiis.  ami. 
erniaii  sontiin'l 

the  qupstion 
■;situ(lps  of  lilt' 
lat  out  of  till' 
an  >iovi'ninii'nt 

uid  oariuu  iMit 

oitv  of  lumii'. 

luaiiuel  tM'citcil 

jocts,  I'OVoltt'il. 

Mohamiiu'thui 

M'Ptl  thousaiul-; 

April  1.  I  ST 7. 

Osniaii  l'a-ii;i 

iths  he  clu'iKiil 

li ration  hy  lii-- 

invested  '"Hi- 

niake  a  smiii'. 

ou.sand  tri'"l'> 

rested  in  si-lit 

ipe,  and  (•(M.^ll- 

oteeted  hy  tilt} 

1  sjovernoi 


LEADING    Wins   OF  THE  CENTURY 


41." 


hree  months  hitcr.  Knghmd  fornied  a  seeiet  treaty  with  Turkey,  securing 
('  rus  and  a<,neeing  to  jiroteet  Turkey  in  Asia,  .\ustria.  too,  was  dissati.s- 
lii  .  and  the  treaty  of  Uerlin  was  made  in  ISTS,  to  reetify  the  balances  of 
til  nations.  IJnssia  was  hy  tliis  treaty  damaged  in  jirestigti  and,  shorn  of 
tr  iiiplis,  was  given 'only  Asiatitr  i)rovinees.  Turkey  was  strijiped  of  all  real 
[K     I'V  in  Kurojie. 

niNd-.lAi'ANKSK  Wak.  —  In 
,1;.  all's  declaration  of  war  against 
Ch.iia.  August  1,  1S»»4.  she  set 
tni  h  sueeinetly  the  provoeation 
till  iiig  her  to  this  action.  She 
saM  that  Korea  had  lu-en  hrought 
int.'  the  notice  of  the  nations  of 
till'  world  hy  her  efforts;  that 
Cliiiia  constantly  had  interfered 
wiili  Korea's  government,  insist- 
ciilly  [losing  as  her  suzerain  ;  that 
will  11  an  insurrection  in  Korea 
liioke  out  Ciiina  sent  troops  into 
Kmea,  and  that  when  .laiian.  un- 
der the  treaty  of  ISS."*.  also  sent 
triHi|is  to  assist  Kin-ea  toipiell  the 
ivliels.  asking  China's  cooperation 
in  ilie  etl'ort.  ("hina  refused  lier 
ri!:,'litful  demand ;  that  ( 'hina's 
idiirse  tended  to  keep  up  the 
tmuhle  indeHnitely.  so  that  the 
only  course  left  for  .Japan  was  to 
ili'clare  war. 

As  with  (Jermany  a  score  of  years  jireviously.  when  the  time  came  Japan 
was  ready,  not  only  with  munitions  of  war.  hut  with  liettei'  t()iiogra]ihical 
knowledge  of  the  enemy's  country  tlu'in  they  themselves  possessed.  The 
Kinpcror,  whose  tlynasty  antedates  the  Christian  era,  gave  his  peo]ile  a 
(•(institution,  and  stretching  his  hand  towards  Korea  he  liel]ie(l  her  in  the 
same  direction.  He  had  Japan's  army  and  her  navy  drilled  hy  ex}tert  Kuro- 
jieaii  officers.  Arsenals  and  extensive  manufactories  for  the  implements 
(if  war  were  started,  with  Kuropean  siqierinteiidents.  The  latest  and  hest 
(if  ships  were  hoth  hoiight  at  foreign  marts  and  made  at  home.  Her  stu- 
dents were  to  he  found  in  the  universities  of  the  world.  Her  agents  were 
sent  to  study  in  their  cai»itals  the  economy  of  every  government  and  the 
iiiacliinery  of  their  executive  de]>artments.  To  tind  the  hest  and  assimilate 
it  seemed  the  principle  of  her  progression,  so  that  hoth  in  military  skill 
and  the  knowledge  of  dijilomacy  she  accpiired  the  ahility  to  hohl  her  place 
anidiig  the  nations  of  the  civilized  world.  A  war  alone  was  needed  to  prove 
tliat  this  was  a  fact. 

.Ia|)an's  navy  consisted  of  four  armored  cruisers  and  eight  vessels  of 
.■>0(t(»  tons  ea^'h.  This  was  a  much  lighter  fleet  than  that  of  China,  hut 
switter.  China's  navy  had  heen  trained  hy  an  aide  Knglish  naval  chief, 
Cajituin  Lang.     Her  outfit  of  ships  was,  perhaps,  snp<'rior  to  that  of  Jap.an. 


i.oris  ADoi.iMir.  ■iiiii;iis. 


;i 

1'. 

PI 

li 

p^ 

Mi, 

'; 

i 

''it 

, 

■;, 

kM 

i:ii 


■m 


I  p 


ff , 


:il  .III!  il 


liM 


i||i 


I    i? 


i 
r 

i- 

1 

\  ■ 

1 

i 

410 


TlilUMI'llS  AX  I)    WOXDli/iS    OF   Till':   XIX'"   CKXTIliV 


cousistiiig  of  live  iiiiiiorcd  vessels,  nine  pnttecti'd  cruisers,  iuitl  t(M'iie(lii  li^ 
Iiesides.     The    |priiiciiPiil   kitili;   of  this  Chiiio-Jupiiiu'se  w;ir  wiis   foughl 
Septeiuht'i'  1.")  ;it  I'iie^  \'iiiig',  an  ohl  ciiiiital  of  Korea,  situated  at  the  mee' 
of  sevend  roads.     'I'iie  .lapauese  lauth'd  troops  at  (icnsaii.  on  tlie  iKU-thi 
and  at  H\vang-jo,  on  the  nortliwest.  eoast  (d'  Koica.     'I'iiese  forniod  tlie  n 
iind  left  win.^^s  <d'  the  army  whose  centre,  under  (icui'ral   Nodju.  adv;ih 
from   Seoul,  about   one   hundred  nules  to  the  soutii.  of  which  tlie.lii|iiii 
were  ahcaily  in  possession.     (tnl\  oue  win.i;'  of  the  army  nuM   opposition 
its  nuirch,  a  small  battle  havini;-  iieeii   fought.     The  forces,  so  far  as  we 
learn,  were    between   twenty  and   thirty  thousand   of  Chinese  and   belu 
tlurty  and  lorty  thousand  of  .lapMUese.     Japan's  twenty- four  years  of  sc 
title  preparation,  her  study  of  the  art  of  war,  the  practicability  of  her  strati- 
movements. —  admired  by  the  soldi<'i'S  of  the  world,  —  hd't  China,  with  hci  m1,| 
se'mi-i)arbaiian  methods,  no  (diance  for  victory. 

The  l)attle  was  a  bl ly  one ;  the  defeated  Chinese  fled  until  they  wer 

the  other  side  of  the  Yalu  River,  in  .Mauchooria.  Seven  hundred  (somr  ;ir. 
counts  say  fourteen  thousand)  Chinese  were  captured,  two  thousand  Uillid 
and  wounded.  The  army  continued  tinhtiug  and  coiw|neriii.ti'  until  plas- 
tically the  jirovince  of  .Mam-hooria  was  in  .lajjan's  ])ossession.  as  well  as  ili, 
peninsula  of  liiaotuug,  terminating  with  I'ort  .\rthur. 

The  battle  of  ^'aln,  or  llai  Vun  Tao,  afforded  the  lirst  practical  test  di 
modern  ves.sels.  guns,  and  projectiles  in  .Vsiatic  waters.  I  Mug  Vang  has  Imcii 
called  China's  .Sedan,  and  ^"alu,  .Japan's  Trafalgar.  .Fapan  had  nine  cruiscis 
and  two  converted  cruisers  wherewitii  to  tight  twelve  Chinese  warships  ami 
foiir  torjK'do  boats.  It  is  said  that  Japan  used  melanite  shells.  The  fleet  dl 
Chinese  warships,  convoying  transports  with  ten  thousand  troops,  entered  tlic 
Valii  IJiver.  The  next  day.  Sejitendu'r  17.  the  .lapane.se  Heet.  under  .\diiiiial 
Ito,  went  out  to  meet  them.  .\  Kuropean  otiicer  on  a  Chinese  vessel  s:iv>: 
"I'assing  along  the  Chinese  line,  the  .lapauese  poured  as  heavy  a  tire  as  tlicv 
could  biiug  to  bear  upon  each  ship  in  succession,  and,  while  they  had  sim- 
ro(Mu.  circled  i-ouud  their  opponents.  Tlw»  .lapanese  state  that  no  .JapaiicM' 
war-ship  was  lost  and  oidy  three  seriously  injured."  A  Chinese  otticer  says: 
"As  soon  as  the  Chinese  on  the  ])ort  side  had  brought  their  guns  to  bear  and 
had  obtained  range  accuratidy,  the  .lapanese  Mould  work  around  ami  aiiack 
the  starboanl  side."  Four  ships  were  destroyed  and  two  badly  inju.red.  Oiir 
of  the  Cl  inese  ships  was  .said  to  have  been  hit  two  hundred  times.  Tlif 
Chinese  ironidads  that  escaped  were  later  sunk  off  Wei  H.ii  Wei.  i'ort  Ar- 
thur, captured  (  h'tober  L'l.  was  tilled  to  overflowing  with  ammunition,  grain. 
and  other  supplies. 

China  nnide  three  informal  overtures  for  ]ieace.  Finally,  lii  Hung  Cliaii.; 
went  fiom  Tientsin  to  Shimouoseki.  to  make  terms,  on  the  lUth  of  Maidi. 
]S'.(.">.  My  the  treaty  there  nunle.  .May  17.  Cinna  recognized  the  independeiici' 
and  autonomy  of  I\orea.  ceded  certain  tei'ritory  in  .Mauchooria.  all  the  islamls 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  bay  of  Liaotung  and  the  northern  part  of  the  \'elln\v 
Sea,  Formosa,  and  all  islands  belonging  to  it.  and  the  Pescadores  group.  Twn 
hundred  nullion  Ku])ing  tatds  were  exai'ted  as  indemnity,  to  be  paid  in  njli! 
installments,  one  every  six  months.  The  inhabitants  were  to  stdl  out  mhI 
leave,  or  in  two  years  to  be  .Japanese  subjects.  Russia,  (iermany.  ami  Fr  jm-.' 
recommended  that  .la])an  should  not  jiernuinently  possess  the  j»eninsnl  "t 
Feng  Tan.  and  .Japan  agreed  to  their  suggestions. 


KXTIIIV 


ml  tol'p<'<ln  Ih.  s 
•  was  l'<ni;j;hl  n 
'{[  at  tlic  HUM''  .- 
(Ill  tht'  iiortlii  '. 
tdiuied  tlio  ri.  m 
Noiljii.  advaii  'il 
icli  till'  .laimi  -r 
net  n]i|iositiiiii  111 
so  I'ar  as  uc  :iii 
I'sc  and  lii'lW'  I'n 
111'  yt'ai's  dl'  sci'ii- 
ry  (it  lit'i'  strati-ii- 
liiiia.  with  lii'i  "111 

iiitil  they  wciv  I  II 
liuiidi't'il  (sonic  ;ii'- 
)  tlimisaiid  killi'il 
icviui;'  until  in;ii- 
ioii.  as  \v(dl  as  \\\r 

I"  jiraPtical  test  ni 
ins;'  ^'allL!;  lias  Ihm^i 
had  iiiii"''  ciuisiTs 
iif'sc  warships  inid 
lells.     The  Hoot  nt 
rr(io]is.  cnttM'cd  the 
ct.  luulcr  Admiral 
iiif'sc  vessel  s:iy> : 
avy  a  lii'f  as  tliry 
lilc  they  had  sim- 
tliat  no  .lai'iini'M' 
linese  otHcer  siiys: 
!•  <,Miiis  to  hear  ami 
iroiind  and  aiiack 
idlv  injiu'fd.    '  iin' 


dred  tunes. 


Til 


lai  Wei.      INat  Av- 
Innuuiiitioii,  t,naiii. 

Li  Iliiiiii'  ell  111',' 

lie  I'.tth  of  Mairli. 

the  indeiienili'iii''' 

li'ia.all  till!  isl  iii>i> 

rt  ot  the  V.IIhw 

lores  j^roiii".     IW' 

(I  be  jiaid  in  ei-lit 

•e  to  sell    out    mhI 

linaiiy.  and  l''i  n"' 

the  iieninsiii.    "t 


i'^;\i 


u 


m 


|i  11 


iiH      riuuMi'iis  Asu  WON  nuns  of  tiuc  xjx'"  cEyrunv 


iO'i 


Imu'Iikis;!.  as  a  striitci^ctical  post,  is  (if  tlic  f,'n'at»'st  valiu'.     Korea  and  Ai\,\<\\ 
iinw   (•(iiitnd   al)S(iliitt'ly  tlic  .laiiaii   Sea.      It  was  only  alter  Inur  iiiontlis  ■ 
ti'^'litiii;^'  llial  'laiiaii  ('onnili'ti'ly  ('(incincrcd  tlic  Fiiriuosuns  and  liad  all  lit'i  U' 
jiussi'ssions  iindi'i'  licr  ctiiii rnl. 

Cliina  paid  .):ipaii  an  additional  -li!.' !(».(>()(  1.00(1  for  the  release  of  I'ort  Artli  : 
and  Liaotiin^'  jieninsnia.  Cliina  was  well  pleaseil.  Hut  in  April,  IS'.T. 
iinssia  liersidf  liad  obtained  possession  of  I'ort  Artlinr  and  Talieii  Wan,  aiM 
in  Hecendier  tlie  (iemians  received  Kaio  Cliao,  tlie  linest  naval  station  ii 
till'  province  of  Sliaiitiiii},'.  France  subse(iui!ntly  obtained  Kwang-Cliaii,  t lie 
1  lest  port  id' Wan j,'si  :  and  Fn^jjland,  tlioie^li  not  joiniiii;  these  powers  intiir 
demand  in  favor  of  < 'hina  in  1S'.»,"».  obtained  Wei  llai  W<'i  in  1S".»7. 

iiiti:r<i-'i'i  WKisii  \\  All. —  In  l.S'.»."».  the  fearful  atrocities  <'oniinitteil  by  tin' 
••unspeakable"  Turk  lie^'an  to  assume  appalling  proportions.  I)\irin,LC  tlin,' 
years  one  liundred  tbousand  Cretans  were  murdered.  Februarys.  1N'.)7.  lln' 
Cretans  proclaimed  union  with  Creeee.  TheOreeks,  unable  longer  to  (uidiiic 
the  sutferings  of  their  kindred,  determineil  to  lielp  them. 

I'rince  (ieor,i,'e  I(d't  for  Crete  with  a  t<irpedo  flotilla  Feli'iiary  lO;  Coloinl 
N'assos,  aide-de-camp  to  thekiii,L,'.  followed  with  tifteen  hundred  uumi  ami  iwu 
liatteries  on  tiie  l.'lth.  I'riiute  Nieliolas  led  a.  reLjimeiit  of  artillery  to  ilir 
'Phessalian  frontiers.  'I'lie  jiowers  sent  a  collective  note  of  jirotest  to  (J recce, 
but  it  was  not  heeded,  (.'ohuud  N'assos  landed  in  Crete  on  the  14th.  Sailms 
from  the  tieet  of  tin*  powers  oeeiipied  the  coast  towns  of  Crete.  I'asha  i'uK.- 
vitch  resigned  and  I'eturned  to  Constantinople.  (ireek  reserves  niUiiil 
promptly.  V(dunteers  offered.  Colonel  N'assos  establishi'd  heaihpiarters  m 
the  mountainous  interior  at  Sphakia. 

March  is,  the  powers  blockaded  Crete.  On  the  L'Tth,  Crown  I'rince  (  mi 
stanrine  proceeded  to  the  Turkish  frontier.  On  April  ."».  tlie  powers  dcclmvil 
no  gain  sliouhl  aeeriie  to  the  coml)ataiit  who  approached  Thessalian  border^. 
.\]iril8,  three  thousand  (Jreeks  crossed  near  Krania,  began  fighting,  and  wi'ic 
driven  back.  On  Ajiril  17  Turkey  deelareil  war.  On  the  IStli,  a  battle  nl 
twenty-four  Jiours.  in  .Milouna  I'ass,  crowned  Turkish  arms  with  victurv. 
Another  hard  fought  battle,  at  Heveni.  discomfited  the  Creeks,  (ircrk^ 
passed  the  .Nrta  iJiver  and  (ireek  ironclads  bombarded  i'revessa.  On  tlip 
I'.tth,  the  Turks  were  iuThessaly  and  the  Creeks  in  retreat  to  Larissa.  Alter 
terrific  battles  Tornavo  and  Larissa,  on  the  l'."ith,  fell  into  the  hands  of  tin 
Turks.  Colontd  Sniolenski  fought  desjierately  at  Valestino.  but  had  to  yicM: 
and  N'olo  also  ftdl  to  the  Turks.  The  Turks  occupied  I'liarsaos  on  .N!a\  U. 
(rreece  asked  the  powers  for  jieace.  .MayS;  ('retan  autonomy  was  agreeil  tn. 
and  Turkey  permitted  armistice  on  the  loth.  The  war  closed.  Turkey  w:in 
forced  to  yield  all  Thessalian  territory,  and  Crete  was  ndieved  of  Tnrki^li 
oppression.  (Jreeee  was  forced  to  withdraw  all  sujiport  fruin  Cre:e  and  pay 
.SL'0.000,000  indemnity. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  this  -war  was  tli 
start  to  clo.se,  and  the  disjiosition  of  the  p< 
ing  with  the  (irecian  navy.     F'reriuently  tli 
placing  their  guns  in  ]iosition.    It  was  only 
saly  and  threatened  to  keep  it  that  the  powers  inter]    scd. 

The  crime  committed  by  the  ])owers  against  civilization  and  Christinnitv 
by  their   action  seems  incredible,  even  though  the  peace  of   Europe  w 
therebv  secured. 


''>'     .sely  liavd  righting  fii'iii 

assist  Turk       by  interlrr- 

,>trians  heli»ei      iie  Turks  by 

u  the  S'lltan  compiered  Tlir^- 


ittt'il  by  llir 
)iiriii;4  time 
,>..  1.SU7.  thf 
cr  to  (Miihnr 


LEADisa  w.\ns  ur  tiik  lEsrviiv 


\\\) 


}   *■ 


;N(ii,AM>'s  Waus  I.N  Tin;  Sol  HAN.  —  Til,.  Klicdivf  oi  Iv^'yiit  liml  ooiiiiiictl 
y;.  al  loans  tioiii  Kuropf.  Kii^'hiiul  ami  Kniiicf  took  liiuiiicial  control  ol  tlu' 
(■■  iiti'y.  Anibi  Tasliii  inaii>,'urattul  a  vclH-llioii  and  loitilinl  Alt'xaiitlria. 
>l   ny   Kiirupfans  were  munlfifd.  and   Kii,i;land  iiomliardfd   tiic  citN.taUi 


I'Ssloi 


.lulv  VJ,  INSI'.     (it'nfial  Wol.s.d.'v.  at   Tel  td  Kcl.ii 


'IK 


ilt'inl 


MT 


1.     ;ht  and  didVatt'd  Arabi,  who  tied   Icaviii},'   two   tliousand   dead.     1' 


rauci' 


wi.ulri'W  Irom  tiu'  tinancial  ai'ran,L;i'nn'nt.     Tlit'  I'lnylisli  r 


cMiaiiicd  to  |>ut  till 


v..  .  [itians  in  itonditioii  fui'sidr-j^'oviTiimcid.     Knglaiid  has  ii'iiiainrd  ever  since. 

Mohanuiicd  .Mimed  arose  in  llu'  Soudan,  inoclaimiiiK  Idmsidi'  Kl  Maiidi, 
the  .Mussulman  .Messiah.  Tliu  barbaiiaii  hi>nles  tloched  to  his  banner.  lie 
(Iclcatcd  the  Kgyi)tians  in  lour  enyaj-cnicnts,  Octobi'r.  ^SS^^.  The  .\n^do- 
Iv^sptiaii  forci!  of  ten  thousand  men,  under  (Jeneral  Hicks,  was  destroye.i, 
oiil;.  two  escaping',  (ieiieial  (iordon  was  sent  to  the  leliet  oi'  the  K^'yptiaii 
iiriiiv.  ilc  reached  Kiiartoiiin.  l''el)ruary  IN,  ISSI.  The  .Mahdists  l)esiej,'0(l 
tlic  city.  (Jtirdoii  sent  for  reinforeenieiits.  Knt;land  was  so  slow  in  sendiiii,' 
tlicia  tiiat  they  arrived  two  days  to<t  late.  Khartoum  was  captured  throuuii 
trcuhery,  anil  (iordoii,  the  most  beloved  of  Kn;j,lisli  soldieis  foi' his  saintlv 
iiiiil  hi;roie  character,  was  put  to  death  on  January  L'7.  iNS.'t. 

(iciicral  Sir  Horatio  Herbert  Kitchener  was  made  Sirdar  in  iSitO.  He 
stalled  from  Cairo  with  one  tliousand  Kiitish  and  tifteeii  thousand  I'-gyp- 
ti;iii>,  iilack  and  fellah  troops,  iMiil(lin<,'  a  road  across  the  desert  as  he  ad- 
vanced, and  etiL;ineerinif  his  <,qiniioats  up  the  Nile.  The  distance  from  his 
liii^c.  at  Cairo,  to  his  tirst  storehouse,  at  Wady  Haifa,  is  ei.<;lit  himdred  miles. 
April  S.  IS'.IS.  was  fou^dil  the  liattle  of  Atliara.  a  fort  at  thi'  point  where  the 
.\iliaia  liiver  enters  the  Nile.  ]]i',v  Mahmud,  the  commander  of  the  iiarba- 
rians.  was  captured  and  his  army  of  twelve  thousand  infantry  destroyed. 
o>iiiaii  l)ii,'na  <4ot  away  with  the  "greater  j'art  of  tlie  cavalry,  numbering  four 
tliiiiisand. 

The  fovoe  was  about  a  month  reaching  Wady  Hanicd.  and.  September  1,  was 
in  slight  of  Omdurman.  The  Sirdar's  line  was  drawn  up  in  ereseent  form, 
nitii  Omdiirman  and  Khartoum  for  its  centre.  In  this  jiositioii  was  foiiglit 
the  lirst  battle  of  Egoda,  in  which  twenty -two  thousaml  of  the  I>er\ishes  fell. 
The  Khalifa  and  Osman  Digna  Hed  with  a  scant  handful  (d  followers,  and  are 
iidw  said  to  be  bandits  in  the  Kor(h)fan.    The  number  (d'  the  annihilated  army 


til.' 


.Mahdists  will   never  be  known.     The  ISritish  loss  of  white 


s  was 


than  two  hundred,  and  the  native  loss  less  th:in  three  hundred.  The  fire  of 
the  barbarians  was  generally  too  high  to  effect  gri'at  injury.  Septemiier  L'  will 
lie  a  marked  day  in  Kuglaud's  calendar.  The  Sirdar  marched  into  Khartoum, 
the  Tiuon  Jack  was  raised,  and  beneath  its  floating  <ids.ses  liis  chaplaius 
]u'rformed(iordon's  funeral  oeremcmies  on  the  spot  whei'c  he  was  slain  nearly 
fdUiti'cn  years  before. 

.\   liKViKW  OK  ^fAiiTiAL   Kksilts.  —  The  liistory  of  the  world  sliows  that 
silcccs; 
this   is   Darticuiarlv   exemtilitied    bv    tlie   w 


sful  war  adds  to  the  glory  and  prestige  (d'  the  victorious  nation,  and 


)articularlv   exemiilitied   bv    tl 


ars   of   the    nineteenth    ceiiturv. 


France,  so  long  victoricms,  dazzled  the  world.     At  Waterhio,  her  glory  was 
led.     Xajiier.  in  his  closing  words  of  the  history  td'  these  events  (d   tli 


limn 
t\\(i 


ity  years  of  war  and  turmoil,  showed  how  thoroughly  the  English  ])eo]ile 
a|i|ireoiated  that  their  greatness  and  power  were  due  to  the  glory  achieved 
l)v  the  arms  of  Britain's  chivalrous  sons. 


■..I  'II 


111 

i 


m 

'■5  1 

^  idl 


■hi : 

ii<  nil 

'A  m 

■■-  ^'4 


*;  III 


IM         TlilUMI'US  AM)    WOSDEliS   Ol'   Till-:  A/A'"   r/iA'/TA')- 

Wliilt'  ICiii^liiiid  was  (■(ivtM'iiii,'  luTscir  witli  glory,  lu-r  olispriiii,'.  the  I'liii    i 
States,  was  tt'acliiiig  licr.   in   tiic   war  of    iSll.'.    tliat    liciiit;   now  of  age   1, 
|ioi'kt'ts  wi'iT  not  again  to  he  Ii.rin'd  inside  out,  a  lesson  whieli  t hereafter  -,:  , 
heeded. 

(ifeece.  tiirolihing  with  tlie  ini|iulse  of  Ireedom.  aeiiieved  Iter  independein  ■-. 
disi»laying  all  the  heroism  of  her  Hellenic  ani'estry. 

The  MexiiMii  war  added  ;^ieatly  to  the  gloi'\  of  Anu'i'iean  arms  and  rosniti.l 
in  the  aei)nisilion  of  a  vast  teri'itory.  whose  inlialiitants  (iniekly  assiiuilat'  ■! 
themselves  to  the  I'tMjniremenls  of  American  eiti/enslii|p. 

Tiie  Itevolntion  of  "IS  hut  served  to  consolidate  tiie  jiower  (d' I'i'iissia,  lav  ii.,' 


tile  I'onndation  fof  the  imjieiial  crown  to  rest  u|miii  the  head  (d'  her  kin;, 
titling  {•'ranee  for  her  iutuie  solid  rei>nldican  lareer. 


will, 


'rht>  ( 'rinn-aii  wai'.  esei'|pt  I  hat  it  ciietdvcd  (he  indiey  of  IJussia.  prodneed  d 


results  in  eoiiipa 


rison  with  tiie  vast  amount  (d  lilood  ami  treasure  so  1; 


vislih 


spent. 

The  vict(M'ies  of  Magenta  and  Sidferino  ilhimined  again  the  eagles  ni 
I''rant'('.  The  ••  Seven  Weeks'  War."  while  >lill  further  eonstdidaling  (lii- 
niaiiy  under  I'russia.  was  not  witimut  its  Messiiigs  for  Austria,  and  advam.,! 
'■  N'oung  Italy"  greatly  toward  the  -^roal  ol'  hei- andiitioii. 

In  .\meriea.  ihc  ajipcal   to  arms  was  made  to  decide  the  i|ue>tions  nicMiir.l 


^sinee  the  nation's  liirth.     ( tne  effeci   ol    this  wai-  was  to  show  0 


e  womlcrlu 


ju-owess  and  soldierly  qualities  ol  the  American  citi/en. 
The  I'ranco  I'russian  war   lificd   the  dignity  of  jjohi 
ended  forever  thi>  l'',mpire  ol    |-"rauce  in  a  ciushi 


n/ollern  to  its  iiei-ht. 
n-  fall,  ami  t.aught  the  le>s..ii 


of  seienlitic    preparaiion   tor  war.  ilian  which  no  science  is   nnu'e  worthv  "1 


))>lication  in  all  its  lirauidu 


intense  study  auu  a[H 

The  ( 'hino-.lapanese  war  was  a  triumph  (d 
barliarism.  and    foreshadows   the  prominent    role   that    dapan   may  lie  calNii 


glowing  en  ili/.al  ion  o/er  >ciiii 


upon 
M-as 


to   iilav   in   the  twentieth   cent 


urv. 


The  enlai'^emenl   ol    her  terriii 


a    tilling  reward    lor   her    uiiscltish   (diampioning  ol    licr  weaker 


sisln, 


Korea. 


The  ( i  reco-( 'retan   Turkish  war  >hed  no  L;ior\  on  the  Turkish  iior  i>n  tl 


called  Christian  nation-^.  and  will  stand  on  hisl(U\"s  pagi' 
to  !'".iir<iipean  civili/ation. 


IS  a  crow  II 


The  o|iening  of  Africa    liy<iencral  Kil(dieiier  and    his   great    aidi 


ill''  >li 


le\eliic;ii- 


read  like  idd-time  st<uies.  and  the  twentieth  ceiiliirv   ma\  see  L;reat  rc>ull-  iii 
.\  I'rica  from  this  wondeiiul  campaign. 


The  war  of  the  I'nited  State-;  with  Spain.  Iniight  hecauM'  it  was  im| 


HIS--'  'i.C 


longer  to  allow  the  airoeitics  ol  hi'r  rule  on  this  hem i sphere  at  our  very  di'.  is. 

lias  liroughl  conditions  not   dreamed  of.  and  which,  nnihr  the  ]uovideiii I 

(iod.  iii.ay  lead  to  i,'i'eatcr  n'^iilts  in  the  development  ol  ('hristian  civili/;r    ii 
than  we  now   may  comprehend. 

do>i:i'ii    Will  11  I 


■III 


-S  <l 


MS  ami  ivstiilr,! 
klv  iissimiiiii,  .1 


riissKi,  laviip. 


I.  IH'ImIiUTiI   Irw 


♦  lu'  wdiidi'i  III 


MKHf    WdltllV    -I 


It  mil  (I .'cr  M'liii- 
luiiv  lit'  ciiri-'l 

I      llCI-    tl'llll"l\ 


I    lll'l-   (III    I  !|r      .1. 

Miw  iiiii''-  >li:inii' 


IcIlll'V  I'llM!.!- 


(iiir  V('i\ 


THE   CENTrRY'S    FAIKS    AND    EXPOSITIONS 


l>i;.  A  i.i'Hi'.ii  111  >si:i.i,  W  Ai.i.  AC  !■:.  i 


II   a    iciM'ui   wniU.  ar'jur>   ilial    llu'   iiiiic- 


1.  -  iilli   cfiitiii-N'  IS  a 


lloi^rtlicr  uiiiiiui-   ill   tliat    it 


iiiiiiiyiiratfii   a    in'W  nil. 


;i.i-n  1 


ts  lllill\  ('li)lis  acllii'VCllU'lltS,  lit'  tells    us.   it    sliniliij    he  I'l  illl|ia  led   witli 


vv  iTiitmv.  liiiui'\(M-  liii 


IiiiPI'iIn 


|(i:i;4  liistnriciil  iicriml.  latlicr  tliiiii  with  iinotli 
!>■  ;r(|.  Tlif  prni^rcss  it  ciiviioiis  is  set  linw  u  as  aliiidst  wliolly  iiialcrial  iiinl 
111  rllfctiial,  ami  the  palm  tor  ('(iiiiplcicm'ss  is  ;j;iv(Mi  t.n  tin'  maliTial.  I>fliat- 
iililc  as  his  (•(Hicliisiiiii  may  he.  there  can  he  iin  ilispiile  eiilier  as  in  the  ipiali- 
i:iii\e  or  cpiaiitilative   pruj;ress  in   the  malerial   aihaiieemeiit    nt    iiiaiiUiml  in 


lllr    iMMltlirV     llnW 


^iiiLf.      In    the   present    retrospect    the   hidader  \ 


lew     hi'. 


(■(.iiie-.  apparent.  — that  the  malerial  ami  the  mtellectiial  have  lieeii  aliieil 
tnires  that  have  eonstantly  piisheil  tnrwani  side  li\  >ide.  nm  devisin;,'  m 
ihr  solitude  that  ,;;('iiiiis  needs  lor  exiniiision,  the  other  ^ho\\  iii'.^  to  the 
wuild  the  lealiziuions  of  ihoii^ht-  that  in  practical  application  heiietit  all. 

The  evolution  of  t  he  iiiteniat  iniial  exjiosit  ion  (d'  to-day  i.N  a  con- pillions  re  <iil  I 
el  lliis  material  ami  intidlectnal  wedlock.      It  seems  a  ion;.;-  time   heiweeii  the 

tall    that  was   held   to  allow    people  not  closely   settled   to   piirciiase  th di- 

iKiry  coiiiiiiodit  ies  ot  lil'e.  food,  clothiiii;,  and  hoiistdiold  lieloie^in;,;'.-.  and  the 
.iicat  expositions  to  which  the  nations  of  the  world  luiii!.,'  l  he  siirpas-iie^ 
iiiiliodimeiits  of  native  thought.  .Measured  l)y  years,  the  time  is  really  hc- 
\eiid  coiiipiitalion  :  Imt  measured  l>y  results,  mere  time  is  annihilated,  and 
llii'   progress   that   the   evolution   illustrates   is    ioimd   lo   lia\e   kept    a    sieadx 


•cwitli  mans   iilnsical  necessities  and  intellectual   uroutl 


■i"l 


le   lllnmellt 


N. 


>itv  has  shown  that    inankiml  m 


d   soiiiethiiii;  to  maki'  life  lui^hter. 


happier,  or  more  (Munforlahlc  to  jia-s  thioiiudi.  Intellects  has   iiiidcilaken   th 


!:|sk    ( 


f  creatiii!,'  it  and  has  lasliioiied  out  the  .Material. 


In  the  '^reat  espositions  of  |o-day  are  seiai  the  effects  of  the  marvelous 
iiitliiciicc  which  spraii'4'  from  the  lair  as  a  marki't.  instituted  so  lorn.;  a!.io 
iliit  no  call  ior  the  records  is  aiisweralple.  <•!  this  kind,  only  a  vcr\  few 
I'liLiiii.  'rheii  cimethi'  fair  di'siiL,'ned  to  promote  the  iisidnl  arts  and  manu- 
Icinii's;    the   fair    to   advance    ic^rieiiliurr    and   idlii'd   industries;    and   the 

liiir  to  show   sj ial   articles,  to  commemorate  historical  e\chis.  and   to  aid 

interests    of    lar;4e     pulilic     concc 


I'll.       Indi 


r    an    ever-increasin.;-    I'xpansn 


sliiiiulaied    liy    popular    favor,    the   lair,  with   the   coiiiiiiercial     lealiire   ahaii- 
leiicd  or  having;    it    onlv    as    a   restricted    Inaiich.   hecame  the  cxhilution   to 


io\v  a  liiry;er  i 


level, 


jiiueiit  ot    the  arts,  si'ici s.  and   mcchanii'iil   trades:  ti 


rclchrale   ■^reat    iiiildic   oeciirieiices  oil  a  ■grander  sc 


lie     lliail 


lier  1. Ill's    liail 


iliiiie;  to   promote  special   industries,  local  or  n 


It  ioiial  :  to  .'lid  education   l>v 


iiianeiit   displavs  of  natural   or   iininiilaciiiri'd    products;    ami   to   proiiioli 


per 

ill''  cominei'cial    intercourse  ol    i  he   worli 


I.      from    the    first    ol    tlii- 


class    o 


I'xliihitioiis    (Mine    the    ■•iteriiat  loiial    umlertakini,'s.   liist    known    as   worlcl's 
tins.  ;ind  afterwai'il   as   international  exliihition-  and  exposition.-..      In  some 


r 


IfH?  ~ 


4'_"J 


Tin i: Ml' IIS  AM)  wosDHus  or  rill-:  a/.v"  cESTunv 


'M 


SHii 


I 


h\ 


'\( 


<»iii'  111'  llit'sc  cliisscs  iiiiiv  lie  Iniiiid  rsfrv  kiiul  ol   a  ili.s|pl;iv  ol    products,  ii 
siiccti\c  nt'  its  |iiii-|Mist'  (ir  iii(liviilii;il  iiimu'. 

'I'lif   (i('Vi'ln|iiiii'iii   dl'  the    iiiixlt'i'ii  cxliiliitioii  troiii  lln-  r:irlv    t'iiir   li;is  li. 
('diiliiKMl  to  nil  oiir  ciMiiitrx   imr  |M'n|ilr.      lOvcrvwlit'if  t lie  piniMisi' mill  |iinri 
liiivc  l)('i'ii  tlic  siiiiir.      A    it'w    \i':irs  cliiiuLjrd  the  old-l  iiiif  iiiiirt,  w  lici'f  |icip| 
went    t(i  Iniv  \vli;it  tlnv   kiirw   tlic\    wmild  liiid.  tit  t  In- cuiivcinfiit   iilaci-  \vli. 
I  radf^nii'ii    plaird    nn    view     the  tliiii^^s    tlicv  Uucw    |m(i|)1c    would    iicrd   :ii 
liiiy.  as  well   as   arliidi's   nfifi-cd    at    a    \ciil\iri'   tliat    |m'(i|i1('  w  Im   rcidlv    dids 
need  tlifiii  iiii,L;lit  lie  Iciiiiitcd  to  |>iii'(di;ist'  ln'causi'  nl'  iiu\clty  or  oilier  i|ii.ilii 
•ouiilcr    and   tin'   d('|iarl  nirnl    stoic   aic   scxcral    liinidi' 


'I'liiis.    \\\v    Icirnain    i 

M'lirs  oidtT  tiian  the  tliriltv  lioiiscwili'  ol   t,( 


iila\   rt'i'koii> 


Tradi'  coniin'i  ition.  tliiMi  as  now,  led  to  a  lnoMdmiiiL;  ol  |il;ins.  ii\al 


and  sipcciiil  at  t  iMct  ion- 


well  :is  to  liii\  :  ai 


I'OllIC    III 


'4iin  to  iitlcliil   r:ii|->  |i 


111  soul 


I.  It'sl  lln'\   sliould  I  ill* 


--IT  w  lial   w  a--  iirw  . 


ol  sl;4lll>l'rlliu'.  It    iiriMllir   lin 


s;iry  to  |iro\ii|i'  iiii';iii>  lor  riitrrliiiniii'^'  tjinii.  I'limdi  and  .Iiiil\  rainr  on  ilir 
M'riirwilli  |M'ri'nni;il  |io|iiil;(rit  \ .  .Iii;;-^|i'r\  ii^toiiinlrd  tin'  \oiini;  ;iiid  lii--''; 
n;ilrd  liirir  riders,  hiiiieiin.;  ;iiiil  w  ie>l liii'^'  riiin's  |irii\ed  s|iorli\e  nia'^iiet--  ..i 
aiiniKiUy  inereasiiij^-  st  I'eii^l  h.  'I'lie  lair  now  iie^jiin  to  eliaii;4c  t'roni  a  slrieii\ 
eoiiiiiiereiiil  iindeil.ikiiiL;  to  ;in  oeeasioii  i'or  liolidiiy  liilaiily,  and  soon  Irmii' 
and  aiiinsenieiil  were  >t  rin^'^'liie-;  To'-  the  maslery.  In  many  jiliiees.  liil.-niM 
ied  III  e\ee>ses.  ;iiid  eXeesses  In  crillie.  I'lllilie  ojiinion  ilellliilided  the  rorreliij 
i  I  It  IT  VI 'I  I  lion  id'  the  law.  and  one  li\  one  i  he  most  ileiiiorali/iii''  lairs  were  si;  n- 


pii 


■d.   I  lie    lintoriolb 


I  )olili\  lirook   e 


OSIII'J-   1 


Is  Ion 


eareer  ol    ileli;illelier\   ;ili( 


li'^ht  mu'  in  ISoo. 

'I'lie  ili-.|il;iy  ol    niereliandise  and   the  ^atheriiiL;'  ol'  eiistoniers  at    the   iimsi 
iioi.'d    I'.iir^    111    lime   lireume   le.illv  enoi'nioii>.  iiiiil    lor  many  yeiirs  the  '^nii 

l:iirs  ol'  t  he  il;l\    Wi  re   held   oil 


oi.eli  :ilii|  exleli^n  e  plains 


'I'hell.   I 


oo.  I  lie  l;iii 


-sinned   :in    imporliinee  t  h.it    led    lirst    the   loe;il   ant  hoiit  ie^.  and  alter   lli 


lii'.;lier 


di-nit 


llles.    |i 


to  turn    il    III   iheir  individiiiil   advanta''e.      !•' 


t  illie    ih  I    |;il  1'    ei  Mhd    lir 


h.'id 


ill   (I  ie;it    l'>rit;iiii    wit  lioiit    a   siie 


'i;il 


''Tiint    liMii 


liie  erow  n.  ;i  11(1  ii  \\a>  a  wideU  oIimtvi'iI  eii->toiii  I'or  roynl  or  eerlesiiisl  iial 
aiillioril  ies  to  u;i\e  pei'iiiission  to  ;i  lowii  or  villii^e  Ihiil  li:id  siil'lereil  soinr 
niislni  I  line   io   hold   :i    lair  a-   ;i  nieiiiis  ol    leestnlilishinv;'   ilsell.      The  l;iiiiuii« 


liiir  III'  Si.  (iil 


to    the    ill 


nil.  Ill 


;ir  .M:ilielii'Nlel.   I".n'_;lalid.  \\;is  ilistilllled  as  a   re\i 


-iiiip  li\    William  i  he  ( 'oiiipieriir.      'I'liiil   il 


was  II  v.ilnaiile  monii|»'l\ 


I' 
is  shiiwn    |i\   the  hiets   that    it-    jiirisdiet  ion  exlemled  M'\eii  miles  aroniid  il 


elt\.    ;in 


d   lliiit    111!    merelmnts   who  .-o 


w  lire-  w  ithiii   Ihiit    eireiiil.    iinl 


I  In-  liiir.  loi'lei 


ted   t  hem  tot  he  hisliop 


A  eliriolis  i'\  ideliee 
III 


i|  eiiilv  iiiteiniil  ioiial  intere>l  in  the  fair,  us  well 


lis  ol    li 


importaiiee  iniil  intliieiiee.  1-  liiiind    in  the  records  o 


|::il 


will  11  \\\\\'j  r 


llUII' 


i'raiiee  sent    a    rorniiil   eoniplaini    to   Kiie^  Miluard  II.  ol    l';n,i.;I;inil. 


ct't'eet    ihiil    the   iiierehiiiil-   ol'    llii'^huid    had   eeiised    1 1  eipient  in:^'   the    l.iii     m 


111-     i|o 


millions   Willi   their    wood   and  i 


ither 


III    Hie     .^reiil 


lo>s    ol      :i- 


sniijeels.      j'hilip  eiitreiileil    I'ldwiird   III  persuade,  and.  il    neee-Mir\.to 
pel.   I'.ll'^lisll    people    Io    Ireiplelil     the    I'llirs    o|     I'l'iUiee   as    riirilielly.  pl'olll 


1-  '1^ 


t  hem 


ossilile  seeliril\'   llllil  elieoll  rie'ellielll . 


.\s  11  purely  eoiiimereial    iiislitulioii.  the  lair  liinl  its  he-l  day  when    p 


were 


widely    se]i;irilleil.       The     illel'eilse    ol'     pi  i|illlill  ioli.    til 


e     I  le\  eloonieli' 


new  lile.and  aeliv  il\  li\  ^m'ow  iin^  cominunilies.  the  opeiiui'^  ol'  means  ol  ti 


m 


MtM 


^U 


tail'   lias  li. 
use  ami  jn'iiii    - 
1.  w  here  |i<'ii| 
•111  placi'  \\li. 
I'liilld    iM'i'il    ;i' 
(I  rcall\    ili'i'   ■ 
r  oilier  (|iialr 
cvcral   IiiiimIi- 

IS.  i'i\  al  ri'l'di '   . 
lial  \\a->  iii'u .   ^- 

I  licrallM'  111''  ' 
(l\  calllt'  nli  I  ',. 
()llli;4  ami  la  •■. 
\\\i'  iiia^ui'l-  ..] 
'  rmiii  a  st  lici  ;\ 
ami  siiuii  1  i-.i'!' 
|plac('s,  liil.ii;;;, 
ilt'd   llic   Inrrrti,; 

;•  lairs  wciT  m:].- 
(Iclpailclicrv  :i:;(i 

i'r>  al    till'   Hi"-' 
\  rars  1  lie  uh  ,! 

ell.  1(1(1.   t  lie   l.i;: 

1(1  al'lcr   tii'ii! 

Illla;^c.        li'.    .; 

il    ;,';ralit    li":; 

ccclcsiasi  1'  .1 

siilTcrcd   -.'   ,■ 

'IMir  taiiiiiii- 

I  as  a  rc\(iii!i' 
ililc  iii(iii(i|"i!\ 
cs  ai'diiinl  till' 

nil.   miles-  ;il 

IS  well  as  el  il> 

II  IsiiiL''  riiiiij' 
'.iiL;iaml.  le  ilic 
I-  llic  l.iii  III 
eal     loss    III    ';h 

-ar\ .  tc  (  ■  111 
■rl\ .  |ir(imi-''.i; 

y  W  liell  |:C'  ,•!(• 
e\'el()|illieli'  "I 
IKMIIS  (i|    tl   '  .I'l 


77//i    (7;.V77  7.')"N    y'.l//.'.s-   .l.\7'    I^XI'itSlTIO.XS 

I'l  ween  liislaiit.  imiiits.  ami  I  lie  estalilisluiieiil  dl'  sloics  ami  iiiarl> 

.la 


4'-'3 


els.  were  all 
1  to  the  e(iiiiiiiereial  lair.     'I'o-dav,    i.i  all   Kiiro|ie.  oiil\   three   really  -real 


iiiiial  lairs  (d  this  eiiaraeter  remain,  —  those  ol   N  i jiii-Nox  i;iii(id.  in   iliissia 


eaiie.  Ill  r  ranee;   and   lieiiisie.  in  <  lermany. 


I' 


le   same  eondil  ions   t  hal 


1  idiii.;iil,  the  iiojiiilar  iisid'iilness  ol'  the  eoiiiiiiereial  lair  to  an  end  were  the 
:  Tees  liiiin  whiidi  the  lair  as  an  e\|ioiieiil  (d  industrial  aidiiescmeiil  has 
i '('11  dev(do]ied.  and  the  material  in-oi^ress  (d  the  nineteeiil  h  eeiinir\  is  lo  he 
,,,ieed. 

I'or  the  niodern  lair  in  all  of  its  loiiiis  the  wdrld  In  indehted  to  the  .•Society 
.  I  .\rts,  (d'  London,  an  oi-'^ani/.at  ion  whose  lame  in  America  was  so  ureal  that 
lleiijamin  Kraiiklin.  in  solieitiii,i;'  eorres|iondiii;.;-  niemiiL'r.siiiii,  doclarud  LluiL  hf 


'^fc- 


MINK  II    1  AI'OMrioN.     \X~>\. 


Would  esteem  II  a  u'l'eat  honor 


to  lie  admitted  and  also  to  he  liermilled  til  I 


llllilllc  I  Weill  \    'Ulllneas   to    1 Xliel 


lileil    III    lili'lllllim-.       What     li 


lis  earh'  (la\  s  did    lortlreal   r.rilaiii    il  didaUnl 


or  el\  1 


li/al 


loll. 


liii- 
in   SoeielV    111 
i  1    iil'^'alli/ed 


I  III'  lirst,  exiiihil  ion  ol'  s|ieeimeiis  id'  1  111 ]iro\('iii( 'Ills  in  i  he  iisidnl  arls  and  maii- 
id;ii-tiires  in  I7<i<i;  >l  iiiiiilated  iiat  i\  e  iiiLjcniiitv  li\  jmiicions  awai'iN  ol' pri/es 
shiliitS  ol    exeelil  iolial    lllel'il   :    and  exleiided   iis    iiowerriil 


ml  .-I'^i  leiilliiral  in(lii--tr\ .  and  t  In 


:ind   |ii'emiiims    lor  exhi 

iiilliienee  to  joster  art.  seieiiee.  nie(diaiii(Ml  a 

lishery  trade  and  eoloiiial  eomiiier d  the  eountiy 

'•I'  the  many  inlliieiiees  id'  this  .'<o(Mcty  thai  imiim'  to  llie  Inited  .'"Itiite^.  il 
iiiiy  he  (|iiest  ioiied  i  I'  any  had  a  imne  lasliie.,^  Iiemdil  lor  Imth  |ieo|i!c  and 
ciiiiiitry  than  that  wliiidi'4a\e  hinh  to  the  nieelianies"  iii>tiiiite>.  'rheie  are 
neojile  still  livinvr  w  ho  are  aMe  to  reeall  Imw  ihe  lai'^e  eil  les  in  l  he  l'".a>terii 
iiid  M  iddle  Stales  \  ied  with  eaidi  other  in  the  estalili-^hiiieiil  ol  i  wo  ;,freat  and 


if^l 


4.m 


:?« 


'■•Ml 


Wi 


'^\kH 


'!,l*i| 


■  i  ■  <; 


h 


^i 


M 


'If 


.»( 


Ml 


m 


m]^^ 


i-ji 


I iniMi'iis  AM)  \\(>.\/n:i:s  m-  riii:  xix'"  cE.XTL'iiy 


1, 


iiidicil  iiistitiit  Mills  —  t  III' iiiccliiimcs    iiistitutc  Mild  111!'  ;i|iiin'iiti('('s    libra 


l'lilla(li'l|iliiii  Icil  till'  cities  ill  tiic  iiiatliT  n[  time,  iier  l'"r;nikliii  Institute  lnii 
iiiiiiiileil  ill  IS'JI.  l''(Mir  years  alterwaiil  the  Aiiierieaii  Institute  was  eliailei' 
111  Ni'W  \i<vk  (ity.  Alter  these  came  the  .Massachiisctis  Charilahle  M 
cliaiiic^'  Assdciat  ion  in  I'xistdii.  tiie  .Marvlaml  Iiistitut"  in  lialtiniore.  m 
t  huse  nieiiliiMied  i)ciiiu  the  ]ii'iiici|ial  diies  tliat  still  Ilia;' 
At  liist.  the  exliiliit  idiis  of  these  inst  itiii. 
>[  a  natiiinal  ^ovi'inment. 


llllllieriillS    <it  tier? 


tain  aiiiiiial  (ir  otiu'r  exhilulmns. 


IlKi 


the  lirst    nne  ever  held  illii 


er  t  lie  jiat  n  iiiai;'i 


that    III    Paris   in    17'.>N. 


—  Were   e(im|i(ised  nl    \ari(tlis   articles    liiaiiei 


I     llV    Ih 


iiWI 


leis.     SiPdii.  however,  the  |m ppiilaril v  nj  the  institutes  and  the  aw.inlii 


|iri/es  and  dipliimas  linn  1:4 hi  to  1  he  exhiliil imis  s|ieci!neiis  (it  the  Jiaiidiciaii 

and    the    rising;    li-lil^    in    the   ails   and    iiiaiiiil'act  111 


nieiiiiiers   and    iriem 


a  me  ea^er  to  secure  the  rec(iL;iiilinii  id  their  '.'■('11  ins  that  such  awards  est, 


ll-llei 


1.        I' 


ins.   the    llllluelicc  lit    1  he    |i 


lar 


rincijial  snrviviiiL;   institutes  has  s| 


ll-IMil 


heviiiid  Incal  limit- 


I'liicix'  naliiiiial   e:\iiilMliiins   ha\c  never  I'l 


liiit 


ed  Male 


\M 


icli  as  a  wlliile  lienipic  we  decide  tn  liiild  nne  lor 


III  udiera 


1  iiil 


iiid  lunch  iiii|)nlar  I'avnr  in   ti 

lilir|in 


crest,  wi 


|irel'er  tn  si 


t  a   lar'_;e  tatde  and   invite  t 


le  universe  t. 


celehrate.      Ill  i''raiice.  the  llrst  natidiial  exhiliilinn  was  a  Inaii 


exliil 


lidii.  Its  eliect.  lidwever.  was  sd  immediate  that  the  ^^dverniuent  rejieated  11 
the  same  year,  iirvaiii/ed  nmrc  elahdrate  niies  in  1S<M  and  ISHl'.  and  decidcil 
til  lidld  them  trieiiiiially  thcreal'tcr  —  a  cm  use  1  hat  has  since  been  iiiterrii|iliii 
by  jidlitical  cxi'^encies.  These  exliiliil  imis  were  in-ojt'ctcil  to  illustrate  tin' 
]uii;;re<s  dj  i''raiice  only.  In  the  I'liitcd  Slater  there  have  iiecii  no  State 
exhiliitioiis.  excc|)tiiii^  a,y;i'icultiiral  I'aii.-.  lor  which  outside  cou]peration  h:i- 
tint  biM'ii  inviteii. 

'i  lie  lib-  id'  the  Ainericaii  ai,n'icnltiiral  lair  is  aliiinst  ineasnrable  by  the  lull 
century.  This.  tod.  had  its  dri'.^iii  in  I'ji.nlaiid.  The  lather  id' the  American 
system  III  cdiiibined  a;-;ricultiiral  lairs  and  cattle  slmws  was  lOIkaiiah  Wal-mi. 
a  native  id'  riyiiiduth.  .Mass..  wlm  spent  the  un'.iter  part  id'  his  lib'  in  prmu'  1 
in;.:  la;,u:e  public  ineasnres  besiiles  a,L;'riciilt nre  and  eilncatiiin.  In  1S(>7  he  n 
iiidvcd  I'ldiii  .Mbaiiy.  N.  \..  to  I'ittslield.  .Mass..  where  he  eiit^ati'ed  in  u'eiiei;!, 
and  exiieriniental  aurienlture  and  catlle-raisiiii^-.  His  elbtrts  tn  improve  liic;il 
farm  it  1 1.,'  cm  id  it  ions  and  to  raise  a  siipeiim-  breed  ol  cattle  at  tract  eti  widespniil 
interest,  and  this  siiji;,i,'est('il  to  him  that  an  annual  exhibiiinn  of  cattle  and  -I 
rami  piddiicts.  resnltiii'.;'  Irom  a  iiime  painstaUiii!:,'  s\>teiii  id  ciiltivalimi  tli.iu 


was  ciiiiimmih-  t'dllnwed 


Wdiild  ]iidvc  id  material  advaiita;4e  tn  the  larmer.  1 1 


breeder,  and  the  ,i,'eiieiai  public.     Arcm'diiii^ly.  he  indiiccd  his  tarmitii;  t'rieini- 
in   thecminlry  Id  cdiitribiite  specimens  id    iiii|irii\eil  br Is  id'  catth'  and  "! 


ijicridr   iii-ddiicts   id   the 


<di 


I  :  and  the    lir>t   exhibitimi  nr   la 


ir  was  licjii   ;ii 


ISlO.      This,    with    niddest    prizes   bir   the  best    exhibits.  lUdved  a  eoiiip 


success. 


I    il 


l'!iicdiiia!.red  by  the  results  of  his  initial  efforts,  lie  went  to  r.dstmi  to  sn 
pecuniary  aid  bir  a  second  ;iiiil  niiicli  lar.Lcer  exhibitimi,  .Mtlimiuli  lie  wa-  .ii 
that  tiiiie  wiihdy  known  for  his  public-s])irited  pliilaiithroiiy.  and  also  as  tlic 
idunder  of  the  iiiHiieiitial  IJerksliire  .\;4riciiltiiral  Society,  his  appeals  bir  ,1  1 
briin,i,'Iit,  liim  little  save  derision.  To  show  how  small  concern  was  fell  is 
Inisiiiess  and  |iiiblie  men  toward  the  rarniiii'i  industry,  a  seiitciiet'  in  a  let''  r 
from  ex-rresideiit  John  .\ilams  to  .Mr.  Watson  is  siiHieicnt :  — 


run  y 

ticcs"  lilirai 
lislil\ltt'  1mi; 
WHS  clKirlci' 
havilal.lr  M 
laltiliKU'c.  ai 
liat  still  iiiai 
u'Sf  lust  itiii. 
■(ivcriiiiicni. 
laiii'il  liy  1  111 
II'  awarding  •-; 

•  liaiidiciali  '  ; 
iiiainit'actiii'  - 

I  iiwunls  cslai' 

tt'S  llilS  SlUiM.i 

r  favor  in  ti,.' 

•  for  a  ii\ii|io-'' 
lie  universe  tn 
1  a  loan  exliili:- 
ellt  I'epealeil  it 
>L'.  ami  (leeiiifil 
■en  inteniiiiliii 
)   i!liisti-ate  \\['- 

lieeii  no  Si, 111' 
oiiperat ion   hi- 

l.le  by  tiie  lull 
lie  AnieriiMii 
mall  Wat -nil. 

'e  in  ]iroiu<  t 
n  lS(t7  he  11- 
vd  in    i^-elieiiii 
inii>i'ove  Incil 
'd  \vides]iriMil 

cattle  and  -I 
tivation  thin 
le  farmer,  iln' 
iniiiii;'  frieiiu- 

•atHe  and  "i 
was  held  111 

1   a   eoniiiliti 

^toii  to  soli  ii 
null  he  wa-  il 
lid  also  a>  iIm' 
|i|ieals  tor  a'll 
I'll  was  lell  i  V 
■nee  in  a  lett.  r 


CI 


ir   I       ■      I    ' 


■I 


|i'    i'-t 


'   iU 


ill^l 


ili  J*! 


iL'(j       TiurMi'iis  AM)  w()Si)i:ns  of  tuic  x/x'"  cestuhy 

'■  Villi  will  Lji'l  111)  aiil  IViiiii  llii.stiiii  ;  coniimTi'f,  litt-ralure.  tlieiiliijjfv,  iiu-diiiiK'.  tin-  miivci-ily,  ,i  i 
iinivir^iil  piililics  iiri'  iifjiiiiisl   vmi." 

'I'lif  ('\-l'rt'si(lriit  Wiis  cdri'cct  in  liis  judnuH'iit.  Mr.  Wiitsuii  did  not  rccclN 
,siiiy:lr  l'a\  nralilc  icsiionsf  to  ins  iiiiiiculs  ;  yet  hi;  lost  not  ii  jiurtiflc  of  fiiitli  , 
tilt'  uisiliiin  of  lii>  nndt'i'tidvin,!;.  Witli  tlic  C'0(i|)t'r;itioii  onlv  ol'  tlif  liirnicr,--  n 
liiscoiuiiy.  Mr.  W'iitson  siiccrrdfd  in  arriini^Mnt,'  iinniiid  (■.\]ul»itions  mitil  IMH, 
wiicn  lie  rrlunitMl  to  .\lli:ni\.  'I'iic  s;umc  yciir  lie  ori^Jinizcd  tlic  lirst  ii'^iir  1 
tiind  society  in  tin- SmIc  oC  New  \'orli.  ;ind  Ik'hiiu  csniltiisliin.L;' i;iiis  ami  raii:r 
sliows  ill  tilt'  ncar-liy  counties.  In  |S1",»  lie  secni'cd  tlie  |iassa;4('  of  an  Aci  I  , 
tlie  Legislature  a|i|iro|iriat  in.;  .SKt.doo  annually  for  six  year>  for  the  |iroiiiM. 
tion  ot  aiiricuhure  and  iloniotic  niaiiufaetui'es.  conditional  on  a  like  anmir  i 
iieiiiLC  raised  iiy  tlie  a;^'ricultural  >ocieliesin  the  ditlereiit  counties.  A  Sinii' 
Society  was  ineorjio.ated  in  IS;>L'.  to  wiiicli  county  Micielies  weie  ilnccted  In 
report,  wliile  it.  in  turn,  had  to  reiuler  a  I'ondiined  report  to  the  l.("j;i>lati:!v 
annually. 

Since  then  an  anricnltnral  de|partnieiit  has  licconie  an  indi.--|ien^ahle  |i;i!i 
oi  the  ,i;overnnicnt  ol  the  \arious  Slates  and  'I'eriitories.  even  of  iliose  tlcit 
are  iiojndaiiy  lielie\i'd  to  lie  only  nu'tallic  producers.  'I'he  character  ot  liir 
state  and  county  a,L;ricultural  fail'  ha>  lieeii  nnderiioin,!;'  a  radical  chaui^v  I'.i 
many  years,  esjiecially  in  .-ections  thickly  settled  or  near  lar;.;('  cities. and  tin 
I'iiiel  attractions  have  passed  from  the  cxhihition  of  sleek  domestic  aniiii  il~ 
,111(1  choici'  irnits  of  the  soil  to  hoi'se-racimj;  and  liicych^  contests.  Itinovation^ 
foreign  to  the  spirit  and  intention  of  the  fair  have  already  wronnht  its  riiin 
in  many  places  and  are  thrciienim;-  it  ueiierally. 

(M  .\iiictican  fairs  in  the  original  coinnieii'ial  sense,  those  jichl  during'  tin- 
rivil  War,  to  aid  the  work  (d'  the  I'liited  States  Sanitary  ( 'oniniissinn  on  iln' 
Ipatlletield  and  in  the  camp  and  hospital,  will  always  lie  historically  conspii-!- 
ou>.  iMiriun'  those  memoi'alile  four  years  it  is  donlitful  if  there  was  a  siic^lc 
city.  town,  or  villa,i;e  in  the  Nortln'rii  States  t  hat  did  not  jiut  forth  a  >[ieci;il 
elfoit  to  pniv  ide  necessities  ami  con\  enience>  lor  t  he  sol  i  lie  is  ami  sailors  t  lua 
were  not  supplied  liy  the  "i  iveriiinent .  am  1  the  fair  was  the  most  populai-  loiin 
<d'  rai-^iiiij;  the  needful  money. 

I'^xhihitions  of  special  articles,  posscs>i!in  the  jcaturcs  ol  state,  nation.:. 
ami  international  <"oml)inalion>.  ami  independent  of  any  locality.  cmmiI. 
jieriod  of  time,  are  lirowint^  in  treipieiicy.  Many  (d  these  have  a  iired.ii,; 
iiatinix  technical  interest. — as  the  intei'iiational  exhihitions  of  ti>herie>  :ii,i 
lishery  methods,  of  life-savinL(  methods  and  apparatus,  of  forestry  iiiodiiii- 
and  systems  of  forest  preservation,  and  o|  railw.iy  a|ipliam'es  ;  while  otln;- 
comliine  the  techni<'al  and  popular  teatures.  as  the  exhiliitions  ot  electiii  i. 
apjiartitus,  of  iiuproved  food  prejiarations.  ol  liicyides.  (d'  automobile  vehici.  -. 
and  of  wood-workiny-  and  lalior  savintf  miudiinery. 

Special  exhiliitions  in  the  I'liited  States  that  possess  a  lari^c  popular  ini' '• 
est    imdiide  tlie  animal  showim,'  of  the  art   associations  and   leai^ues  in   I'n' 
principal  cities,  ami  the  annual    lau'se.  doi^'.  and   sportNiiien's  shows   in    N 
^'(H•k    city.      .\mon'.,M hem  also  are  to  lie  noted   the  permanent  exposition^ 

I'hiladelphia    and  ('hiea;.,M  —  imth    remindei's    of   the    tj;reatest    internati 

expositions  that  had  lieeii  held  np  to  their  day.      The  I'hiladidphia  exposii 
is  liidd  in  Memorial  Hall,  the  liuildin.^,' erected  in  l''aii'i\iount  rarkhytheS'     - 
of  I'ennsvlvania  at  a  cost  of  ."iiil..">(Kl,( »(»(»,  and  used  lor  the  .Vrt  (iallerv  of 


w  n 


Till-:  cEsrriiys  fa/iis  a.\i>  Kxros/r/oys 


427 


llic  iiiiivn--il\ , 


id  not  ri'ccu 


■■utcniiiiil  l'l.\|Misiti(m  in 


iirs  :iMil  (Mi; 


iiu'stic  iiiiiiii 


I'dii-nit  Its  n 


IlllSSInll   oil     !  hi' 
Clllh'    COIlSlUi'M- 


pillar  h'l'iii 


stiiti'.  ii;il  loll. II. 

it\".     CM'lll.     1. 1 


iioiiiilar  nit> 


llO\V>     III       N'    A 

■\|po,sit ioii-N    II 
iiitcriiiitioi  i! 


1S7'1.      It  now  contains  an  art  and  iiidii>trial  collcr- 

■iiniilar  to  llic  t'aiiioiis  Soul  li   l\rnsin,i^toii   Miisciuii  in  London.     'I'lif  ( 'lu- 

■40  cxpo.sition   is  in  tiic  lormiT  Art    Talacr  ot  tiic  World's  Coiiinihian  Kxpo- 

iion  ill  iS'.t."!.  and.  liuvin.Lr  liffii  mdourd  i,y  .Marsliall   I'lfid  witii  .sljHHi.tMMi. 

now  known  as  tlu'  I'Mcld  ( 'oluniliian  .Mummhii.      Its  iiio>t  ronsjiiiuums  t'L'iitiin,' 

,1  coUt't'tion  sliowiiii;  tlu-  dcMdojuni'iit  ot  tin-  railwav.  and  tlic  next,  it.s  lur- 


iill    SI 


;ii'i  i-.i,    low  I 


l'\l!l^    lAI'o-IIION,     |ss> 


-iiv  I'xliiliits.  In  tiif  line  of  ptiiiiaiicnl  cxiMoitioiis.  ]'liiladi'l|iliia  is  to  In- 
ii'diti'd  witli  two  coiiiniricial  niiisiMiins  id  rar-riMciriiiu'  intiiii'iicc  tliat  will  tic 
■oiisidcrcd  riii'tlicr  on. 

Till'  first  fxliiiiitioii  o|    tlic  iiidii'-lrifs  ol   all  nation-  was  tliat  liold  in  Ilvdc 

itions  (d' 
t  tirst    Irsi^ncd  to  lir  only  a 
lational  t'iiti'r|irisf.  Imt  on  a  iiion'  cxti-ndi'd  scalf  than  tin.'  ioinn'r  I'xliiliitioiis 


>ii.  ill    ]sr,].      It 


was   all   oiiiLTrowtli   id    lln'  annual   i'n 


till'  Socii'tv  of  Aris.  liidoi'i'  incnlioiird.  and 


rm 


li'  III 


■■■Isfli/flt 


'■.•■■'iiii 


:.  ^1  fii 


ii 


42H  rUILMI'IIS    AM)    WOMiKliS    OF    TIIK    A/A'"    r/;.V  77  7.' )' 


nl  ilic  S'(ici\.  I'lic  laic  rriiicc  Allicit.  liusliaiiil  i>\'  <.'iic.ii  Xirimia.  Ikiwcn. 
f(>ii('i'i\  I'll  ilir  idea  nj'  I  lii'iiw  iii'^  litis  |iartiruiar  I'xhiliil  imi  ii|M'n  in  tlir  iinli, 
I  1\  nl  I  lie  wmlil.  lll>  suu;4<'-.l  inll  al  nurc  liirl  ihr  lavnl'  nl'  1  lie  ( 'millfi  I  . 
hi'  Sni-ji'lx.  a-  Wfll  as  nl  Ihr  Icailiii^-  uiaiiuracl  iirt'is  nl'  I'jiLjlaiiil  ami  il.- 
t^i'iii'ral  piililii'.  A  rnyal  warraiil  was  jirnriirril  a|p|iniiit  iii;4'  a  cnniiiiissinii  \-, 
••  iiiaiiaj^'c  an  rxliiiiitimi  nl'  liii'  wmks  nl'  iiuitistrv  nl'  all  iiatinns."'  ami  nl  ih 
IhkIv  I'riiict'  Aliirrt  lifcainc  |ircsiili'iit. 

Hn  l''fliriiar_v  L'l.  IS.IO.  t  hr  rniumi^sinmTS  I'd!  jiistilii'd  in  niaUin.n' a  imhli.- 
annnum'cnii'nl  that  the  Imildiii'^  wniihl  cnvcr  an  aifa  nl'  rrniu  sixtcni  in 
twcntv  ai'i'fs  ;  that.it  wnuhl  he  ready  i'nr  tlic  i'('ci'|itinn  nl  s^nnds  1)\  .lauiiai  . 
I.  iN.'il  :  and  that  thr  rxhihilinn  wniild  In-  tiiicnnl  tn  the  |mlilic  nii  .Ma\  I. 
i'nllnw  iiiM-.  'I'll,.  |,l;iiis  t'nr  a  liuildin.i;-  suliMiitlcd  li\  Sir  .Inst'iili  I'axtnn  wi^r 
acci'iitcd  attcf  a  \nv\H'  luiniltfr  had  liccn  cnnsidiTcd.  'I'hcv  i-allcil  I'nr  a  va-i 
stiiirturt' id'  ifnn  and  .vjlass.  sniMcwhat  siuular  tn  the  ,t;rcat  cniisrrvatnrv  In 
liad  cicctt'd  I'nr  the  iMiki'  nl'  Dcvnnshiif  at  ( 'hatsworth.  A  rnntiai-i  u;;- 
sii;iit'd  with  Mi-ssrs.  l'"nx  and  llcndfisnn  I'nr  tin-  ('nnstiaictitui  id'  the  iinildin,;. 
under  whieh  they  were  to  receive  -t'TlKNOO.  and  tlie  materials  id'  the  Imildin, 
weie  In  I'eniain  their  in'operty.  ( >n  l'"el)riiary  .'!.  the  enni|ileled  strnetiiri'  \\,i- 
Inrmally  delivered  tn  the  enmnnssiniiers.  It  had  an  extreme  len,!;lli  nl  js.M 
feet  and  an  extreme  breadth  nl'  ftt.S  feet,  with  an  additional  |irnjeelinii  mi  ili,- 
north  side.  '.Kid  teet  lon;^  liy   IS  leet  wide. 

W'iule  the  erection  (d  the  huildiiii,'  was  in  pro.ufess.  l)r.  Lyon  I'laylair  ua- 
chosen  to  decide  and  (dassii'y  the  wide  raiiij;e  id'  artitdes  that  was  soiii^ld  tn  Ih- 
Inoiiuhl  together  under  the  general  title  ol'  ••Objects  of  Industrial  and  I'l". 
ductive  .\rt.""  He  arrau^^ed  these  uiuler  four  i^reat  sections:  IJaw  MateiiaU. 
.Macddncry.  .Manulactures.  and  l'"ine  .\rts,  and  they  in  turn  were  divided  ami 

subdivided   into  a  vast    niindier  of  classes  and  smaller  divisions.     'I'ln I 

lectiuLj  of  national  exhibits  was  |(laccd  in  the  liands  (d'  district  cnmmiilii'- 
in  all  the  jirincipal  tnwns  ami  nuinnfacturinj;  localitit'.s,  and  in  res|Minsi'  i.. 
invitatinns  extended  tn  all  the  I>iitish  colonies  ami  the  \arinus  l'nrc:-n 
piveriimcnts.  nearly  e\er\  country  in  Kurope,' almost  every  Stale  in  llir 
Nl  rth  .\merican  Tninn.  the  >nnth  .\merican  re|)ublics.  India.  I'.^'.v  |  .  i'er>i.i. 
and  the  far-nlf  island- nf  the  seas,  sent  objects  that  swelled  the  total  e-r 
mated  value  of  exhibits  —  exidudiui;'  the  renowned  Koh-i-nn<)r  diamond  — t" 
V1.7S  I. <»'_'<». 

The  exhibition  was  opeued  by  (,)ueen  \'ietoria  on  the  apiioiided  day.  am! 
was  continued  till  October  II.  The  total  number  of  exhibitors  was  .dii'iii 
l."i.(H)(».  hurinsj;  the  III  days  the  exhibition  was  njien  a  total  of  (;.(K;."..'.im', 
jiersons  visited  it.  a  daily  avera!:;e  id'  IL'.lll.  The  lai'!.;"est  nuinbei-  in  a  siir^l'' 
day  was  on  Tuesday  (d'  the  (dosin;^'  wetd<.  I (>'.>.*.  11.').  .\n  attempt  to  ascerlam 
the  nuudier  (d'  loreii;n  visitors  de\(do|ied  the  uiiexpeided  result  that  not  lu'irli 
more  than  Id.tMMl  l'nrei|.,'ners  \  isited  l.nmloii  beyond  the  annual  avciic^e  "I 
l."».(M»(t.  Tile  liuancial  result  of  the  exhiliitinu  was  really  remarkable.  I'ln' 
tnial  receipts  I'mm  all  sources  anmuided  tn  i,'riO().(l(l(l.  ami  the  total  expeu'li- 
tures  to  about  t'.'!."!0.(t(«».  leavin-'  a  surjdus  of  t'17<i.(»(l»>.  whiidi  was  snl'~. 
(|Uently  increased  to  f  lsr».  l.'KI. 

The  distinctions  of  all  kinds  that  were  awarded,  ("ouiudl  and  ]iri/e  mcd.l- 
and  '•honourable  mentions."  a,i,'i,'rei;iited  r»OS-t.  It  is  Iiere  interestins;:  tn  n  ■'■  . 
as  si  low  in '4  the  trulv  international  (diaracter  of  the  lir.-l  world's  exhilnt  •  ;i. 


V/7  7.')' 


rill-:  cEMinvs  iwin-   wn  /■:.\i'osnin.\s 


ij'.t 


li'lla.  llnw  i'\  , 
II  In  the  imli, 
lln'  <  'Mllllcil    .  ; 

,L;i;ni(l   jiinl    i|;.. 

Ciillllllissinli     |., 

iil<iii,L;'  ;i  jiiiliii,- 

nlll     .sixteen     I.. 

Is  li\  •l:niii;ii  . 
•lii'  (111    .M;i\    I, 

II  l'll\t(Pll  Weil' 
llril  lor  ;i  \,|n| 
'Iisri-Villn|\    li,. 

I'llllt  fin-l       \\;,s 

r  tlic  liiiildiii-. 
I    til.'  ImiMiir, 

Stlllctlllf    W  .1- 

It'll.l^tll  (il  iN.M 
Ji'i'lidii  (III  ill,- 

1  l'lii\  I'iiir  \\:i- 

S   SOIlyllt    111  III- 

itriiii  :inil  i'l..- 
uiw  Miitcri.ii-. 
t'  divided  mni 

lis.       'I'lir    ml 

t  cniiilllilli'o 

r('s|i(iiisf  t.i 

idiis    I'liivi^i 

^t;iii'    in    ill.' 

;\\  I'' .  TciM.!, 

IC    tutlll    r-1' 

i;iiiiiiiid  —  \'< 
■d  diiy.  ;iih 

WilS      Illl.M.l 

if  (;.(m;."i.'.im; 

ill  ;i  siiiul'' 
tn  MsciTiii'ii 
it  not  iiiMiii 
iivcniuv  .'I 
kiil.l.'.  Ti  !■ 
ital  i'X|ifiii:;- 
w;is   sill'  , 

>ri/r  nicii,.,- 
iiiLT  til  III  ' 
cxliiiui 


1    iorcign  guests  (ieeii|iied   t  wd-tiltlis  ni    the  exiiiliii  inn  siiiice  ,ind 


'-tit'ths  nl    the   linnnl's.       jll'it 


Isli  ex 


rei-el\etl 

liiliilni's  ni   niaeiiiiieiv .  iiianuinet  iires  in 


t  il.  mid  iniinnliiiMiiie.s  in  j^'lass  and   |ini(elaiii.  tnnk  nmre  [iri/es    liian  al 
InreiLTHeis  enniliined.      l''iirei^,Miers  lid  in  llie  niiinlier  ni'  pii/es  Imieslil 


lies,  tine  aits,  and  iiiiset'Uai 


leniis   inanulaeiiin's ;   and  in  llie  seetinii  III  ra 


.leriais  Inr  loud  and  inaiiiilaetnres  liie  Imeejii  exiiiliitms  y,- 
e.s  as  many  pri/es  as  the  liritisli. 
I  Ins  exliil)itinn  dev.dniied  a  niiiiil 


w 
ined  neai'h  Imii 


ler  111    leallll'e.s   I  iial    slinii 


d    lie   inline   in 


nd  when  cousidt'ring  thust;  thut  i:unu!  atU'r  it.      It. 


was  an  exiieriiueiit  m  ai 


roriiT  OF  iioNui:  ihom  rKitisTYiv; 


iWiiilil'-  I 'iiliiiiilil.'iii  l.xini>ili.in.  < 'Il 


IX!!-'!.* 


untried  tield ;    it  was  enniinised  iii  a  sm 


-le  1 


iiiildiii!^- :   and  it   was  srll-sii|i]ini-t- 


III-. 


In    all    ies|ieeis    it    was   a    inarvelnii 


S    aclllevellien 


t,        It 


made   the    late 


'nine  <  'nlisnrt     till 


itlier.    and  the  Sneietx 


Arts    the    liinliei  T     innninte 


ni  llie  inlernatiniial  eximsitinii. 

The  lieiietieial  illlllieliee  nt  the  til'sl  Wnrld's  exhiliilmii  lie'^all  t(i  lie  tell 
iiiiiiiediately.  An  exhiliilimi  of  the  arts  and  niainii'aetnres  nt  Indaml  was 
lirld  in  < 'nrk  in  the  rnllnwiiiLj  year,  and  the  IJnyal  Diililin  Sneiely.  whieh  had 
h'eii  holdiiit,'  similar  exliiliiliniis  t rieiinially.  :^ni  up  a  mneh  lari^cr  one  than 
ii-iial.  tlirniitfh  the  ^enetniis  |ieeniiiary  aid  ni'  William  l>ari;aii.  in  J.S.'il 
I'lililin  exhiliitinii.  unlike  thai  nl'  ('nrk.  was  inlernatiniial  in  senpe. 


Th 


Aiiierieaii    visitors   tn    the    Lniidmi   exliilii 
iielty  lai'Lie  iii.s|iirat inn    Inr  a   si 


tinli     lil'iill'^hl     Imi 

iiiilai'  el'lnit.  and  lietme   the 


ne    with    tlieiii   a 
elnse    ni     l.S.'il   a 


*>l      I 


lit     II 


>l 


nf 


1W 


m 


H   ; 


(14 


i^ 


i5^< 


iH 


«i«S';    lii 


4;m)      TJUiMi'iis  AM)  n().\in:ns  ur  the  a/.v"  ciisti  nv 

iiMiiilicr  (if  citi/i'iis  nt   New  \'(iik  lijid  iissdciiitfil  tliciiisclvcs  tnr  that  |iiiriHi>.  . 
Ill  .laiiiiiiiv.  IN.VJ,  ilic  cnriHiratidii  n|   llic  city  of   New    N'oiU   i,'iiiiitc(l  a   ha- 

tor  live  years  nt  licsrrvdir  S(|iiai('.  on   tlic  coiMlitioiis  that  a  liiiildiiiij;  of  ir 

j;hiss.  and  wimmI  slioiihl  lir  erected  tlieieoii.  and  tliat.  the  entrance  IVe  Id  tl, 
j)r(i|Mised  exhiliitidii  shdiild  iidt  exci  I'd  tilty  I'ciits.  In  .Mareh.  the  LcljisI., 
tiii'c  ineorpdrated  the  Associat icii   ini- tlie  l'',xhiliitidii  nl' the  Industries  oi' ,i,i 

Nations,  with  a   capital   dl'   Si'oo.lMHl  that    nii;j;lit    lie    incicaseil   to  S;;(H».( 

Siil)se(|nentiy.  tlie  i''cderal   (idvermiieiit    cdiistitiiled    the    linihlini,'  a    liniidi  i 
warelidiisc  and  exeniptcd  t'drei;,'ii  exiiiliits  IVdni  tlie  |iayiiii'nt  dl'  duties. 

This  exliiliilidii  was  tlierelore  a  private  eiiterpi'isc,  having  iid  dtlier  dtlici.ii 
recd,i,'nitidn  than  that  nientidiied.  It  was  alsd  an  iinrniimiate  alTair  Ircuu 
bei^inniiii;  tn  cml.  The  hieatidii  was  then  tliiee  or  i'diir  niih's  IVdiii  the  iicni 
of  the  city:  the  area  was  entirely  inaih'ipiate  Idr  the  |iiirpdse  ;  the  da\  nj 
dpciiMPj;  had  tn  lie  pustpdneil.  liecaiix'  of  the  iiicdiiiiilcte  cdiiditidii  nl  i  i,,. 
liiiildiiii;  ;  and  tiiiaiicially  the  ciilerprise  was  a  lini,'e  railiire. 

'i'lie  exhiliilidii  was  opened  .Inly  II.  Is.'t.'l,  with   niiich  ccrenidiiy.  alt  hoiiuli 
still  scarcidv  half  readx'  t'dr  cxhiliits  dr  visitors,  and   was  cdntiniicd    Idr    ij'.i 


(lavs. 


Tliere    weic   alidiit     ISOU    cxhiliitdrs.    sdiiiewliat    imne    tha 


n    dnc-li,i; 


lieini,'  i'oreii;!!.     The  total  cost  of  the  c\hil)ition  w.is   nearly  .S1.0(Mi,(Mi(i.  ami 
the  receipts  Were  S.'llu.lKlo.      Altlidii'.^li  a   linancial    lailiiie  and  a  di>appoiiit. 


iiieiit  III  nianv  wa\s.  tins   lirst   international   ex 


liiliit 


ion   III  tlie  I   lilted  .stalls 


\v 


us  product i\('  oi'  iniich  v;'i"» 


r 


le  success  oi'  the    London   exhiliilioii   aisd  aroused    the  l'"reiicli  to  dep 


ir: 


troiii  the  exclusively  national  character  (d'  their  lornier  exhiliilions  ami  in 
inan.uMirate  one  open  to  the  wurld.  'riii.>  wis  doiii'  under  t  he  iiirecl  au^phi- 
(d  the  Imperial  ( iovcinnienl.  wliiidi  midcrlook  to  cdiiioine  certain  lealiiieN  ,,• 
both  the  London  and  the  New  \'ork  enterprises:  hence,  the  lirst  intcin.i 
lioiial  exhiliitidn  held  in  I'aris  was  practic;illy  a  private  scheine  suppoitnl 
by  dllieial  ,i,'iiaraiitees.  .\  riirther  ilep;irture  was  here  inaile  in  the  matter  nl 
bllildilll,^  ;ind.  instead  (d  the  siii.v;le  ','reat  striietiire.  there  were  the  Palais  ilc 
riiidiistrie.  the  I'alais  des  Mcaux  Arts,  the  I'anoniina.  and  three  sinallci 
liiiildin^s  lor  a,nricultural  iiiiplcinents.  c;irria,L,'es.  and  a  variety  of  less  eosiiv 
arti(des.  .Viiother  iniidvatidii  was  In-re  intrdduced.  a  partial  return  tn  llic 
inethdds  (d'  the  cdiiimercial  I'air.  in  the  sett  iiit,'  apart  id'  exhibit  iic,' spaces  mh 
the  open  Lfround. 

The  main  biiildiic^-.  the  I'alais  de  rindustrie.  was  erected  by  a  joint-stoik 
company  on  the  Chaiiips  !''.l\sees.  and  provided  ;i  tidor  space  (d'  l.77n.'""' 
sipiare  I'eet.      It  was   imilt   dl'  i^lass.  stone,  and   brick,  and  was   SdO  b'el    loii- 


bv  .■».">(>    feet    wide.     The    various    bi 


iildin.u's    t 


ost  jibdiit    .S."i.(KIO.(»()(l.  and   il 


I'alais  de  rindustrie  was  I'lected  for  a  pernianeiit  structure. 

This  exhibitidii  was  dpeiied  im  May  l.'i.  IS."».  and  (dosed  mi  November  |.'>. 
fdlldwiiii,'.  It  was  visited  by  l.r>;!."..  ICtl  persdiis.  I'lesides  Kniiice  and  Ic  r 
cdldiiies.  lii'ty-thiee  forei;j;ii  states  and  twenty-two  cohniics  IndoiiLjinj^;  to  tin m 
sent  exiiibits.      In  all   there  were  L'd.S.'!'.*  exhibitors,  tlidse  of  l-'rance  ai 


IlKl    Ihi 


coldiiies   predominating,'  by  diily  about  TiOO.     The  exhibits  were  (dassilied 
the  liOii(h)ii  jilaii.  there  beiiii;  in  eaidi  case  thirty  classes  altonct  her.      I'.xcli 
iiig  the  inaiii  biiildiiiLr.  \vhi(di  the  Iiii|ierial  (idveriiment   :ic(|nired.  the  exln 
tion  cdst  about  .S-.-.""»<>.<'(i(». 

Uetwot'ii  the  lirst  and  second  London  exhibitions  tliere  were  inaiiv  ind 


rji) 

liiit  |mr|in 

.U\\'{\    tl    ll'il 

liiij;  (if  iin  . 
(■(•  Iff  1(1  tl. 
tlif  Lfj;isl. 
iistrics  (>r  a., 
In  .S;!<HMIiii' 

11^'  a    Imiiii'  I 
liitifs. 

(itlicr  (itHci.i! 
•  al't'iiir   I'r 

(Mil   tllf   lli'.li' 

;  tllf  (lii\  '  ! 

llitioll     III      ll.r 

my.  aliliiiii-;; 
iiiii'd  l(ir  ll'.t 
liaii  iiiif-liiil! 
.Odd.CtUU.  aiiM 
a  (li>aii|i(iiiii 
iiilfd  Stall- 

iicli  t(i  (It'iiai-; 
iiiniis  ami  i" 

reel    ail>|i|i'' 
ill  Iratiiic-^  "! 
irst    iiitfiiij 

f    SUli|i(il'l''il 

If  iiiattfi  I  1 
If  Palai^k 
irff  siiiallri 
less  fdsl  i\ 
■turn  til  III'' 
i\X  siiacfs  uii 


'////•;  ('i':\Ti'ii)'s  I'AHis    \.\it  /.;a7'o.s7//o.v.v 


jdUlt-stiirk 

r  l.TTtMMiii 

)()      Iffl       Idl!- 

KMt.  ami   li 

(iNciiilifr  I'l. 
iicf  ami  li'  1 
jiiiLj  t(i  tin  iM 
iiiff  ami  li'  I 
flassilifd  ■  ■! 

(T.        IvKclni- 
.   tllf  fxllll" 

inaiiv  iml 


i:tl 


il  ami  art  ilisjilays  in  the  rnitfil   Kiii^'doni  and  I'ulnnif.s  ami  <iii  ilir  (  niili- 


ii.  aiiKMi''  wliudi  slidiild  lie  miti'ii  tliosf  ii 


t  Nfu   1 


•  riinsw  If  K  am 


M; 


Klias  III 


Miiiiifli  in  iS.'it.  and  I'ldinlmri^di  and  .Maiiflicstfr  in  IS", 


sfcdiid    Liindmi  f Nliiiiilinn  was  nndfit; 


ikfii    hv  a.  i'iiniiiii>Mi>ii   lifad 


ilif  lirst,  li\   tllf   I'liiirf  ('iinsiirl.  iiiidfr  a   unaraiilff   liiiid    nl   SlM'.'iO.OOO. 

iiilf    it  was    ill   fdiirsf  dl'  pre |iaraliiiii    the   I'liiiff   ('diiM.rt    difd.  and   lur  a 

iilf  a  licavv  pall  Iiiiiil,'  dvcr  llic  sciifnif.      I'iif  fdiimii>sidii  lific  ini  rudiicfd 

{•'rciifli   idea  (it  xparatf  liiiildini,'s.     'I'lic  mIc  was  at   Sdiitli  Kf  iisiiii^tdii, 

it  tlic  Miaiii  slrnclnrf  was  liiiilt  (d'  liricU,  Lrlass,  and  iniii. 


w  as  iifarlv  rfctan 


■^  ,lar  in  sliapf.  and  cuvfrfd  an  area  nl   alidiit  scvfn  acn's,      Willi  tlic  annexes 
1 !  !■  tdtal  area  under  i mit  w  as  alHiiil  I  wc nl  \  l  Incf  acres. 

riiis  exliiliitidii  was  d|ienfd  \i\  (lie  I  MiUe  id'  ( 'aniliridL;i'  (Ui  Mav  I.  ISCtL*. 
;,  i  remained  ip|ieii  lur  177  davs.  It  was  visited  li\  (i.L'l  |.1(».'!  |ieisdns.  a  daily 
u.fiage  ot  .■J(».;iL'W,  its  receipts  were  wholly  iibsorbeil  by  expciiM's.  and  a  sliylit 


rt-iy 


^nmmi^iU 


'^^•■-3QPii.  ■; 


\ 


4 


^^ 


WllM  VN  s    lail  IHNi: 

(Worlil'-  CoIiiiiiIh;!!!  I'.x|'"-iiiiiii.  IS'.i:).) 


ili'iifit  was  left,     {''iirfij^n  fxliiliiturs  iiiiiiilif  ifd  I  7.Nfil.  and  i 
!HMi()  ],ri/f 


iTiui'il  imtre 


III 


IS(!.">  tllf    P'rciifli  (idveriiiiif lit  anmiuiifnl  that    an  exliiliitiiui 


Wdiild    III 


than 


I   li^ 


lifld  in  Paris  in  lsr(7.  that  was  iiilfiided  tn  lie  iimre  emiiplelidy  universal  in 
I'liaiai'ter  and  mure  ediiiprelieiisive  in  plan  than  any  that  liad  e\cr  lieeii  held. 
Tlir  ( 'lianip  de  Mars,  the  ijreat  parade-i^Ndiiml  mi  wliieli  tlie  j'",edle  Militaire 
liriil.  ediitainin;,' alidiit  lit  acres,  was  placed  at  the  ilis]pdsal  (d  the  ciuiiiiiis- 
•-idiers  liy  the  ( Invc iniiifiit.  In  the  ccntie  id'  this  space  was  electee!  the 
luiiiiilial  liiiildiii,!,'.  an  nval  striicluie  mainlx  id'  iiim.  I<i(i7  left  ImiL,' and  iL'tii 


I  wide,  that  ciist  81 


.001). 


Ill    planniif^  this    Imildiie^  tlif  cdiivfiiiiiiff   id'  exliiliitnrs  and   vi^iturs   in 
liliits  id'  aiiv  desin  d   cduiitr\  nr  elass  was  ''i\cii   tlie 


I'  ad\  access   ti)  the  ex 


'ii'icreliee  iivi 


r  andiitectiiral  et't'ect.      Here,  ai^^ain.  was  a  diri'iisiMii  id'  exiiiliils 
detaidied   hiiildiiiLrs.   and    a    mitewditliv    iinveltx'    was    tlie    reservatii'ii    id' 

\    I'lii- 


;.;iiiiind  (HI   the  park   surrdundiiii;'  the  main 


liiiildiifj'  lur  tllf  ereetimi   li 


II  exhiliitiirs  nf  special  Imildin^s   I'nr  the  display  nl  artiides  that  cimiil  imt 


III' a(!('OinuuKlatcd  in  the  main  struct i 


Tl 


IIS  Iratuif  liei.'allie  the  Ulnst    pdp 


w 


I 


m 


4au       'luiUMi'Us  amj  n(tMn:i:s  or  ////■;  a/.V"  <i:.\rii;y 

nliir  uiic  ut'  the  I'litiir  cxliiltitinii.  lur  it   i^mvi-  ii  iiiu.si   ^'i'.i|ilii('   lllu^tl';ltill||    ; 
till-  art'liilcctiirt',  iiuiiiiii'r.->.  cusldiii.s,  iiiul  ('(Hiiillt'M.s  |irciiliarilii's  <<i  tlu;  ih'ii|. 
nl'  till!  wiirM. 

'I'lio  cxliiliil  iuii  was  ((|i('iic(l  liy  tlir  Kiii|pi'i(>r  mi  A|>ril  I,  tN(l7.  ami  \\  - 
cIiisimI  (III  (trtnlii'i'  .'il.  Iiillduiii^r.  'I'lit'  iiiiMilit'i'  (it  visitni's  u as  ii|iwai'<l  I 
1. ").(!( ►(».(»(  10.  a  ilaily  avcra,y;r  ot  nearly  7<MK)0,  and  nf  cxliihitors.  .*il.,s|'.t.  ,  , 
all,  IL'.'.MI  iin'ilals  and  jL,'raii(l  prizes  of  iKnioralilr  iiit'iitioii  wtTc  awaniio, 
l'"rniii  lM"j:iiiiiiii'r  tu  fiid  tlif  cxiHMisi's  were  S  |,,"»SH'.,7<>J.  and  tlir  it'n'i|its  ,, 
},ni'oat('d  SL,'.,S'J-.'.(MH».  Tin'  national  and  iiinniri|ial  i,M>vriniiii'nts  i-nntrilnr.  .1 
SSl.l.'nO.tMHl  cacli.  uliicli  added  tn  tlic  ri'i'»'i|its  oi  the  ■•xliihiliiiii  |»rt>|i('r  i-icair  | 
a  siirjiliis  (ivt'P  i'X|i('ndilun'  (d'  .S<»l.'<l,tM)(l. 

I,niidun"s  third  I'xliiliilidii.  Iniiii   Mav  1   till   ScptrnilH'r  ."iO.  1S71.  was   m 
ji'i'ti'd    as  tlic  lirst  (d'  an   aiinnal  srriVs    tliat    sliouid   si'|iaiali'lv    indnmr 
distinct    liiaiirli  ,>['   industrial   rITiirt.      Tliirt  y  -  tliicc    jurrii^n   rdiinlrics  \\. 
rcpii'scnti'd ;   tlicrc  were  a|iiir(ixiniati-ly  KMHl  art   ami   70(M»  indiisl  rial  i-xlnl 

ti>r>:  and  tlic  visitnrs  nnmlicrcd  1.1  ll.'.(M)(l.     'I'lic  si ml  in  t  lie  scrio.  in  Is',' 

was  conlincd  In  print  in,!,',  pajifr,  music  musical  instruments.  Jcwclrx.  cuUi.ii 
}j;(Hids.  and  line  arts  ;  and  tin-  third,  in  IS7.'!.  was  devoted  to  the  L^eiicral  siiii- 
jeet  oi  cookery. 

(Jreat  as  was  the  ninversal  exposition  of  I'aris  in  1S(;7.  tlia^.  at  \'iinn.i  in 
1S7.'!  far  surpassed  it  in  extent  and  !,'iaiideiir.  althoui^h  its  pecuniary  ^ucc. ■^^ 
was  severely  at't'ected  1p\  an  epidemic  oi  choleia.  a  tinaiicial  crisis,  and  IoimI 
extorlions.  As  cadi  id'  the  prcccdin;^  international  exhiliiiions  had  dcv.i. 
oped  a  ilistinctivc  Iciliirc.  so  this  of  N'ienna  introduced  the  cnstoin  oi  holdin,' 

ipil'M- 


wor 


Id's  con;.,'reHses  I'or  the  discussion  <d   ,t;reat  problems  ol    nnisersal  a{ 


tion. 


The  cxhiliitifin  was  opeiieil  on  .Ma\'  1  and  closed  on  Novemlpcr  .">.  lollowin.:. 


'rurnstiles   recorded    the   entrance  of   7.L'ol.(»S7   visitors.     'I'hei 
7<l.()(l(l  cxliihitors,  whose  displav.  in  extent  and   costliness,  ex 


e    Were    almiil 


cecijed   tlial 


I'aris  in  IS(i7.  'I'lie  ijross  receipts  were  ahoiit  8-.< •'•'•.( Hit),  and  expemlitnlc•^ 
aliout  ."riK.S.'tO.tMMI.  making'  a  deticicncy  oi'  some  .'i!»7..S.'>n.(ltMI.  which  the  (ioMrn- 
iiieiit  liipiidatcd.  The  I'nited  Slates  was  represented  hy  TiJ."  exhiliitois.  nmir 
than  hair  ot  whom  were  awarded  prizes. 

This  hnnu's  the  record  up  to  the  ( 'entcnnial   Kxpositioii,  at   I'hiladclpin  i. 
in  IS7<>.  and  covers   the  tliird  ipiarter  id'  the  century.     The  actual    work  ■<\ 
iiiakiiij,'  the  ('cnteniiial   Kxliihitioii  lie;^'aii  on   March  'A.  '.S7I.  when  Coii-ii-s 
passed  an  .\ct  creatint,'  the  I'liited  Stales  ("entcnnial  ( 'oiiiiiiission.     This  m- 
thori/ed  the  I'resident  to  appoint  a  coinmissioiier  and  a!i  altei'iiatc  tiiini  c.h  h 
St:ite  and   'i'eiritory.  on   the   nomination   oj'  the    r'.spective  L,'overnors.      !• 
appointnieiits   v.ere   promptly   made,   and    troni   the  whole  hody  ol'  comiii- 
sioiiers  the  lolIowiiiL;'  were  chosen   lor  the  princiipal  execiitive  otlicers  :   l'i.~ 
dent.  Joseph  1{.  I  lawley.  of  ( 'oiinccticut  :   \' ice- 1' residents.  .Ml'ri'd  '1'.  (iosln  •  u 
ol   ( >liio.  ( trestes  Cleveland,  ol'   New  .lersev.  dolin    !>.  ('rei!,di.  ol'  ('alil'onui 


iioliert  I,owr\.  (d'  l( 


)wa.  am 


I  Kohert  .Mallorv.  of  Kentiickv  ;   nircct.or-(icnii  il 


Allri'd  T.  (iosliorii;  Secretary.  .lolin  I^.  ('am|(l)eil.  ol'  Indiana:  .Assistant  > 
rotary.  l>orsey  (iardner;  Counselor  and  Solicitoi-.  dohn  K.  Slioeiiiakcr. 

Details  of  ori,'anization  and  niaiiaj,'enient  were  vested  in  an  Kxeculivc  ( 
mittee.     (hi.lune  1.    1S7L'.  Con;.^rcss   passed  an    .\ct   creatiii!:,'  the  Ceiiteii     ■■'. 
l»o!ird  of  Fiiiaiice.  with  larj^e  powers.     This  Jioard  estimated  that  the  co-      i 


■'ft 


rriiY 

>[   till!    llfcijil 

S('»7.  ami    • 

lis    UllWillM       1 

^.  :.i.si'.».    1,1 

iflf     il\Vlllll<    1. 

(•  rt'ccipts  ,iu- 
[s  roiitriliU'  i 
[in)|)('r  iTfiit'  i| 

ISTl.  w;is  I  In. 
'ly    iirmiititi     i 

•nllllllii'S    \\i|., 

iiNlriiil  r\liii.i 
scrif>.  in  l^iT'J. 
if\Vflr\ .  ci.iii.i, 

U'  ^('IHTul   >llh- 

,t    at   N'iciiiia  lu 

'miiill\\     >lll'rr>-. 

I'isis.  ami  Im  ,il 
mis  liaii  ili'\'i- 
iliilll  <>|  linlillli.; 
ivt'i-sal  apl'ii'M- 

.'!.  I'dUdw  111-. 

wi'iT  ali'iiii 

'I'llcil  tlial    Ml 

cXlit'liilil  nir- 

I    till-   (;<i\il! 
lillitdlS.   IIM'IV 

IMiilailrlpliii. 
tiial  wiiiK  u; 
ln'ii  Ciiii.:!'''^^ 

(III.    'riii>  Ml- 

ate    t'nilll   r.irll 

M'nmi'.s.     Til'' 

V    (if    (•olllli.i- 

llic'iN:    I'l'-- 

(1    T.   (iosill'lll. 

(if  ('alilonii  I. 

rctlir-Ol'lHI.ll. 

Assislaiil  >' '  ■ 
'iiiaki  r. 

AfClllivc  I  ■'•11- 

lif   Cciiti'ii;    il 
hat  till'  I"-'    ■• 


Till':  r/;.v/7  7.'}'.s  r.iuis  .i.\7>  h.\i'osniu.\s 


'l 


\x\ 


I  ,.' oxliiliitidii  udiilil  lif  Slo.oiMi.uuti.  and  aiipnrtidiicd  siiaii-s  of  caiiital  .stdck 
'!■  tlii.s  aiiKHiiit    aiiiiiii'4  till'  si'Vfiai   Slalr.-.   aiiij   'rni'ilni  ii's,  on   tlir  lia>is  nl 
niilalinii.     SiiliM'i|iii'iitl\ .  a   r>iiai'il  nt    l!i'\ciiiii'  \va^  a|i|Miii;tc(l  ami  vcstril 
:  Il  aiitlimily  tn  riillci'l  siili.'^('i'i|itiiiti.s  ami  utiii'i'  luiuU. 

!>i'.s|iiti*  till'  tiiiaiii'ial  jiaiiii'  nl'  tlic  siiinnii'i'  nf  |N7.>.  |ii'('|iat'atiiiiis  |i|'(i^|'i'>m'i1 
lavdiably  tliat  iin  .Inly  .'!    I'ri'.sidciit   (Ifant    i.s^md  a  iniMdaniatidii  ifrilin.i,' 

it  till'  niir-linndri'iltli  aiiiiivrisai'y  nl'  tlii'  iiiili'|ii'nili'n< I  tli"  I'niti'd  Statrs 

oiild  1)1' ci'lchraii'd  liy  lidldin;,' an  inlmiatidiial  r.\liiliitidn  n/  arts,  niaMiilai'- 
iMi's.  and  till'  |ii'iHliirts  df  the  .soil  and  iiiinc.  in  l'liiladi'l|ilii  i,  in  lS7<'i.  d|n'ii- 
11,'  Ajiril  !'.»  and  clii.sin.i,' <  ictolicr  |'.».  and  inviiinj,'  tlic  iiatii  ns  o|  the  wmld 
;  taki'  |iait  in  lintli  tin-  ri'lfliration  and  tin-  I'xliilijt  ion.  In  ir>|ion,M'  to  a 
l-rnial  invitation  i.ssncil  hy  tin  Sccrrtary  ol  State,  tliiity-two  lon-ii^n  t^dSi'iii- 
ii  iiit.s  sent  t'avuralilr  i't'|)lirs  Inr  tlii'iiisrlvi'.s  and  tlii'ii'  cdlonii's. 

Till'  city  of  I'liilaili'lhliia  [ilaci'd  at  the  tlisposal  ol'  tin'  ronimissionci'.s  a 


A<mn  rt.Ti'KAi.  itiii.niNo. 

(Alliiiitii  I'.xpositidii,  ISIi.'i.) 

trart  in  Fainnount  Tafk.  a,ix!,'f('f:atini:  L'.'!r»  acfcs.  I'or  tin'  ipriin'i|ial  Imildings, 
and  al.so  iiiaili'  projiortioiiati'ly  larj,'i'  allotiucnts  lor  tlir  rxliihition  ot  live- 
.^llM•k  and  a,!;'ri('iiUiii'al  inipli'inrnts. 

I'ivi'  principal  lmildin,i,'s  were  croctcil.  Tin-  Main  Kxliihilion  Unildini^  was 
ill  till'  loriii  ol'  a  paralli'lo^Mani.  1SS(»  I'l-i't  Ion;.;'  and  Kll  Ifi't  w  idr,  with  prn- 
i'M'tidns  at  till'  crntrt'  of  tlii'  lon'^M'st  sidt-s  llCi  feet  loii"',  and  at  tlir  (•(•ntir  of 
till'  short  diif.s  L'KJ  li'ct  lon,i,'.  'I'hc  luiildinij;  was  cri'i'ti'd  on  pirrs  of  masonry, 
u  i-dii;,dit-iron  colnmiis  sniiportiiiL;  wroii^'lit  iron  roof  trnssrs  lorniiiii;- tin-  ;-upi'r- 
striictiiri',  till'  sides  of  whid'  lor  sonii'  distani-i'  almvi'  the  j^'roiind  wn-i'  linishrd 
liitwci-n  the  colinnns  with  |iani'li'il  hrirk  work.  'I'liis  Iniildin;^' covcrcil  -1.17 
acri's.  had  a  tlnor  spai-i-  of  '.i;5C..tt(».S  s(piar('  feet,  ami  cost  Sl.CitMt.ddO. 

The  Art  (rallcry  and  .Mi'inorial  Hall,  di'si^fin'd  to  he  a  in'rinancnl  strnc- 
tiiri'.  was  crci'ti'd  on  an  ciniiieinH'  in  the  i-ansiiowne  I'lateau.  It  is  hiiilt  of 
i,'ianit(\  jijlass,  and  iron,  in  the  nmdern  Ifenaissanee  style  of  arehitectnre.  on  a 
terrace  several  feet  aliove  the  level  of  the  Tlatean.  and  cost  81..'iO(».(MMI.  'Die 
diiiiensidns  are ;  lent,'th.  .'tCM  feet:  width.  L'lO  feet:  lieii^dit.  ."ilt  feet.  l''ioni 
the  centre  of  the  stnictnre  rises  a  dome  of  iron  and  glass,  l.")0  feet  in  hei!;ht, 

2S 


1^  nil 

i 


HC 


iv 


Mi 


4;m      TJiii'Mi'ns  AM)  woyjihiis  ur  tuf  \ix"'  cestuuy 

surmoiiiitt'ci  by  a  tij.',!"''  <•!'  ('()liiml)iii  with  tmtstrctcluMl  liiuuls.  This  huiidi; 
was  crccttMl  1»  ■  tlic  Slate  nl  I'cnnsylvaiiia,  and  is  now  ust'd  as  a  iifiniauc 
art  anil  indiislnal  niusfiini. 


M 


irliiniTV  Hall  was 


I  H>L'   Ifft   Idii.r  and  .■{(!(»  Icft  wi(h'.  witli  an  a 


nnt'x    a 


tilt'  south  side  L'lO  li_v  L'OS  Irct.  and  tiic  main  building'  anil  annex  liad  t.iii,'ctli.  i 
a  Hoor  space  ol  .VtS.  1 10  s(|uare  Irrl,  or  nearly  thirteen  acres.     The,  total  ii.  t 


as  ST'.L'.MOO.     Ilorticidtnial   Mall,  near  the  Art  (Jallerv,  was  bidlt  I 


)V  II: 


eilyof  rhiladel|iliia  i'or  |ierni:inent  nses.  It  exhiliits  the  Moorish  arehit< , . 
tnre  ot  the  twellth  eentiuy.  is  .'!S.'!  ieet  lont;  by  I'.K!  I'eel  wiile,  and  is  71'  \^■<  i 
hii,'li  to  the  tii|i  ol'  the  lantern.  Its  eost  was  .'i<L'."»l.'.t.".7.  The  .\<,'rieiiitui.!i 
Uuihlini,'  was  ereeted  id'  wo.ul  and  glass,  (lie  j,M'ound  |>lau  showing,'  a  iiarallrn,. 


"^Kt^n^ 


(A'lantii  Kx|iu>itioii,  iSiCi.) 


Ife'i 


(HI' 


il'i' 


,i,M'ani  ti.'id  feet  lonv;  Ity  ■l<>.">  I'eet  Aviile.  and  a   nave  S'JCi  feet  Ion;.,'  and  KMI  fe.i 
wide  crossed  by  three  transepts,  and  cost  ibout  !*!•!•"•< I.t^M*. 

(tther  noteworthy  ediiices  were  the  Tnited  Stale-:  (iovernnient  r.iiildin.'. 
oMl  feet  Ion','  liv  ."Mtu  Iret  wide,  prepared  to  exhibit  the  various  lnuctioii>  mI 
the  public  service ;  the  W'oMien's  I'avilion.  coveriii.LT  an  area  of  an  acre,  iiml 
with  its  exhibits ''  Woman's  handiworU  tromtiic  tiftcen  leading;  nation^  ..t 
the  world  const,  .iiiui,'  the  tirst  display  of  the  kind  ever  attempted  mi  i 
larj^e  scale;  twenty-si.\  bMililini,'s  erected  by  State  and  Territorial  '^'overii- 
ments ;  and  many  others  put  up  by  ibrci^^'u  j^ovcrnnienls  or  exhiliitniN 
I'.efore  the  exhibition  clnsed  there  were  more  than  two  hundred  liuildin;,'-  i'M 
the  •ground. 

.\m  interest  in;.;  feature  of  this  exhiliition  was  the  observance  of  State  \h\\^, 
when  the  ;.,'ovi'rnors  of  the  States,  with  their  oHicial  stafl..  am'  a  lari,'!'  foilnA. 
in;.;  of  citizens,  made  ceremonial  visits  and  held  rcccptii.ii,-.  in  the  scmi.iI 
State  iiidlilin'.;s.  There  were  also  uunn-rous  other  special  days,  wheii  In 
f  people  united  ill  a  commo 


-I- 


II   interest,  icli'^'ioiis,    iraleriial 


social,  nuiilii  \. 


iquatic,  or  educational,  added  thousands  to  (he  ordinar\  altendaiice. 


huriii''  the  exhibition    il.'.tlO.lMiCi   persons   entered  the  ;.,'rounds,  of  u  h-iu 


e    ct'M'  ^ 


7,L'."»n.(;i;i»  paid    the   lull   rate  of    lifty  cents.   7."'';!.<'..'!l    paid  twenty-liv 
each,  and    l.'.MMl.b'.IL'  had   free  entry.     The  exhiliition   represented  an  nuil,y 
of  all  kinds  and  by  all   interests  of  about  ijlL't »,(»(>( »,(»(•(».     Tlie  riiiled  St  i'.  s 


(S®"^ 


rruiiv 


THE   CEXTUJiV'S   FAIllS   .l.VZ)   KXPOSITIOXS 


J3."i 


TliisbuiMi    ; 
s  a  iHTiiiaii' 

li  all  annex     I 

X  hail  tn;,'(I  i 

Tli(!  total  c    • 
s  Itiiilt  Ity  I 
orisli  archil' . 
,  and  is  7-  I'  ■  i 
ic  A.i;rifuliin  .1 
[w^  a  parallim- 


i|4  and  ton  t''"'i 

lent,  I'.iiilMiiij. 
IS  tnuci  inii>  m1 
an  aiTi'.  ;iiiil 
\\\)X  nalinii^  ot 
llcniptcil  cm  I 
iturial  '^cmmh- 
DT  cxliiliiini-.. 
il  linililin','-  "II 

uf  Stall'  l>a\-. 

a   lai'l^i'   tnlin'A- 

in  till'  st'vcial 
,s.  \vlni<  liii-i> 
iK'ial.  niilitai  >. 

ant'f. 
iimIs.  I't'   rtli.  :ii 

•iity-livf  ciMi'- 
itt'd  an  I'Uil  .V 

I'liitcd  St;i'-  •; 


I  .ivcrninont  aided  il  with  a  hia'i  ot  .'iSl.."»tK»,(MMi,  wliich  was  r('i)aid ;  tin- 
,ilc  tif  I'l'iinsylvania  a|>|iri)iiriat.t'd  .S|.(KHI.(I(MI.  and  ihi-  cilv  nl  I'liilaih  1- 
iia    j,'ave    ii^  1  .•">' H »,( H »( ».      From    I'vciy   jmint  id  view   it  was    an  \in(|nalilii'd 

.I'CCSS. 

run  years  alter  tin'  Centennial  Kxpositioii  another  one  was  lield  in  I'aris. 

:iich  not   only  exeeeded  all   previous  ones   in   that   eily  in  si/.e  and   inaj^'iii- 

:    eiiee,  Itiit    made  an  nnpreeedeiited  display  of  works  dl'  art   and   literature. 

(■a  tins  occasion  aliont  one    hundred  acres   were    set    apart    lor  liie  \:irioiis 

1.  lildiie^'s.  the  exhiiiitors  nnniiiered  some  eighty  ihonsaiiii.  the  i^ross  r ipts 

v.'re  upward  (d'  .'Sl.'.."i<Ml.tMM>.  and  I ('>.(».'!'_'. 7 L'."»  vi'-itors  were  rej^'isteied, 

i'lie  third  world's  exhihilion  in  tin;  I'liiled  States  was  held  in  New  ( »r- 
j.Miis  diiriiii,'  the  winter  oT  |SSI-,S.">.  and  was  planned  to  commemoiale  the 
( iiiteunial  ol  the  tirst  export  oi  collon  tidin  America.  'I"he  eoiieeptioii  was 
an  oul,i,'rowth  of  the  exposition  in  I'idladelpjiia.  and  was  tiist  c.irried  diil  on 
;;  liiiiiled  scale  in  .\llanta  in  iSSj.  and  on  a   lar.LCi-r  one  in  l<onis\i'',e  in   Iss.'!. 

I  mler  the  iieli. ■■  that,  l!  ■■  .■iitloii  centennial   should  1 -leijiiiti'd  in  the  chief 

cily  of  tin'  cotton  Itelt.  the  National  ('olloii  I'lanters'  Association  joined  heart- 
il\  in  the  scheme  sii;j;;.^e,>trd  li\  Major  !■;.  .\.  r.iirke.  nl  New  nriiMii>.  lor  a 
universal  exhiliit  loll  in  tli.it  city,  in  u  hich  llie  LTieal  iniiiistryol  iheSonihern 
Slates  should  pia\   ihenioNt  prominent    pari.     (  on;,'ress  aided  the  movfim'iit 


J 


»4wSfWlfff1ifei^ 


WoM  \N  -    111  II, KIM.. 

(Nii>livilli'  l''.x|"iMli.'n.  IsnT.) 

iiyan  .Vet,  ineorpofatini,'  the  World's  Iiidnstri.al  and  t'olton  ( 'eiilennial   Kxpo- 

sili and.  fiirtlier.  maile  a  loan  of  .>^1.0(l((.(l(iu  imd  appropriated  S.'KKi.ddU  fnr 

a  l''ederal  linildini,'.  ll.iilroad  and  other  corporal ioiis  sniisciilied  lor  .s . "inn. unit 
ill  stock.  Ilie  StiW'  of  Louisiana  appropriated  Sldo.ddd.  and  the  eit\  nf  New 
'  M  leans  contriimted  a  similar  sum  for  llii' ereiM  ion  of  a  peinianeiil  Horticul- 
tural II, dl. 


l''ormal  invitations  were  sent   out   to  all   forei','n  ','o\erniiien 


Is  liv  the  Stat. 


i>epartmeiit   at  W'ashin'^ton.  commissioners   were  appointed    for  the  se\ei;d 

Slates  and  Territories,  and  the  time  of  the  cxiiosition  was  fixed  for  h iiilier 

1.  ISSI,  to  May  .".1.  ISS,*..  'I'he  site  seleeled  was  the  I'ppi'r  City  I'aik.  an 
unimproved  tract  of  L' I.") acres,  and  in  ils  ecni  re  was  creel ei I  the  Main  I'm i Id i in,'. 
,1  >triicture  Uililt  wholly  oj  wood.  I.">7S  iVet  loic'  and  'MC)  icri   wide,  and  with 


Il    t' 


.  v^i  m 


lit 


.i:m 


/•/;//  W/7/.S'  .i.v/>  n(>.\i>i:i:s  or  riii:  a/.V"  ci:\i'i  i;y 


^i'h 


if;t 


'Hf 


iSi 


SH-(J] 


ii  cniil  111111111-^  riMif  |iiiiici|i;ill  V  of  i;l;iss.      Tlii' rill  ii'c  liiiildiii;^'  ihmti'iI   a   sp 
nl    lliirl  \ -I  lirci'   iU'ii's.      A   Mnsif  Hall    capalili'  d   sraliir^'  ll.tMMl  iicrsnn--    ■ 


iiistnuli'il  ill  till'  iTiit  11'  ciT  tins  111111(1111'',  ami  a    Mat'limfiv 


Mall 


III    I  III'    rr.ii 


iitlirni  ciid.  r>7'l  In    lL't>  Iim'I,  was  ili'M'lnl  ti>  in 


UK   ai 


All  ('\trli>i('li  al   I  he    so 

tarimit's  ill   (>|i('raliiiii.  ami  al  ii^lil  aiiLjli's  wiili  lliis  rslciisioii  was  a  liuilijn 

.^ivi'ii  ii|i  111  sawmills. 

'riir  I'l'iliral  HiiiIiIiiil;,  |ilaiim'il  Inr  I  lie  rNliilul --  nj  I  In'  I  nil n I  Slates  ( im  n  i, 
luciil  ami  III  I  lie  Siali's.  was  SS."!  Ici'l  Imii;  li\  ."><•.'•  Iirl  wuk.  ami  in  j;rm'i.il 
slvlf  ami  rmisi  nu'l  imi  ('iiiirnniii'il  In  tiir  Main  i'lnililiiu.  linrl  n'ullural  Hall, 
limit  ul  null  ami  i;iass.  is  (iiMI  IitI  Inii'^,  JOO  led  wiilc  in  main  slnirinrc.  .iii,| 
lias  a  (M'liliai  liansc|il  cari'N  iii;^'  niil  llic  rMri'iiii'  wnltli  In  I'.ij  liri.  Tlic  Ail 
r>iiili|iii,iC.  "•'  (•iirnii,'al(Ml  irmi  ami  ,i4:l;iss.  slunil  ncailv  in  Inml  nl  tlir  M.i;ii 
I'liililinu'.  ami  was  iTid  Inip^  liy   jtHMrrl  uiilc.  with  a  rut  inula  .'»<>  IrrI  sipia 


ii'  111 


III 


Mil  ll 


Wii  nt  111 


iiii|i'Wiirlli\    liiiildii 


i''s   wrri'    I 


( iiiNc  rum  rill,  niic  in  llif  si  \  Ir  nl'  a  iial  ivc  lijirii'mla.  with  an  iiiliTinr  '^allcix  I 


ii'i'li'il    li\   I  he  .Mc\ 
Ih 


Ir.ili 


till-  ilispiav 


hurl  ii-nlliirr  ami   liinllili';   llic  nllicr  inr  iialivi'  iiiiiu'ImI--.      I. 


clmlillL,'  lllnsi'  nl     Mfsiin.    the    \aiinlls    lillil(llll;,'S    ciiMTi'il    all  alia   nl     'J.ti7.'I..i^.' 

siiiiari'    Irrl.nr  sixl\  Iwn  aiTrs,  aiul  all    liiiil(liii;_;s  cnvcird   almiil    scvmtv   ,n 


iU'ic 


illinll;^  till'  s)i 


•ial  leal 


nil's  111'  this  cxiHisitioii  wen'  the  ilisplav  nl  wnniaii 


wnrk.  \ 


imlrr  rhai'^i'  nt    Mrs.  .Inlia  Ward    llnwc;   nl    ihr   wnrk   nt   tin'  cnlniiil 


rarr.  iimlrr  t'hai:_;i' nl  till"  tail'  I'daiirln'  \\.  I'liiii'i';  nt'  I  he  cnll  i  val  inn  nt  rnt  h 
and  m.iniirartiiir  nt  tlii'  lilnr  ;  and  nl  t  hr  ciillival  inn.  harvi'slliii;.  and  |iir|i.ir 
linn  Inr  m.irkri  nt  lire  and  si|i,'ar 

<  hi   Ma\  .'•.  ISS'.I.  aiini  her  iinivrrsal   ('X|insiliiiii   was  djiiMird  in  !'aris.     'I'h 


was    alsn  a  rnl 

d  I 


iniii'iiinral  i\  1- mil',  m.arkiii'^  lln nlciinial  nt   tin- 


i; 


lit  mil.    and    lirransi-  nt'    il  ■ 


I' 


ilitiral    rhararlrr  hiiIn     tln'    riiilci,    .■•■'. ili' 


S'\  il/i'ilaml  afrnidt'd  it  nlliri.il  iccnunit  iiih.  alihiiii^h  iimst  nl'  llic  l'airn|ir,ii 
Lriuciiimriits  cncniirai^rd  imlividiial  |iarlii'i|ial  imi.  Tin'  cxiinsit  inn,  drsi'ii' 
this  I'c.il  iiri'.  was  a  Lirand   sncri'ss  lirransr  nl'  its   unusual   r\|i'iit  ami  I'liininr 


lit'iisivcm'ss 


and  its  di>lini'li\('  tcaliircs.     This  i'\|in-il  mn  msl  .'^S.CidU.uou, 


liad  aliniil  riO.diMt  .'shiliilnis  and  iiim.'  than    L'S.IKMI.IMKI  rciinrtnl  visitms,   il 


yrrati'i'  iiiiiiiiirr,  nt  I'liiirsr,  In 


ill!,'  I'" 


The  iiiakiii;^  nt  tin"  W'nrld's  ( 'nliiinliiaii  l'A|ii>sitinii.  tn  ('iiiiiini'iiinralr  ili 
disrovi'iv  nl  Anicrii'a  In  ( 'nlniiiliiis,  licLjaii  snnii  alter  I  lie  clnsc  nl'  the  ('iiiiiii 
iiial   l''x]insitinii  in  l*liilaili'l|ihia.      Il    was  at  first    |irii|insi'd  In  neali' a  |iriiii.i 

lirlll    i'\lnisiM,.,i,   t(i  III'    iii'ld    III     W  .ishill'^tnll    ill    iS'.l'J.   In    illllslrali'  tin'   lirni^lr^ 


Nniiii.  ('I'lilral.  and  Sniilh  Ann'iica.  ami   a  Imard  nt    iirnnint 


Inn  was  n^'^l!l■ 


i/i'il 


r.\     ISS',1.  hnwi'viT.  a  slrmi.;  iiniiular  si'iitinii'iil  had  Imtii  armisi'd    Im    i 


I'miiprrlii'iisiv  !■  iiis|ila\ .  an 


•it  i/i'iis  nl'  \\  ii->hiii''tnn.  New  ^'llI  k.  <  'liii  m'. 


iml  St.    j.niiis  \  ii'd  with  rarli  ntlii'i'   i 


II   |in'Ssil!i,'  nil    a  S|ii'('ial  (■nmiliiltrr  nl   ll 


I'lllird  Slates  Senate  the  ad\  .inta'^es  111'  their  res|M'etive  eilies.  A  eerlilii  ilr 
In  the  el't'e't  that  silliserijit  inns  III  i  he  ainnlint  nl'  .S.">.(l(l(t.OII(t  had  lieeli  liiadi'  Ml 
rliiea'^n  deeided  t  he  enllt  rnvers\    in   lav  nr  nl   1  liat  cit  \  . 


On  A 


I  HI 


.\  IS'.Ml.  Cnn. 


a-seil  an  .\el  iiiviiiLj  ii  lethal  status  In  a  \\nii 


( 'nliiiiiliian  l''\iiiisiiiiiii.  tn    lie    held  under  the  ausjijees  ami  sii|iervisinii 


III    Mil' 


Init 


I'll  State--  (iiixerii  aeiit.  the  nr'jaiii/iiiLi;  enr|iiiial  in;i   In   L;iiaiaiitee  Ihe    iiii 


serilitinll    nl    .S  1(1.0(11  >.l  Mil  I    and    the    |ia\lllent    ni'   JriAUd.dOd   lielnie    the    nalii.i 
t'niiiiiiis.sioneis  sliniild   ntlieialh    rei(iu;ni/.e   tile  .site  ot'teit'd  In    t  lie  cniiMiiMi ' 


M-3 


!iir 


////■;  ri:.\iri,')s  r.\ii:s    \.\i>  /:.\r<>srrio.\s 


\M 


•  V    till'     r\|iiisll  i(.||.       (  >ii     I  •('rcMlliil'    'Jl,     InlldW  JiiL,r_      | 'i  i  sli  Irlil      ll;iril.ip||     ;ili- 

>||M I    till'  Im  I  liriiliiilr;  r\  |misiI  li  i||.  In  1  ii  ■  ii{>i'l|ri|  (i||    .M;i\    I.  I  .S'.l.'i.  ;i  IM  1    llixilrd 

.1  liiltKill;.  i>r  till'  WiilM  In  |i:irl  li||i;il('  III  it.  < '( iii'4ri',-,.s  11 1 1|  in  i|  i|l;i  I  it  I  ill 
IHMI-,  .Mill  .  ;l  Inl.il  iil  S.'!,'J.".,S.'_'.">0  ||l  llli'lli'N  ;il|i|  ;|  II I  lie  ill/Ci  I  t  lir  ciillHii;;  nl' 
ilMl.nOd  .iiilM'llll  lill\  rclil  |i|i'CTS  III  ,sll\('|  1(1  III'  Mild  |u|-  IJic  lii'lirlil  ii|  llir 
|in-,|t  tun. 

riir  lli;Ui:i;,'i'|ih'lll  u;is  \r.|ri|  lli  ,|  N;il|iili;il  ( 'i  iliilll  i.ssic  ill  ul  I  w  1 1  I  r|  ilr  .('III  :i 
;  vi'.>;  111  (Mi'li  Slalc  iimi  'I  riiil(ir\  ;iiii|  nl  I  he  I  >ist  iirl  ii|  (  '(i|miilii;i,  ;ilii|  I'l-lil 
'III  t  ln'  I'liiliil  r\  ;il  l:irv;i'.  I'lii'  -lie  w  ;is  .l.irls.snii  I ';i  rk,  i  ill  I  III'  slii  iic  1 1|  I, .ike 
.1  iriii'^iiii,  111  u  1 1  nil  \\;is  ;iili|('il  t  111'  M  iil\\;i\  I 'kii^iiiiri'  I  rart  111  S(l  iicii's,  iii;iluii|^ 
111  ;i,i;,y:n'^;il<' ,i,'riimi(l  iiriM  nl  <).';.".  mi  r  .  Un  i|m'  himih  •^nuiiiil  nmrr  limn  ITiO 
ii.li'Wint  liv  liiiili|iii'_;s  Will'  iTi'i'li'il.  Till'  Miiiw;iy  I  Miilsmiicc  \v:i.-;  ilrvnti'il  to 
.iiiiiisrlili'lil.s  ;iiii||  111'    illii  <l  i:il  lull    nj    I  jn'    iiiaiilii'I's    iiiiil  cii^lnins   nl'    tlirwnlid. 


'W 


i  I' 


it   Mint   riiiii|in' 
;S  ('itHkOOl).  :niii 


\uv  r.rii.KiMi.     i:\Mr  i!M'i;ni)i  itiun  ni.'iiih;  rMji  iii..m>.s. 

(Nllshvilj.'  l''..\|HiMliiiii,  IH'.p7.) 


ill! 


ij'   llll'  (  'clili'li- 


lii'i'ii  niiiili'  III 


IliTi'.   Mil'    llliisl    i'nIis|)ii'l|nll.S    nl    M    III  llll  il  udi'    iil'^'lrill    illid   I'll  lii  ill,-;  nliji'i'l  s   was 

llll' l^i^'.'iiil  ir  ri'\nl\lii'^    and    |ia.-isi'ii;4:i'r  raii\  iir^  l'rni,>  Wlii'i'i.      .\liii|  lln-  i-\- 

|iiisilinn  linildinLCS  |iin|ii'i'  uri'i-  ('niislriu'lfd  nl  w 1.  iinii.  ami    iflas.-;.  in  cnni- 

liiiialinii  willi  a  niati'iial  Uimwii  a.s  '•.•^tall."  iiiadi'  lis  niiilin.^  |ila.sti'r  and 
jiiir  lllirr  in  walrr.  in  lln'  rnriii  nl'  a  jiasti'.  .\.s  all  rxtninr  snitai'r.s  witi- 
liaiiili'd  wliid'.  llll'  i'\|insil  inn  '.^'rniiiids  lirraini'  iniiiiilarly  kimwn  as  llir  Wliilr 
('il\. 

Till'  |iriiiri|ial  hnildiii'^'s.  with  llirir  rnst.  wni'  iIium'  nf  Maniilarl  iiri's  and 
l.diiial  .\r1s.  till'  lai:4i'>l  nl'  all.  Ki.ST  liy  T.S?  int.  S  |  .."idii.dltd  ;  .Marliiiii'iv. 
.'";|.'.'sr..O<)(l :  |''iiic  .\il.s.  .S(;7(i.(i(iu  :  A'.!iiriiltiiri'.  .SCjS.nud;  .Xdniiiii.st  rat  imi, 
S|;;.',.(I(H»;  I'llcchirity.  8  mi.UOd  ;  I  iiiti'd  Stairs  (  Inv  iTIl  null  I .  S  jdd.ddd  ;  |,ivi' 
Siiick.  .S.">S."i.d(»d:  'riaiis|inrtaliiiii.  >>.".7d,ddd  :  ilmt inilt iiii'.  .s.'Idd.dOd;  Mini's. 
."<'.'i;."-,.ddd  ;  iMslirrii's.  .S-- I.Udd  ;  Wi'iiiair.-..  S  |;i.S.ndt» ;  |'"(ii'cstry.  Sldd.ddd:  and 
;i  liiii'k  iinitatinii  nj'  a  nimlrni  I'liiti'd  .^tati's  liattli'slii|i.  with  riiiii|ili'li'  arina- 
imiil  and  i'iiiii|iiiirnt.  8 lOtl.ddd.  l'"iiii'i',Mi  '^nvi-riiiiiints  a|i|i.n]iri;iti'd  a  tnta! 
(it  S(;,."i71..VjO  I'nr  tlii'ir  rcs|)i'rlivi'  lniildin;;--  ami  ixhiliit  >,  l''iaiiri'  Iradiii'^  with 


i    W, 


i  lit 


!i'» 


1  ! 


« :  ill  ■  •• 


!,(' 


Ik    '■ 


h'lii 


t 


!' 


Irt; 


U»    ii; 


i,.,! 


It; 


M 


ii^^T       i 


.      I 


4.'{8         TltlUMrilS  ASU    WONDEUS    Ol-    THE   XJX'"   CESTUUY 

*().".(».0O(».  ;iii(l  bfiii-,'  tullowfd  l).v  .liiiaii,  .l!!('>;i(»,00(» ;  |5i;i/il,  §i;U(l,()(l(l ;  C 
jiiuiiv, 'S-l  I.L'OU  ;  iiiul  Austria,  .i!«lH).l(M»;  and  the  States  ami  TunitDiit's. 
total  ol'  .■i;!(;.(»l.'(».,S."((>.     The  t'utirt'  (;osi  cif  (•onstnictioii  was  JSIS.oL'l'.dL'L'. 

Anconliiif^  to  the  orij^inal  Act  ol' ( 'oiii,m'('ss.  tlif  Imildiii^s  tlicii  comiilii. 
wt'if  dcilicatcd  on  Coiiiiidiiis  l>ay,  Octoltfr  L'l,  ISKL'.  witli  jjiaycr,  imisic.  ;ii.  i 
an  oration  l»_v  OliiMnuicy  .M.  I K'Im'w.  and  during,' that  wrck  a  niind)cr  of  St,i) 
bMildiii,:,^s  were  also  dt'dicatcij.  Tlic  cxiio.siiiun  was  forniallv  o|ifnt'd  wi!:i 
t'X('('t'din!,dy  hrilliant  fci'iMiionics  on  May  1,  ISIK!,  and  wiis  rlosrd  with  i 
iMitirt'  lack  ol'  i'orniality  on  (h'toiicr  .'!(•.  following',  in  ('(instMiiit'iici'  ol  ii,,' 
assassination  ol'  CartiT  Harrison,  mayor  of  ChicaLid.  two  diiys  Itcforc.  I  |, 
to  NovtMnhor  IL'.  tlic  rt'ccipts  I'rcim  ail  sources  a,ij;;^'rc;^att'd  .'ii«.'i.'>.L'l><t.(K!."(.  ;iiri 
the  cxpcmiitun's.  ijii.'tl.l  17..'>.'>."'>.  The  total  lunuhcr  of  paid  admissions.  >  ,. 
cludiui,'  those  |irior  to  the  o|(enin,!i,'  and  alter  the  closint,'.  was  L'l.  177. l'l  ^, 
and  ol'  all,  L'7,."iL".l.  |(i(> ;  smalh'st  siii;,de-ilay  numiier.  In.7*.M  ;  lan^e.^t.  -u 
••  Chii  .,,<,'o  Day,"  7'_".).L'n;>.  In  all  there  were  (ir».  Ilil?  exhiliitms.  and  med;ii< 
were  awarded  to  -.■>.7.")7  <d  them,  the  jury  examiidni,'  and  reporting,'  on  m>'ii' 
than  L'.">0.(t(lO  separate  exhihits. 

I'l'i'sent  sjiaee  will  oidy  pernut  the  liriel'est  summari/in;^  of  this  ,i,'ri'atesi  <,{ 
all  international  expositions  hilherto  held,  —  matchless  in  extent,  in  coinpictr. 
ness  of  ciiuiposirion.  in  'Jtrandeur  (d' settinur.  A  oleasinj.;  evidence  of  the  inllu- 
ence  the  undertakiu,!,'  was  exiieeted  to  yield  is  found  in  the  remarkahly  laiL;i' 
numiier  of  international  couiLiresses  that  were  ludd  durin.i,'  its  pn>!j;ress.  'riii> 
I'e.nure  alone  called  for  iLJlo  separate  sessions,  at  whi<'h  there  wi-re  ,V,i7 1 
speakers  and  a  special  attendance  of  more  than  7n(».n(»()  persons,  clnetiv 
adults.  Almost  every  conceivahle  branch  of  human  thoui^hi  and  effort  hid 
its  indixidual  I'ouj^ress.  I'articuhiriy  noticeable  anion.Lc  these  loi'iiial  i^alhi  i. 
in!.;s  was  the  I'arliament  of  lielii,'ions,  in  which  ("hristian.  Protest  .ni, 
< 'aiholic,  dew.  and  Itudilhist  expoumled  their  doctrinal  beliid's  and  narrati,! 
the  story  of  their  sectarian  pro;^M'ess  and  hopes. 

Till'  Cotton  States'  and  Iniertiational  l'".x  posit  ion.  o|M-ied  in  Atlanta  on  Sc  |i- 
temlier  IS.  l,s;i.''».  had  its  ori;j;in  in  two  jmrposes  :  the  tirst,  t(»  ^mvo  tlie  iiuhi^- 
trial  conditions  of  the  Sontiiern  Siiites  a  more  adtipiate  display  than  tiuv 
had  at  ChicaiJio.  owite,'  to  the  const  it  nt  ioual  inabilitv  of  their  liCi^islaturts  t.. 
appropriate  j)ubli(  money  for  such  a  purpose;  the  second,  to  jtroniotc  lai  .  !■ 
trade  rtdalions  between  the  South  ami  the  Latin-American  repuiilics  ;iiid  u  :!li 
lOurope.  It  was  set  on  foot  by  private  enterprise,  and  received  its  liif^e  i 
ullii'ia!  aiil   irom   the  city  council  (d    Atlanta,  which  appropriated  S7,"i.(Mio. 

Piedmont  Park,  a  tract  of  INK  acres,  two  miles  from  tiie  centre  o|  tiie  cif,, 
and  iiiemoralile  liecause  traversed  liy  the  rille-pits  over  whicii  (ieneral  Sher- 
man thri'W  shells  into  the  city  tliirly-oiie  years  ind'ore.  was  selected  as  iln^ 
site.  In  a  natural  dip  of  the  L,'round  an  artilicial  lake  was  constructed.  I'ov  .i- 
iiii^  thirteen  acres,  and  around  it  the  principal  liuildin;,'s  were  erected.  \m| 
oidy  the  ."southern,  but  many  oi  the  Northern  and  Western  States  aiden  :  ,e 
eiiti'rprise  with  speci;il  buildimrs  and  exhiiiits. 

nj  the  thirteen  lar^^e  buildings,  that  of  the  I'lnted  States  (lovernmenl  o.'ei|. 
]iied  the  most  conspicuous  site.  The  Administration  Piuihliiii,'  was  a  le-  m- 
ductioii  i)\  portions  of  P.larney  Castle,  the  Tower  of  lioudon.  Warwick  Ca-''i', 
tlie  1 1  III 'in  stein  in  (leimatiy.  and  St.  Michael's,  on  the  coast  id'  i'liittany.  '  'n 
a  coiisideraMe  elesat  ioii  was  t  lie  Auditorium,  a  foiir-storv  buildiiiLr  with  a  O'   n'' 


Tuiir 

TunitDriL's. 
.'L'.C.L'l.'. 

(Ml  cnmplcl'  I 
IT,  iiiusic.  ;ii.  i 
mber  <•!  St;i 

t(|M'IU'll     W  I      I 

liist'il  with  ..  I 
|ii»'iiti'  nl  I  !..■ 
s  ln'tort'.      I  ii 

;!.'_".»( t.o(;."i.  ,11, 1 

iliiiissiiHis,  r  ., 
iis  L'1.177.'.'1\ 
;    l;ir,i;csl.    "n 
s.  ami  iiit'(l;r,s 
irtiii;.;  dm  iii"iv 

liis  ^rcati'^i  "f 

ll.  ill  cnliilili'li'- 

(•(•  (if  tilt'  iiillii- 

iiiarkaldy  Im.;'' 

Ill  ii;rt'ss.      1  lii> 

icrc    well'    *i'.'c  I 

icisdiis.   cliiitly 

and  crtiirt  li.nl 

riiriiial  i^'ailni- 

11,    I'nit'-.sl.Mt, 

s  and  narratnl 


Vtlanta  <in  Sr]!- 

ive  till-  indu^- 

lay  'lian   tin'V 

l,c;4i-laturi'>  In 

iviinniti'  lai-.;vi' 

ilics  anil  w  :ili 

■ll    lis    l:ll-i'  t 

,m1  S  :.■,.(  inn. 

IT  111'  1  lie  r;l ',  , 

<  li'lirral  Shi i- 

liTlrd   a^    tlii^ 

trurtrd.  ri'MT- 

iTt'clfd.      N"l 
iti'S  aidi'u  i!'i' 


77//i    CENTriiY'S   FA  I  IIS   AM)   KX/'OSlTloyS 


430 


.•crnnii'iit  "••'■a- 

,_r    \v;|S     a      IT'    111- 

'arwick  <  a  ''''. 
r.rittany.  '  "ii 
111,'  with  a  li'   ''■'' 


iinimiutcd  liy  a  stiitiu'  of  Music  Thf  laii^'i'.-^t  Iniildiii'.,'  was  that  di'Vdtfd  to 
iaimfiictinvs  ami  liihi-ral  Arts,  and  tlic  iimst  mii^'inal  nf  all  in  dcsiijn  was 
lie  (iiic  set  apart  for  Minerals  and  Fort'stry,  whirli  was  lonstriii-tcd  cnliirly 
!  wood  friiin  tilt'  different  Southern  States  in  its  natural  eoiidition.  wilii  the 
irk  on.  'I'lie  Fine  .\rts  and  the  Woinan's  I'liiiidinvs  were  the  showiot. 
;iil  the  Ne;„'ro  Huildiiit,'  was  made  attiaetive  liy  sjieeiiuens  of  the  industry 
!  nejxi'nes  ill  loiirteen  States.  The  exoo.-itioii  was  (dosed  Deeeiiiher  ."»!,  and 
•St  ahoiit  ."Sl'.tMMMXlO. 

'I'lie  international  exposition  at  Nashville,  open  from   .May   1   to  Oetooer 
.■■•,    1S'.)7,   was  a  ('oiimiemurution  of    the  one-hundredth  anniversary  of   the 


(. KAMI   ((liar.    (IMMIA    I  \lllli!ll(iN.    I'^^ttN. 
(Niirhl  \  irw.) 

,ii|iiii>^ioii  iif  ■reniie>see  inln  till'  I  niiiu.  •ind  had  fur  il-^  .-I'ceial  atti'iietion 
;i  irpriiiliniiiiii  111  a  niimliei'  of  nnt.ilile  liuild;ie4>  nt  aiiti'iuitx.  Thi'  iiri;.,d- 
iial  iilaii  providiil  Inr  an  ex]iii>ition  te  l.v.Ki.  liii-  tiiu'  (•ciiti'iinial  year.  Imt 
tlie  iirojcetors  eiicounti  red  uim>ual  iM'jMisitii'n  in  ihi",r  efforts  to  procure 
llif  iireessarv    hinds,  and   ii    was  not    till   eai-h    in    ISMT   that    tin'    inriir|iorii- 

luis  were  iilile  to   lie^ill   the  rliit  Mil  of  tiie  ( 'elit  I'lllilal  ('liy. 

West  Side  I'ark.  a  furiiH'r  r:n'i'C(iui'^i'  in  the  -iiliiiii'^  ol'  Nashvillr.  with 
manv  natural  attract  ions  in  niinmiu  watn  ami  IniT-t  ■growths,  was  srlecli'd 
a-  ilie  site,  and  < '.iiteniiial  City  w.i-  made  lor  thr  Inirl  nnii'  nl  tiic  .■spo- 
-itidii  a  fuU-tleiiu'd  luunieipality.  with  a  ihiim'T.  lioiiid  ol  aldiTiiicn.  :iiid  a 
riiiiiliined  piiliiT  iiiid  lire  departiiii'iii.  Tin'  rcprniini't  imi  of  iintalili-  iiiiildinus 
:  liiiwed    oil   a    ri'dilced    M-ale     tin'    I'art  iieiii 'li.     the    r_\iaiiiid    of  (.'hi'iip>.    the 


:|  .^'H 


:  ^m 


...i       !  ; 


S! 


% 


I 


Flii: 


t:li 


i»( 


I? 


ra  !| 


jEv. 


1^1 

lit 


440       TiULMriis  A\i)  no\/>i':jis  (>F  Till-:  MX'"  cEsruiiy 

Aliiiiin  111   Texas,  llic  I'.liic  <Jniili)  ol  (^'apri,  a  ^'liiii|ist'  of  llic  Itialln  dl  N'tnir 
ami.  ill   till'  liraiilihil  iiiaiii  rut  raiu'c,  a  tv|ii>  ni   rariv  I']l;\  pt  iaii  arrliiliTiui.  . 
A  tla,t;siari'  iTiH  li'd   lii:-;li.  I'iplloii  ami  tnliaiTu  liclils.  Nciirliaii  pimlnla.^.  N;i 
it_\    T'air,  a  Ispii'.il  ('iiiiu'-i'   laiiii.  an  alniiiilain'r  ol    Nl.aliU's  o\  rlassiral  ai   i 
iiivi  liiiliiLrii'al  f'lili.it'l'tf-.  uatrrlaii  aiiil  nlil-iiiiu'  ulirrl  at  wmU,  Laki-  l\atln'iiiM  . 
Klli'ii    Islaiiil.   tiir  uiiilircila   luiiiilaiii.  ami    a   lar.^'r   liclil    l<>r  allilclir   s|mi|i 
well'  aimnii,'   till'   iilfasiiralili'    IVatiircs.       I'lir  Si;iti'   maili'  a   >tniii.i,'  .--liiiwii  ; 
(if  its  imiii>irial  (lr\t'iii|iim'iit  ami  nl'  its  rirlics  \v\  in  irsci\c. 

Ill  all  I'.HI  arii's  (ii  jj;rnuml  wen-  orfiiincil.  'I'ln'  iiHil  rceciiits  \\i  ir 
81."N7.L'L'7.  ami  tin;  t'\iii'iiilitiirt'>  liaiam-i'il  tn  a  rmt.  A  iiiiii|m'  i'\|m'1i  •• 
tcatin'c  was  that.  rxi'liidniLr  tlic  |in'liiiiiiiai\  wnrU.  ijic  wdiiirii  laiM'il  tiir 
imnifx  ami  paiil  the  cut  irr  iiiniiiiiL,' cost  ni  t  iir  \\  omair^  1  >r|pait  iiinit.  I  h.' 
liirii>t  ilrs  n-uiistciril  l.SN(i.7l  I  cut  laiiri's. 

'I'liis  r\|ni^itiiiii  was  sui'crcilril  in    iS'.tS  li\   the  'l'raiis-Mis.sis--i|i|ii   ami    ii, 
tcniat  iniial    I'Apiisit.inn    at    (»iiiaiia.  an   iimlrrtaUin'^  ili'si'^nnl    In  slmw    \\li,;i 


liad   Ihm'ii  ai'i'iniiplislicil    liv   tlic    |>inm't'rs    ami    tlirii    cliililrrn    in   tlii'  i;i 
'rians-Mi.ssissip]ii   N'allcy.    ami   rspciiallv  in  a   Slatr  tliat    liutv  lliirr    vr 


IMl 


lu'l'i 


was  an  iimir<'aiii/fil  territniv  in  tlir  vast  tiint  kmiwn  a^ 


til.-  I 


iiiiisiah.i 


I'lircliasc.  'I'lif  sitiwas  a  plalraii  just  iinrlli  nl  tlir  cilv.aml  in  planniii'.,' 
till'  display  I'vrrv  I'lmsiin'ratinn  was  !,'i\cn  tn  nii^inalily.  I'lNci-ptiiij,'  tli.it 
the  ,u;rniimls  must  iliilcil  a  srcnml  W'liitr  ('ity.  Irnni  tin-  use  ol'  ••  stall'."  :s 
at  Cliica;,;!!.  i'\  rr\  Ifatiiri'  nl'  drsiL^ii  and  must  nictimi  pnssrsscd  ,s|  I'iUiiiL;  ili' 
nii'iits  nl'  dilTrri'iii'i'  rrmii  all  similar  rl'lnrts  in  tlir  past. 

'I'lic  niana^riiii'iil  \v;is  iimlcr  tlic  prrsidciiry  nl  (imdnn  \V.  W'altli's,  ami 
till'  I'Npiisitinii  was  t'nrinally  npcnrd  liy  I'rrsidriit  IMcIxinlry.  w  Im,  in  l  In- 
Wliilr    llmisi'  at    \VasIiinj,'tnii.    |H'cssi'd  an    rlrrlrii'  lnittun   lliat    startni   ilir 


fjrcat    riii^iiu' 


Till'    I'niti'd  Stall's    (invt'inniriit   cii'i'ti'd    a.  Iniildii 


\)i  nt   till- 

classic  style.  Inllnwiiej;  the  Innie  mdei'.  it  was  snriiiniinti'd  liy  a  cnlns^;li 
dmne  sup|ini'tin;j:  a  cniiy  ol'  Martlmldi's  statue  ui'  "lalierty  l'ailiL,dilenin.!,' thr 
World."  and  had  a  lloor  space  lor  cxhiWits  of  about  rid.ddO  sniiarc  tVii. 
The  ( inverniiu'iit  also  recniinized  the  iniiini'tancc  of  tiic  e\cnt  liy  issniii'^  ;i 
special  set  of  ('oninieniorati\i'  postajjje  stamps.  I'Miic  arts  was  exliiliitcd  iii 
a  twin-doined  linildiiiLr.  a  stiiictiirc  in  two  parts,  with  an  elalmiate  peri>l\li' 
hetwcen  tlieiii.  and  all  under  one  ,t,'reat  roof. 

What  alTnr  led  the  masses  the  'greatest   deli'jht  were  the  cthiinln^ieal  cnIh 
hits  and  the  inst ruet ive  and  aiiiiisiii;^  scenes  on  the  Midway  lieser\i'.     TIhm' 

le    liel  w  iTii 


inelmleil 


an    Indian    vilhi'^e.  with  repre,seiitati\es    finiii   e\eiytril 


Alaska    ami    fimida.  a  Chinese   viliai^e.  an  Araliian  encampment,  a   Mnnii-li 

1n\\  11.  a  Swiss  \  illa;j;e.  a  ( 'aim  >treet.  the  enli'ilaiiiin<4  I'^i^yptiaii  Pyramid. 1 

till'  ;,M,!,'an1ic  pas.-eic'er-cari'yiie,:'    Sheiinan    I'mlneila — a   mechanical   m;ir\ii 
operated  hy  electricity,  and  one  hnmlred  feci  hii^her  than  the  l'"crris  W'herl  m|' 


l'liica<," 


Tl 


ere  was  also 


a  pietiiicsipie  la'^nnn  nr  ciiiKil.  half  a  mile  hue.' 


1.10  feet  wide  at   its  narrowest  part,  teiniinatiiej;  in  an  artilicial  lake  trclnil    m 
shajie  and   KM*  feet  across. 


Tl 


le  exiiosll  Inn   W  as   nlicncd    nl 


I  .liiiie  I  and 


was  clnsci 


I    nil    Octnlier  ."d  .        ll 


tliat  time  it  was  visited  hv  iiinre  than  L'.(i(M».(l(Ml  iieniile.  the 


aiL,'esl  >iimii 


attcmhiiice  liein;.,'  '.(S.TS.I.     '['he  tntal  receipt-;  were  nnt.  ipiite  SL.'.n(Mi.(l(i(i.  ;ii 
tlie  cxpeiiditiires  were  alioiit   .Sl.."i(M).(M)(l, 

This  cniupletes  the  record  (d    the  most   notable  expusitioiis  and   the  iip 


\rvuY 


iltd  ul  N'ciiic, , 
1  iirrliiiiTiiii.  . 

^■|>||(|iil;i>.    \',| 

fhissiciil   ill    I 
iKc  l\;illici  iiM  . 

llllclic      S|MI|I     . 

I  rmii;'  >li(i\\  11,4 

rrf('i|ils  \\(  ii' 
Ili(|lir  i'\|Mii  " 
It'll    laiM'il   till- 

ll'lllK'lll.         Ill,' 

ssi|i|ii   mill    ii, 

to    sllllU      W  ll.it 

1    ill   llic  .un.it 

1\   l.lil'ci'     _\(':ii^ 

ill)'   I.iilli>i;iii.i 

il    ill    |il;iiiiiiii.; 

'ACt'lltili;,'    llliit 

ol'    "Slillf."  :s 

'<l  striisiiii^  I'll' 

.  WiitMcs.  iiiid 
,■.  wliii,  ill  ilh' 
lilt  startrii  ilir 
iiildiiijj;  111    ihr 

iiV    ;i    (•iilii.->;il 

li;4lilriiiiii,'  llir 
(I  siniiirc  Int. 
t  liy  issiiiii'4  ;i 
S  cxlliliitrii  III 
rate    |pt'ii>l\lr 

iiiiliiL;ii'al  i'nIii 

■SiTM'.       'I'll!  -I' 

trilii'   Im'Iwciii 

lit.  a    Miinii-li 

l'\  raiiiiil.  ami 

iiii'al    iiiai\ri 

i'i-is  W'iii'i'I  111' 

mill'   Inii'j  aii'l 

il<i'  trt'liiil  i!i 

•tiilirr  ."1 .  1 11 
yst  siir^'ii'-'l  i\ 
L'.Odd.UIMI.  ;|i  .1 


I  mill    till'   III'  i- 


442 


TRIUMI'HS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX'"   CENTUHY 


4lt<: 


f    i  li 


dental  history  of  their  devclopiiu'nt,  from  the  coiumurcial  fair  of  the  previo. 
century  up  to  near  the  dose  of  IHU'J. 

Tlieru  remains  to  note  a  form  of  permanent  exhil)ition  that  lias  been  ]ii 
posely  resiaved  for  this  point.     The  Coniniercial  Museum,  of  whieh  JMiiliui 
j>hia  has  the  two  most  effeetive  exami)les  in  existence,  is  a  purely  eommerc 
development,  yet  an  educational  text-hook  of  uniijue  and  extraordinary  em  i. 
]>ass.     'riioni^h  the  I'hilaiielphia  Commercial  iMuseuni  and  the  similar  dep;i  i 
iiient  of  the  I'hiladelphia  Uonrse  were  both  ]U'oje(!ted  before  tlu'  foreign  tr.iuf 
of  the  I'nited  States  hatl  reached  the  enornu)us  volume  that  caused  wonder  n   ,1 
alarm  alike  all  over  the  worhl,  both  have  bad  a  itowerfnl,  direct,  and  iniii  >  - 
diiite  inHuence  in  bringing  about  a  greater  ai)preciation  abroad  of  Anieri'  in 
l)rod>u;ts. 

The  commercial  museums  stand  between  the  American  ])roduccr  and  tin' 
foreign  factor.  They  inl'orm  the  former  where  sjiecial  articles  are  nceiLd 
anil  the  latter-  of  rejjutable  firms  who  can  supjily  their  needs.  Jiy  a  l;ir,'t' 
corps  of  traveling  agents,  an  enormous  corres])ondenee.  and  a  direct  c(j(j|i. 
eration  with  the  State  Department  and  its  rej)resentatives,  these  museunis 
keep  in  tlu^  closest  ])ossible  touch  with  the  commercial  interests  of  iln. 
world.  All  this  is  independent  of  the  exhibition  feature,  a  vast  depmt- 
nu'ut  in  which  the  principal  economic  productions,  lirst  of  the  United  Stiilcs 
and  then  correspondingly  of  the  world,  are  spread  before  the  eye  of  tlie 
visitor.  In  this  connection  should  also  be  noted  the  fact  that  many  of  mir 
connuercial  representatives  abroad  have  established  at  their  headcpiarters  cul- 
lections  of  American  products  that  are  particularly  needed  in  their  respective 
localities. 

In  all  of  the  foregoing  a  single  text  has  been  kept  in  mind  :  "What  has 
been  the  inHuence  of  the  fair,  the  exhibition,  the  international  exposition'.' 
Heady  answers  have  been  suggested  by  the  several  items  of  cost  ami  at- 
tendance. Another  answer  may  be  divined  in  their  frecpu'ncy  and  univtr- 
sality.  And  at  the  close  of  this  survey  of  more  than  a  hundred  years. 
]irobably  the  best  answer  of  all  is  to  be  found  in  the  efl'orts  in  this  line  with 
whi(!h  one  century  will  be  closed  and  another  opened. 

These  incliule  a  (ireatiu-  America  Exposition  at  Omaha,  in  July-Noveiulitr, 
1S!)',>;  an  Export  Exposition  and  World's  Commercial  Congress,  the  first  nj 
the  kind  ever  held,  under  the  joint  auspices  of  the  Commercial  ^Museum  ami 
the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia,  in  that  city  in  Se])tcnd)er-NoveinlM'i'. 
I.s;)'.);  a  Universal  Exposition  in  Paris,  in  1J»00;  a  I'an-Anierican  Expositi.m 
at  IJuffalo  and  an  international  oiu*  in  Glasgow,  both  in  1901 ;  the  Ohio  d  n- 
tennial  and  International  Exposition  in  Toledo,  in  11MI2;  an  International  I'.x- 
jjosition  at  Liege,  Ueigium,  in  I'.tOo ;  and  a  Louisiana  Purchase  Centennial 
Exi»ositiou  in  St.  Louis,  in  1904. 

GliOIMiK    J.    HA(i.\l;. 


«»:;^ 


i  HE  CENTURY'S  PROGRESS  IN  COINAGE,  CURRENCY, 

AND   RANKING 


ml 


I.     HANKS    AM>    ItANKIMi    ItKSOrUrKS. 

TiiK  history  of  nation  building,'  cnntaiiis  no  piirallt'l  1o  the  )iro<jross  ami 
I  .  v('lo|)iutMit  of  tilt'  I'nittMl  States  in  the  |)ast  oni-  Imntlri'il  years,  and  tiie 
ii  .ist  aeciiratu  and  strikinj;  indication  of  this  reniarkal)h'  Lirnwtli  may  lie  seen 
ill  the  evolution  of  our  euireney  and  bankiiii,'  systems.  .\s  the  variations  in 
ti  luperature  and  the  ehan^'es  in  atmospherie  pressiire  are  meaMired  by  the 
tliermomoter  and  barometer,  so  an-  the  tiiietnations  in  a  (^luntry's  wealth 
i;  lU.u'ed  by  the  banks  and  other  iinaneial  institutions.  I.ii^ewise  the  dei,'ree 
<.r  civili/.ation  to  whieh  a  country  has  attained  is  retleeted  by  the  |ieilectinn 
(it  its  monetary  machinery.  After  havin<,'  tried  nearly  every  unwise  experi- 
ment condomiu'd  by  the  teach in<,'s  of  history,  the  I'liiled  States  has  tinally 
niichcd  a  position  where  its  eurreney  nu-ets  the  two  fundanvntal  re(piire- 
iiicuts  of  sound  finance,  namely,  (1)  the  standiird  of  value  is  thiit  in  use 
among  the  j,'reat  commercial  states  of  the  world;  (L')  all  of  tiie  currency  is 
either  directly  or  indirectly  convertible  into  the  standard  coin. 

Dcsjiitc  sonu'  minor  faults  in  our  tiuaucial  system  which  make  the  maiu- 
teiianco  of  the  parity  of  the  several  kinds  of  currency  a  cundiersoine  and 
cx|iensive  operation,  anil  jirevent  the  banks  from  renderin,!.;'  that  full  dejj;iee 
ot  assistance  to  commerce  and  industry  which  they  would  afford  under  laws 
that  did  not  unnecessarily  restrict  their  rinhtlul  functions,  all  our  money  re- 
sponds to  the  two  essential  tests  —  safety  and  converriliility  ;  while  the  banks 
liMve  beiui  amontf  the  nu)st  jtowerful  fact(U's  in  placiii;;'  the  l' nited  .'^tiites  in 
tiie  front  rank  of  the  nations  of  tin'  earth. 

Our  finances  maybe  likened  to  a  tri;iic-;le,  of  which  the  base  —  the  j^'old 
stiindard  —  has  been  in  actual  existeni^e  since  1S79  (much  louder  than  thai  in 
l;i\v).  and  the  otherside  —  safety  —  also  assured.  wantiuLf  but  another  addi- 
tion—  elasticity  —  to  comidete  the  syiunu>trical  and  perfec',  ti^'ure.  That 
this  last  retpiisite  of  a  sounil  currency  will  be  supplied  by  the  wisdom  and 
iiii,'ennity  of  our  jH'ople,  is  not  to  be  doubted. 

'I'liere  are  two  respects  in  whi(di  the  financial  policy  of  the  I'niteil  St;ites 
is  uniipie  in  comparison  with  most  other  ,i,Meat  commercial  countries ;  tirst, 
iis  i;old  reserve  is  unprotected  by  the  devices  in  use  (dsewherc  as  it  does  not 
<'hari;o  a  ]iremium  on  i,'old  as  the  l>ank  (d'  France  does  when  jjold  Ks  wanted 
for  export,  nor  can  it  protect  the  icold  reserve  by  i-aisin:^  the  rati'  id'  discount 
as  the  great  banks  of  iMirojie  may  do;  second,  banking  is  iiractically  lice 
;iiid  anti-nioiu)polistic.  I'nder  these  condilions  we  li;ive  reached  a  place  tiiat 
may  well  excite  the  .'istonishnu'nt  ot  the  old-woild  countries.  Hur  stock 
ul  metallic  money,  as  estimated  by  tiie  Director  of  the  .Mint,  in  IMIS.  was 
S'.ll'.'i.tioO.OOO  in  gold  and  .S(i;;S.(i(K).U(iu  in  silver.  No  other  nation  owned  so 
iuiu;h  gold.    Only  one  —  China  —  owned  as  much  silver,  but    it.  had  no  gold, 


1 -l^i 


^l    1! 


v% 


*^'^i|l 

III 


hM 


>  Ui^ 


.  I 


4»i       riiUMi'Hs  ASi)  wosDicny,  or  Tim  xix'"  cicsrunY 

iind  till-  per  iMjuta  nf  ,sil\»T  ill  Cliiiiii  is  only  ."SI.'.NJ  nyaiiist  .SS..")*!  in  tlic  I'ni 

Stairs.       Oill'  si  nek   n|   ;4iil(l   is   luiHr  t  iiall  ilnnlili'  tilut  <'l'  (ill -at   Itrltilill,  J^IlM 

liy  a  liiiinlri'd  iiiillii>Ms  than  thai  dl  I' raiiri'.  ami  also  rxcci'ils  I  liat  (if  (  mtiiii 
and  lliissia.  <»l  dur  silvfr  sli.cU,  S.'iC.l.r.dO.lMMl  is  a  lull  \v'^i\\  ti'iidcr.  i 
•ST'liTOOjOdOa  liiiiilt'd  \\-'^a\  tcinlfr,  tin'  latter  sum  rciii't'Sfiiliii^,'  liic  snlisidi, 


cuius. 


In  oni' liaiiking  )Mi\v<'i' tin' sitnatidii   is  ciiiially  t'orliinatt'.      .Miilliall  dt'lih 
liaiikiii!,'   jMiwcr  as  tlic   iiaiii-np  capilal   •>!   Wanks,  tin'  dcpdsits  cxclnsivr 
.saviiij,'s  liaiiks.  and   tln'ainnnnt  of  convcrtiiilf  iiapcr  nmin'v.      Mr  shows  ti 
"I'owth  o\  tliis  innn  id'  wealth  In  havf  Imcii  as  lolluws,  In. in  1S|(»  to  \S\)\  -. 


.MILLIONS    I'OI  NDS    STKKLI.NO. 


IS40 
IMH 


(initt  llrit 


\ii 


(icriimiiy.        Other  8tatt>ii,  i     Tdlii'. 


•.•:i| 


r>M 


Tn  till'  two  >.,'it'at  I'ssi'iitials  id"  linancial  strcii^dli  —  the  i|iiaiitity  of  iin'tal 
inoiii'v  and   bankiiiLf   powrr  —  we  havr    far  oul>tii|t|ii'il  every  other  nat 


mil. 


This  is  an  iinfailiiij,'  si^jn  <d'  oiir  advance  toward  a.  iiosition  ol'  coniinenial 
and  indnstiial  snpieinacy.  The  seeptie  id'  linancial  power  has  crossed  Ihe 
Atlanlic  Ironi  Knrope  to  the  New  World.  We  are  f,'radiially  aciinirinji  cnm. 
inaiid  id' the  world's  markets,  and  in  time  we  shall  sec  our  hanks  —  evcrlln' 
handmaids  of  coinmen  e  —  extendin;,'  their  operations  to  the  nmst  distiini 
ipiarters  id'  the  earth  and  carryiii;,'  everywhere  the  licncticciit  inllnence,-  dl 
modern  civilization. 

New  \'ork  as  a  linancial  centre  has  hceii  jj^rowin^'  with  astoiiisliiii<,'  rapid- 
ity in  recent  years,  l-'nun  iST'.t  to  IS'.H*  the  hanks  helonj^Miig  to  the  Nrw 
\o\\i  Clearint,'-! lon.se  .\ssoi'iatioii  increased  their  deposits  I'rom  )ii!L'."i4.7<in.(i(iii 
to  .SltllKrit »(•.(»(»(»,  and  their  specie  —  chielly  <,M.ld  —  from  ."Siltjt  10,0(1(1  i,. 
.l!!l'01.',C>00.000.  the  latter  item  havinsr  aliont  donhled  in  the  past  two  years. 
Itcin,;;  .SKU.TOO.tK"*  in  1S'.>7.  and  .SL'<tL'.(iO(MHIO,  as  above  stated,  in  1,S<»<>."  Tin' 
a,Lr<4rci,'ate  of  liankiiif,'  institutions  in  the  city  —  national  hanks,  state  hanks, 
trust  companies,  and  .saving's  hanks,  exclusive  of  private  liankiiif,'  tirnis  - 
liail.  ahout  .laniiary  1.  lS',li».  capital,  surplus,  aiul  jirolits  amountin;;  tu 
•IJi.'Jll.CtOO.OOO;  deposits  (d  .S1.'.0I7,S00.000;  and  total  resources  of  ncailv 
!!iL'.."iOO.OOO.OOO.  One  bank  — the  National  City — w  itli  over  itJilU.OOO.iMin 
of  deposits,  is  the  hir<,a'st  in  the  I'liited  States;  while  the  liowery  Savings 
I'.ank,  witli  IL'I.OOO  dcpositiu's  and  !>i('>7.000,000  id'  deposits,  is  the  largest  .1 
its  kind  in  the  country. 

The  present  status  of  the  ilitTerent  classes  of  hanks  in  tlic  United  States  is 
fairly  sliown  hy  the  ft.llowing  talilc  coni[»ileil  from  the  Annual  IJcport  of  the 
Comiit roller  of  the  Currency,  fur  the  year  IJSIKS :  — 


pii()(;in:ss  i\  (itiSMii:,  crinU'iMY,  ASh  ii.whixa 


W' 


KIN(  ll'AI.    HUMS   UK    IlKSOim  KS    AMi    I.I  Villi. I  I  IKS   UK  Al.l,  fl.AKSKW   OK    HANKS    IN    TIIK 

IMTKIl   STAIKS,    .11  I. V    II,    Imiw, 


Niitiiiiinl 
illtllkn, 


Stati'  ll.iiikx 


l.naii  ,V  I  riiHt  Siivlii^s 


I  uiiipanii'H, 


llaijk> 


Private 
llaiika. 


T.'tiil. 


I     im . 


il  Statwn  ImiiiiIh 
■  ■r  IiiHiiIn 


*.M.'5i,7."T,ti.Vi    ?tti;ij4ii,'Mi;i    urThHi.ni'i.Mri  «i|,(i7ii,7Tri,-".i:i    !?."i7,.'in:,"*1!i  *-»,i;:f.'.t;;i'.'.oi5 


■>.'i,:i."p<i,'.i(io 
:.'iii.i;sii,:i7,"i- 


,iN:..:au       ;i».iM..itii       iio.nj 


I  Hal     .     .     .     . 

>  iilim  mill  |ii'iiHln 

!■  ,...-it«  .     .     .     . 

I  il  I'i'Hiniri  I'H 


111-.- 
ii.'.',iilii,7l."i 


1-.'7,..(«I,1M 
.'I       i:i;i,>77.i:i.i 

;.i..".>7.:i.'>.. 


■.■.t,7itl.:il'.; 


'.f.'V.r;!       »r,i,(;,v,,M:i 


Kit,i.7iM:i|        ;i..v.'!i.ii'.i'.'    i,.'.7r...;.Mi.7.M 


,ii-j>,:;j;i 


,l:i 


liil, 


'.Ni,l7l 


l> 


:;j,ii7l.i;i.i       imii,.v,i,.-iMi        ',t7,c.i;i,r,(k;        i>7,l7."i.'.'7l 


:.ii       ir..7'.'i.7."iii      !i'.'-.'.(«io„"i;i;t 


..ii'.>-'.:ni 


.110 


'J,li7is-"-'ii..>7ii 


'.il'.'.;m"i.liH;      r.i^'.',i;,s,:!!i7     'J.iij>,'.'iin.ii':i      I'c.ox'i.dsi    ."i.7ii,ii-.':i,s7'j 


;i,'.i7T,ii7."p, u.'i    i,;i.".(;,ii.Hi,,H(Ki     uij.ic-.'.nii    'j.Jii.im.'.iii      '.ii.ian.iis;    f<,i;(i'.MKi;!.,-Mi'j 


HtiitcH.  I     Tntal. 


\y  (pf  iiH'tiillic 

(itlltT    lIMliiHi. 

f  ciiiiiiMcri'ial 
s  ci'tisscd  I  III' 
fqiiiriiij,'  ciiiii- 
\s  —  t'vrr  tlic 
most  (li>t;iiii 
intliiciicfs  ul 


I'licrt'  were  .'iriSl*  iiiitiniiiil  Imiiks  tliiit  rt'iiortnl,  and  .V.l();>  otlirr  hanks,  a 
t  ■i;il  (if  ',MS,'i.  Tilt!  totiil  hiinkiiij^  IuimIs,  tliat  is,  ciipital.  sur|plus  imd  iirolits, 
ID  d  individual  dt'pdsits.  of  all  banks  ri'portini,'.  aiiionntcd  to  S7,  ll(i..'l.V),.")(i,S. 

W'v  cannot  ^ct  a  corn-ct  nndfrstandiiii,' of  llicsc  lit^iircs  without  .ijoin^  hai-k 
t.  railitT  dalt's  and  iiiakin,t;  coniiiarisons.  In  17'.>S  tlifrc  were  twcnty-livo 
.si.iti'  hanks  in  the  countrv.  aj,'aiiist  .'!'.)(i,"»  ri'|portiiij,'  to  Ihi'  ('oni|>trollcr  of  tlit! 
(  iiiTcncv  in  IS'.dS.  wiiiidi  i.s  perhaps  ahoiit  '.Ml   pi-r  cciit  of  the  total  of  such 


m- 


htiitions  now  r.\i.st  iii''. 


A  hnndrt'il  \cais  aj^'o  the  capital  of  tlic  state  hanks  was  less  than  twenty 


iiiillions,  I'D 


nipared  with  •>_. 


.'.>71,ri4.'{  now  reported.     Thev  h 


hut 


;|  I.IMIO.IMMI  of  specie  —  half  as  iniieh  as   is  now  held  hy  oin'  New  N'ork  city 
iaid<  alone.     'I'heir  circulation    was  only   8'.MMK),(Mi(t,   compareil   with   nioio 


than  !i|!-<">,<><>".<MM(  of  national  hank  circiilatioii  now  outstandii 


ILT. 


riie  national  Itanks  also  show  a  reiaarkahle  LCiowth.  In  iNCi'.Mhere  werti 
IC.'.'O  hanks  in  operation,  reporting,' )ii<lL*().S(i(».(HiO  capital.  8."il7.'.MHl.(HMl  individ- 
ual deposits.  .'ril7.r»(l( ).()(»»  specie,  and  8l..">17.7<lO,(»(Ml  total  resources.  Thirty 
\cars  later  the  nuniher  of  hanks  hail  increased  to  .'t.V.Ht.  while  the  capital  was 
Sr.uS.;!(IO.()(M».  the  individual  deiiosits  8-.-.'!-. !<•(».(  1(10.  and  specie  8-">71.Si;i.H»(>, 
while  the  total  resources  had  increased  to  8  I.  l<>."!.N(»().(l(M». 

'{"lie  total  wealth  of  the  I'nited  States  in  1S'.I."»  was  estimated  at  more  than 
.*;,S(».000.()(M).(l(M».  —  far  e.xceedint,'  in  the  at^'i^nej^ate  that  of  any  otlier  country 
ill  the  world.  It  is  exjiccted  that  the  census  ^>^'  I'.HHI  will  show  our  total 
wealth  to  he  nioiv  than  8H>(M>(M).()(>(>.(t(l(».  or  prohahly  douhle  that  of  (Ireat 
r.iitain.  the  next  richest  nation. 

r.iit  while  the  nation  is  pilini,'  up  wealth  at  an  unexanipled  rate,  it  cannot 
lie  saiil  that  this  is  a  land  ••where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay." 
<ircat  in  its  material  resources,  the  country  was  never  hei'ore  stronj^er  ill 
tlinse  elements  which  constitute  the  chief  reliance  of  national  power.  A 
iKiiled  citizenshi]».  ])ossessiinj;  an  honesty  that  adversity  cannot  sully  and  an 
iiiicUi;j:eiice  that  when  once  aroused  |ienet rates  the  most  cunnini,dy  concealed 
ciuiiomic  sophistries,  working,'  out  the  prohlenis  of  the  future  under  laws  and 
iciiditious  assuriiii^  to  the  individual  the  larLrest  op]iortunities.  ]ioiiits  to  a 
(hveldpment  in  the  twentieth  century  in  no  wise  inferior  to  that  uf  the  huii- 


ilifii  vears 


preeodiiiy. 


II.     colNAciK,    .\NI>    I'l.'ODl  rriov    ol"    I'liKCIOIS    MKTAI.S. 

Tlio  ])revailiii!,'  systems  of  coinai;f  in  this  countrv  and  anions,'  all  ![;roat 
ci'iimiercial  nations  are  the  result  of  development  and  growth,     (lold  and 


ini 


■p 

im 

m 

II 

1  lii 

11 

1   r,J 

11 

Ifi  I! 


'   ■■■!a 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


1.0    !f  i-  IIM 


I.I 


1.25 


•-  IM    1112.2 
If   lis    i^ 

!f    lig    II  2.0 

U    11.6 


Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTEK,N.Y.  14580 

(:'16!  fl ■'2-4503 


^. 


<^ 


A 


S"  M?^ 


M 


I  It 


t  '■ 


k  ':i 


m 


v-i  ;yi" 


!)«:. 


Hi 


44G 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XI X^"  CENTURY 


silver  liave  become  tlu>  jtrincipal  moiicv  motuls  by  a  jirocess  of  natural  sd.  - 
tinii,  which  has  (■hosi'ii  the  iiistrunuMits  best  suitcil  to  the  jturposc.  In  rei'ini 
years,  iiiicl  iiuder  tlie  laws  of  (levelDimieut.  nearly  all  the  great  trailiuj,'  odini- 
tries  of  the  world  have  selected  i,mj1(1  as  the  standard  of  value.  In  the  futiii. . 
j^dld  itself  may  give  way  to  something  better,  for  it  only  relatively  meets  tuc 
essentials  of  a  ])erfect  standard. 

Among  (ireeks,  Uonuins,  and  Oriental  peoples,  cattle  were  st^nerally  nsi,l 
as  a  standard  of  value.  The  modern  rujiee  of  India  is  the  old  Sanscrit  wnid 
niiiiiii.  a  herd.  Capital  is  but  the  estinuite  of  Ivnman  riches  in  cattle.  'I'lic 
Latin  /Ill-US,  cattle,  is  tlie  root  of  jirrmild,  ri(dies.  and  the  origin  of  our  wmd 
pe<'uniary.  The  Jeidanders  measured  valui  s  in  dried  tisli ;  the  Hudson  il  iv 
country  in  skins  ;  tlie  early  N'irginians  in  tobacco  :  the  Indians  of  the  rniiiM 
States  and  Canada  in  wampum;  the  (.!liinese.  even  in  reciMit  times,  in  sipiaics 
of  [iressed  tea  :  the  Africans  in  l)ars  of  salt  and  slaves. 

These  jirinutive  devices  gradually  gave  way.  under  the  demands  of  intei'- 
natidual  trade,  to  thi!  use  of  metals  as  standards  of  value.  Tin.  cnpiicr.  gn!.l. 
silver,  and  inm  all  were  used,  and,  at  tirst.  jiassed  by  weigiit.  ( invcii.nieui 
coinage  oi'  money  is  thought  to  date  from  the  seventh  century  n.  r..  uml  n 
cri'dited  to  tlie  Lydians  and  to  I'heitlon  of  .Vrgos.  the  oiticial  standi  beiii-  ;i 
guarantee  of  the  honesty,  weight,  and  jiurity  of  the  coins. 

.Modein  coinage  dates  from  the  reformation  of  the  coinage  of  iiome  uudci' 
Constantine.  wlio  introduced  the  gold  .s■o//(//^s•  (d'  .S.').<>2  in  value,  and  a  silver 
coin  of  like  weight  but  of  relative  value.  After  the  time  of  .lulian.  this  silxer 
piece,  called  ,s////y//r/.  was  given  such  value  as  that  twenty-four  of  tliem  e(|ii;il(il 
a  gold  .sv;//(/«.s'.  In  the  i'^rankish  Emi)ire,  under  the  Merovingian  kings,  tlir 
r(dntive  values  of  the  su'i'i/us  and  si/iijini  tluctiuited  greatly.  In  the  I'iuiiili 
century,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  gold,  there  was  a  gradual  transition  tn 
the  silver  standard,  aiidu;  silv<'r  unit,  also  calh'd  a  mi/ii/iis,  was  substituted  Im- 
the  gold  so/Ii/hs,  the  former  being  divided  into  twcdve  jjcnce.  This  silver 
s<i/!(/iis  afterwards  became  the  shilling  of  England  and  (Jermany.  At  first  .'loo 
]ience  were  coined  out  of  a  pound  of  silver;  but  under  I'epin  the  luimber  wiis 
reduced  to  twenty -two  sn/lr/i  of  twelve  pence  each  —  L'()4  pence  —  out  i'\'  ;i 
pound  of  silver.  Under  (.'harlemagiu;  it  was  provided  that  only  1}4(»  pence 
or  twenty  so/ii/i  of  account,  should  be  stamped  out  of  a  pound  of  silver,  and 
this  system  was  introdiu-ed,  with  more  or  less  success,  in  wluit  is  now  Frann' 
and  <iernuiny.  As  to  form,  it  has  remained,  up  to  the  most  recent  perieii, 
the  basis  not  only  of  the  countru's  of  Charlemagne's  Empire  lait  of  England. 

After  the  time  of  Jlenry  VIII.  came  a  jieriod  of  coinage  debasement  whiili 
culminated  in  l.")!.  A  thorough  C(diiage  reform  was  effected  under  VA\/.i- 
beth  in  ITidO.  The  first  large  coinages  of  g(dd  in  England  were  made  umlir 
.lames  I.  These  contiiuu'il  until  the  death  td'  William  III.,  in  17(11.  Still. 
silver  continued  to  be  the  standard  metal,  ami  in  l(!i(r>  another  attempt  wa.s 
mach'  to  reform  the  currency  by  a  recoinage  of  the  silver  pieces,  most  >>( 
which  had  been  clipped  or  worn,  into  ii,  new  full-weight  silver  coin.  Tin.-, 
however,  were  soon  exported,  in  sjiite  of  a  reduction  of  the  current  value  "t 
the  guinea,  in  1717.  The  g(dd  standard  in  Knglaml  gained  a  nearly  compl'tt: 
victory  by  act  of  Tarliament  in  1774,  which  ])rovided  that  silver  coins  no!  if 
full  weight  (there  were  hardly  a,iy  others)  need  not  be  accepted  in  payme'  !< 
of  more  than  twent^'-tive  pounds,  except  by  weight.     This  provision,  a:   'r 


NTURY 

)t'  iKitunil  sol. .'. 

)()Sl'.      In  l'(!ci!;t 

it  tradiiif,'  fit\i\;. 

Ili  tllC  flltlli   •, 

ivt'ly  meets  tin- 

geiiei'iiUy  iisnl 
(I  Sanscrit  wmd 

ill  cattle.  'I'lic 
;iii  (>[  our  ^^•nl(l 
10  Hudson  II  ;v 
IS  oi'  liie  r  iiiic'il 
inies,  in  si|iiiin's 

'Uiunds  (it  intiT- 
in,  ('oiijier,  l;i'M. 
t.  ( idxi'n.niriit. 
ury  i:.  i..  ami  is 
,  staiii[)  liriiii;  ;i 

•  ol'  Konie  iiimIit 
liie,  and  a  sil\ir 
uliaii.  this  sii\i'r 
ol'  tlielll  eqiialril 
i,y;ian  kiii,u's.  tlic 
In  the  ei.uhlh 
ual  transili(>ii  ti> 
s  substituted  liir 
ce.     Tliis  silver 
At  iirst;;no 
the  inuulier  \\;l^ 
nee  —  out  dl'  a 
only  li4(>  iieiicr. 
1  of  silver,  ami 
t  is  now  Fraiiri' 
t  recent  peried. 
lilt  of  England, 
jasement  which 
ed  under  Eli/a- 
ere  made  undir 
in  1701.     Still. 
ler  attempt  was 
pieces,  most  >il' 
r  coin.     Tin", 
jurrent  valur  "t 
nearly  compl'ie 
ver  coins  not  <<f 
;ed  in  payniei  ts 
jirovision.  a'    i' 


PROGRKSS   IN   COINAGE,   CIJIUIENCY,  AND  liANKlNd 


117 


veral  renewals,  became  i)ernianent  in  17'.>S.      In  17*.t7  coinage  n\'  silver  was 

spended,  and  the  single  gold  standard  practically  introduced,  tiiougb   its 

cration  was  somewhat  interfered  with  by  the  existeiufo  of  a  paper  currency. 

1  liSK)  the  ])rese]it  Knglish  monetary  system  was  introduced.     It  held  fast 

the  gold  standard,  by  the  [irovisiou  that  silver  pieces  should  be  nse(l  only 

divisiimal  cuius,  and  with  a  legal-tender  power  limited  to  forty  shillings. 

Properly  siieaking,  there  was  no  eoinane  in  the  I'liited  States  during  the 

■Idiiial  period.     .Maryland  had  a  mint,  at  one  time,  and  one  or  two  of  the 

■her  States,  but  they  jjractically  amounted  to  nothing.     In  the  early  colonial 

I  riod  th(>  substitutes  for  coins  were  wampum  and  bidlets.  as  in  Massachu- 

tts;  skins  and  furs,  as  in  ><'ew  York  ;  tol)acco,  as  in  Maryland  and  Virginia. 


OLU    LMTKU    STATKS    MINT.    I'Hl  I-AOKLI'll  lA. 

Till'  coins  in  use  before  the  Revolution  were,  to  some  extent,  those  of  Eng- 
land, but  more  largely  those  of  S]iain.  circulated  in  South  America  and 
traveling  up  to  the  United  States.  The  unit  of  account  was  the  Spanish 
milled  dollar  or  piece-oi-ci!,dit.  though,  up  to  177.'>.  .accounts  were  kept  in 
lidimds.  shillings,  and  ]ience.  a  jiound  consisting,  then  as  now.  of  twenty 
shillings,  and  a  shilling  (d'  tw(dvc  pence  '•  colonial "'  or  '■  pound  "  currency, 
rmir  pounds  of  this  "colonial  currency"'  were  reckoned  as  e<pial  to  three 
pniinds  sterling. 

This  colonial  com]iosite  system  of  current  coins  was  regulated  by  coinage 
taiiffs.  Such  a  tariff,  issued  in  K^O,  valued  one  ounce  of  silver  at  six 
shillings  and  eightjience.  the  Spanish  milled  dollar  at  six  shillings,  the 
,1,'iiinea  at  twenty-eight  shillings,  and  the  Knglish  crown  at  six  shillings  and 


•  ifl 


1  ', 


'<!:iii 


lit 


I,  ;  J.     II 


I     'K 


fTl 


448 


TRIUMPHS  AM)    ]yOM)l':RS   OF  THE  A'/A'™   CENTUllY 


cii^litpciict'.     All  I'orcii,'!!    coins    were  viilucd  in  iiriipoition  to    tlu5  value     r 
the  S|iimisli  ])it'C('-()l-('i,nht.      Sonic    of    the    colonics    Mtani[)C(l    the  shilli 
Avliich  constituted  u  liir.<;-e  ]iart  oT   the  money   in  circulation.     It,  Jiowc 
varied  i;reatly  in  value   in  the  dil't'ereiit  colonit.'s.     Tlius,  the  Sjianish  doi, 
ciiualed  live  shillinij;s  iudeoriiia ;  ei_i,dit  in  North  Carolina  and  New  York;    !\ 
in  \'iri;iuia.  Connecticut.  Mew  llaniiishirc^  Massachusetts,  and  Hhode  Islai.ii ; 
seven  and  sixpence  in  .Maryland.  l>elaware.  I'ennsylvania,  and  Mew  .lers.  v  ; 
tlurty-two  and  sixpence  in  South  Carolina.     'I'lie  Spanisli  dollar  itscH'.  \\i:ii 
Avhicdi  these  comparisons  were  made,  was  rrei[uently  i)elow  Icijjal  weight,  iini, 
thereiore.    varied    in    value.      Wliere    the   pieces   mentioned  in   the  tariit    .1 
177(')  were  of  lull  weiglit.  the  ratio  there  cstalilished  was  the   I'^nglish  miiu 
of  one  to  I.").!'],  the  ratio  for  Imllion  being  nearly  the  same. 

After  the  tariff  of  177<)  had  lieen  in  o]ieration  for  six  years,  the  culn- 
nies  began  to  feel  keenly  the  diHiculties  caused  by  tlie  variety  of  cciins 
constituting  their  metallic  circulating  medium,  and  the  need  of  a  s]ii'(i;il 
American  coinage  was  fretpuMitly  expressed.  Jn  17SL',  IJobert  Morris,  siipcr- 
intendent  of  linanee.  sni)mitted  to  the  Congress  of  tin;  Confederation  a 
scheme  for  a  national  ct)inage  and  the  establishment  of  an  American  mini, 
which  met  with  approval,  .(efferson  recommended  the  decimal  system,  wiih 
the  dollar  as  the  unit.  Neither  of  these  proposals  was  carried  into  effrct 
till,  in  17S('».  the  C'ongress  of  the  Confederation  chose  as  the  monetary  unit 
of  the  United  States  the  dollar  of  ,".7r).Ci4  grains  of  pure  silver,  which  unit 
had  its  origin  in  the  Spanish  ])iaster  or  milled  dollar,  then  the  basis  nf 
the  metallic  circulation  of  the  Knglish  colonies  in  America.  This  American 
dollar  was  never  coined,  there  not  being  at  the  time  a  mint  in  the  I'nitcd 
States. 

The  Act  of  A])ril  2.  1702.  established  the  tirst  monetary  system  of  the 
Uinted  States.  The  bases  of  the  system  were  :  The  gold  dollar,  containing,' 
2\.~i\  grains  of  ]iure  gold,  and  stamped  in  jiieces  of  )ii»l(>,  $;"),  and  •'!i!L'.."'i<i, 
denominated  respectiv(dy  eagles,  half-eagles,  and  (luarter-eagles  ;  the  silver 
dollar,  containing  ."»71.1.'r>  grains  of  ])ure  silver.  A  nnnt  was  established. 
The  coinage  was  unlimited,  anil  there  was  no  mint  charge.  The  ratio  nf 
gold  to  silver  in  coinage  was  1  :  ir»,  ]5oth  gold  and  silver  were  legal  tender. 
The  standard  was  double.*  The  Act  of  ]7'.>L'  undervalued  gold,  which  was 
therefore  ex]iorted.  The  Act  (d'  June  2<S.  1<S.'>4.  was  jiassed  to  remeily  this 
by  changing  the  mint  ratio  betwcH'ii  the  nu?tals  to  1  :  KJ.OOl'.  The  latter  net 
fixed  the  weight  of  the  gold  d(dlar  at  L'r)..S  grains,  but  lowei'ed  the  iincne-s 

from  O.UKJr;  toO.SKltL'LT).    The  line  weight  of  the  gold  dollar  was  thus  redi I 

to  L'.'I.L'  grains.  The  Act  (d'  IS.'M  undervalued  silver  as  tliat  of  17'.IL'  i;;id 
undervalued  gold,  and  silver  was  attracted  to  luii'op(>  by  the  more  l'a\orai'!e 
ratio  of  1  :  I.")?,.  The  Act  of  .lanuarv  IS.  1.S.'I7,  was  passed  to  make  the  tine- 
iiess  of  the  gold  and  silver  coins  uiuform.  The  legal  weight  of  the  gold  dollar 
was  fixed  at  L'.'i.S  grains,  and  its  fine  weight  at  1.'.'>.L'L'  grains.  The  tineiie^s 
was  therefore  changed  by  this  act  to  O.'.KM)  and  the  ratio  to  1  :  ir».<.KS.S-|-.  Sil- 
ver contitnied  to  be  exporteil.  The  Act  of  lu4)ruary  21.  ].Sr».'},  reduced  tiie 
weight  of  the  silver  coins  of  a  denomination  less  than  .Ijtl,  Avhich  the  Aets 
of  171)2.  IS.'U.  atul  l.S.">7  had  made  exactly  ])roportional  to  the  weight  (d'  iIk; 

*  This  wjis  Inic  sii  f;ir  lis  tlir  law  wii>  ciiiiccniiMl,  Imt  not  iictiially,  as  may  be  si'i'ii  by  rcailiiiL:  iln" 
genti'iiccs  iiiiinr(li«t('l>  fullciwiiig  ihi' iibevf  statcmciit. 


Min-ris,  sii]'(M- 
;)nreiloniti(iii  ;i 
Liiici'icaii  mini, 
il  system,  wiih 
iocl  into  ctTrci 
inom^tary  unit 
er.  whioli  unit 
n  the  basis  "i 
Tliis  Aini'i'icau 
in  tlie  I'uitcd 


'I'll  1)v  n';iiliiiL'  ill' 


I'RUUHESS  IN  COINAGE,   CURRENCY,  AND  RANKING 


449 


ilver  (liillar.  and  provided  that  they  shouhl  be  U'gal  tender  to  the  amount  of 
Illy  $r>.  Inder  the  Acts  of  ITi)!',  l.S.'M.  and  l.S;j7  they  liad  been  full  ie;;al 
■uder.  J>y  the  Act  of  IS."),'!  the  legal  weight  of  the  hall'  dollar  was  re- 
iiiM'd  to  1'.>L'  'grains,  and  other  frat-tions  of  the  dollar  in  |in)[iortion.     'I'he 

•'in 
enl. 


ig(!  (d'    the   i'raetional   parts  of  the    dollar  was  reserved  U)  the  goven 


Tlie  Act  (d'  JM'bruary  IL'.  1S7M,  provided  that  the  unit  (d'  value  of  the  I'nited 


•lates  should 


be  th 


>ld  dollar  of  the  standard  weight  of 


irains, 


ind 


iia 


t  there  should  \h:  coined  besides  the  foUowiu 


)ld  coins:  A  (luarter-eagle, 


•  two  and-a-half  <lollar  gold  piece  ;  a  three-dollar  gold  piece;  a  half-eagle,  or 
>e-dollar  jiiece;  an  eagle,  or  ten-dollar  [lic'ce  ;  ami  a  double  eagle,  or  twenty- 
)llar  pieet',  all  of  a  standard  weight  proportional  to  that  id'  the  dolhir  jiiece. 


hese  coins  were  nuule  legal  tender  in  all  ]iaymeids  at  their  nonunal  value 
hen  not  b(dow  the  standard  weight  and  limit  of  tolerance  provided  in  the 
•t  for  the  single  piece,  ami  when  reduced  in  weighr  tliey  should  be  legal 
•uder  at  a  valuation   in  lu'oiioi'tion  to  their  actual  weight.     Th 


e  silver  coins 


I'fov 

liiiai 


ideil  for  by  the  .\ct  were  a  trade  dollar,  a  half-dollar  or  tifty-cent  pii'ce.  a 
ter-doUar.  and  a  teu-ceiit   piece,  the  weight  of  the  traile  dollar  to  be   IL'O 


'grains 


ilim 


trov  ;  the  half-dollar,  t 


welve 


and  a  half  grams  ;  the  (lua 


rter dollar  ifiul 


e,  respectively,  one  half  and  one  lifth  of  the  widght  of  tlu'  half-dollar. 
The  silver  coins  were  made  legal  teiuh'r  at  tludr  nominal  value  for  any  amount 
not  exceeding  .'ti<."»  in  anyone  payment.  Owners  of  silver  bullion  were  allowed 
to  deposit  it  at  any  mint  of  the  I'nited  States  to  be  formed  into  bais  or  into 
trade  (hdlars,  ami  no  deposit  of  silver  for  other  coinage  was  to  be  received. 
Section  2  of  the  joint  resolution  of  duly  L'L'.  !S7(>.  recited  that  the  t lade  dollar 
.-Iniuld  not  thereafter  be  Icjiil  tender,  and  that  the  Secretarv  of  the  Trea^urv 


utl 


>noul(t  he  autliori/ed  to  limi 


it  tl 


le  coinaLCe  ol 


he  same  to  an  aiaoiiut  siitlicieiit 


to  meet  the  e\port  demand  for  it. 


The   Act  of  .Mai 


ircii 


coina":e, 


■I'hat 


ISS7,    retireil  the   trade   dollar   and   prohibited   its 

the  coinage  (d'  tln^  one- 
»ruarv  L'S,  1S7S,  directed 


if  Setiteniber  L'd.  1,S'.)(».  discontinui 


dlar  and  three-dollar  gold  pieces.     'l"he  Act  of   Fe 


llie  coinage  of  silver  dollars  of  the  weight  id'  -HL',1,  grains  troy,  of  standard 
silver,  as  ]iro''ided  in  the  .Vet  of  .lamuiry  1(S,  18.'>7.  and  that  such  coins,  with 


dl  sil 


er 


dollars  theretid'ore  coined,  should  be  legal  tender  at  their   nomi- 


nal value  for  all  debts  and  dues,  iiublic  and  private,  exct 


'pt  wh 


)tl 


lere  otlierwise 


expressly  stipulated  in  the  contract.  The  Secretarv  of  the  'I'reasury  was 
authiu'ized  and  directed  b\-  the  first  section  (d'  the  act  to  purchase  from  time 
to  time  silver  bullion  at  the  market  price  thereof,  not  less  than    .Sl'.OOI'.OOO 


worth  iHM'  more  than  .S|. (»()(».()()()  worth    per   imuith.  and   to  ca 


use 


the 


same 


to  be  coined  mouihly.  as  fast  as  purcdnised.  into  such  dollars.  A  subsecjuent 
;ici.  that  of  .Inly  11.  IS'.M).  enacted  that  the  Secretary  cd'  the  'I'reasury  should 
nurchase  silver  bidlion  to  the  aggregate  amount  of  l.oOtt.Odll  ounces,  or  so 
inuch  there(d  as  might  be  offcreil.  ea(di  month,  at  the  marUet  ]irice  thei'cof, 
t  exci'eding  .Sl.uo  for  .'>71.L'."»  grains  (d'  jmre  sihcr.  and  to  issue  in  payment 


no 


thereof  'I'reasurv  noti 


A'  the  I'liited  States,  sutdi  notes  to  i)e  redeeii 


le  i)V 


tin'  government,  on  demand,  in  coin,  ami  to  lie  legal  tender  in  navment  of  all 


lieb 


I'ont  ract. 


i)Ulilic  ami  prn.Mte.  ( 


r 


le  at 


t  dirt 


Xcept 


liere  titherwise  expressly  stipulateil  in  the 


d  the  Secretarv  of  the  Treasury  to  coin  each  month 


MIO.OOO  ounces  of  the  silver  Itidlion  purchasetl  uniler  the  luovisituis  of  the 


29 


IH  iJi '! 


ll*'','!.- 


ii^a.l 


If 


I  ,; 


\i  n.I 


iJfi   llt'^'"  ' 


4.")() 


TlllUMI'lIS  AND    WUSVEllS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CESTUUY 


act  into  standard  silver  dollars  until  .Inly  1.  IN'JI.  and  thfrcalU'r  as  mucli  ,;  . 
might  bo   nt'ci'ssary,  to  in'oviik-   tor  tins   rodeniiitioii  ut'  tiir  'Irt-iisury   noi<  . 
issiiud  under  the  act.     'I'lie  luircluising  chiust-  of  the  Act  of  July  14.  JlSlKi,  w 
repealed  liy  the  Act  of  Novend)cr  1.  ISU.'*.     The  War  Jvevenue  Act  of  June  1 
JSDtS.  authorized  and  directed  tlie  coinage  of  standard  silver  dcdlars  to  ti 
anu)unt  of  not  les  ■  than  one  and  one  hiilf  niilliou  dollars  a  month,  from  t, 
bullion  in  the  Treasury  purchased  under  the  Act  of  .Inly  14,  1(S<)(>.     The  A 
of  June  9,  lS7i(,  made  the  subsidiary  silver  coins  of  tlu^  United  States  le-,  ; 
lender  to  the  amount  of  •SlO.    The  minor  coins  are  leyal  tender  to  the  amoui,: 
of  twenty-five  cents. 

The  following  oflicial  ti,t,qin's  give,  by  i)eriods  of  ten  years,  the  coina:,.' 
(d'  the  I'nited  States  from  the  establishment  of  the  Mint  to  the  j'l'esciii 
tinu'  :  — 


Yearn. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Miiiur. 


Total. 


lT!i;[  IT'.IK 

ISdII-liSd'.i 

lt<l(i-lSl!l 

I.vjd-IM'II 

I,s;t(i-i,s;iii 

1,S4(P-1S4".I 

is,-i(i-i«riii 

isco-isd'.i 

1S7(I-1STII 

1S,S(|-1HMI 

1.S90  to  June  :iO,  1807 . . . . 


Sii!)(i,.";i(i.(i(i 
;:,i«;t,(iii7..")(i 
■j,.".4s,'.iiri.(iii 

•.',r.7'.i,(il7..'Vl 

i7,7i:i,4j.'.r)ii 

.''iS,!Hll),4:i'.i.(KP 

a">j,iii.">.(c,ip.(i(i 
'_".ki,7m;,i;!i.ii(i 
370,7  is,fis:!..vp 

411,7f.r.,'.;77.lKI 
374,8(l(VJ'J.J.(lO 


?I.21(!,1.-)8.7r. 

:!.ir>4.(W7.7ri 
(;,ia7,9(i:i.7r> 

14,7X7  ..3J7.(„-> 

'j.s,ii'_'.i:i(;.(;(i 
i!'-'.'.!'j;i.7:'.;!.(«i 

47,'.'3S,Sl:i.fKl 

i:!,(;:i7.ri(i7.iKi 
l4J,i!)i:,i7.s.(;() 
;i(p.'),.s(i!P,ii,><i.'j) 

i:)(l,-.'48,501.fi5 


?r>o,iii.4'i 

liH,8(ir..7!» 

l(!i;,r.;!4.07 

17,><,37'-'.70 

im.Kio.'j! 

3(;(i.s4(l..'i3 

i,i;ir>,r,s(i.();t 
s,r>(i4,(i70.no 

■J,'J31.(l(i!l..-,() 

s,i27,;iiiri.r.Ci 

7,5(J4,84!l.tM 


?1  ,ni'.'.',S(;(.  i; 
(;.;'.xi;,(;ji  h| 
.s,(;i'.i,r,i,i  ^' 

17,.-.4I.7K  --, 
4i;,i;i_'.:ii;'.i:;: 
K1.4!i4.(il::;:; 
4(ll,'>:i.44:'.  i':i 
3l'.',!1'J7.,>>iis!.i, 
.ll.'^Hil.iiTl.i;!! 
72.'>.7(Vj.i;i;:;.7i; 
5is,0l!i..v,i..:;(i 


5i,s,si;,;i3s,ii."is.oo 


?720,79'2,l'Jil.8r) 


?'.'8,8I4,.'J58.2C. 


f2,(a5,',l4,">,(;4i;  nl 


At  this  writing  the  iv])ort  of  the  Director  of  the  ^lint  lias  not  been  ]iuh- 
lisheiL  but  the  coinage  for  the  full  year  18*.>7  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  gold. 
)j>!7C».(»L'.S.4S4 ;  silver,  !ii!18.4S(;.(;<J7  ;  and  for  the  year  iSit.S,  gold,,  {!j!77,l».sr).7.'.7 : 
silver,  !?-!.■),( >.'!4.(>.'U.  From  January  1  to  June  30,  ISDU,  the  coinage  was :  gold. 
)5!0r>.<»ir).(li;(l;  silver,  .'«!]L',7<S(U41. 

it  is  sometimes  thought  that  the  silver  dollars  are  not  a  full  legal  tendci', 
but  this  is  not  so.  They  are  an  unlimited  legal  tender  for  all  debts,  public 
and  private.  The  Treasury  does  not,  in  practice,  redeem  silver  doUars  in  gold, 
but  successive  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  have  announced  their  readiness  tn 
do  so,  if  necessary  to  keep  the  silver  dollars  from  dei)reciating,  —  that  is, 
l)reserve  their  parity,  —  which  the  law  directs. 

Silver  certificates  and  gold  certificates  are  not  legal  tender,  but  entitle  tin 
holder  to  receive  the  kind  and  amount  of  coin  named  on  their  face. 

The  value  of  gold  bullion  in  a  dollar  of  that  metal  is  91).99111.'ij  cents,  uv 
practically  100  cents.  The  value  of  the  silver  bullion  in  a  d(dlar  of  that 
metal  is  about  45  cents.  It  varies,  however,  with  the  fluctuations  in  tlir 
market  value  of  silver. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  bullion  value  of  a  silver  dollar  and  of  a  guM 
dollar  differs  greatly,  but  the  efjuality  of  the  purchasing  power  of  the  ivn 
coins  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  silver  dollars  are  receivable  for  itublic  ano 
l»rivate  debts,  that  they  are  indirectly  exchangealde  for  gold,  by  deposit  ii- 
them  in  the  banks,  and  that  the  government  is  pledged  to  redeem  them  in 
gold,  if  necessary  to  preserve  their  parity  with  gold. 


TURY 

IT  ii.>  nuii'li  ,1  . 
iviisiiry  IK  ill  . 
,  14.  lAlMt,  w 

U'l    (if  .JlUII-  1   '. 

(loUtU's  t(j  til 
)iitU.  from  I'l..' 
S'.H>.     The  A' -I 
"(1  States  1l';4..i 

to  tilt'  iUlldlitii 

I's,  tlu!  ('(liuii'^r 
to  the  iircscni 


Total. 


?1.9C.'.',8l:ii.l; 

(i.;'..si;.iti,iit 
s,r>i',i,r,i,i.sj 

1T,."41.T17  -.'i 

4C.,r.iJ,:!i;'.i:'.l 

81.4114,111.:. u:i 

4(ii,'js'.i.44:'.n:; 

31'-',!l'JT,Mis'.iii 
,'')l.',14i;,(i7l.r.ii 
T'i'>.7ri'j.r,i;;;.7r, 

51S,01!I,.T,i..;Mi 


f2,(»5,l»45,l'fli;  111 


s  not  btH'ii  iHili- 
foUows :  gold. 

nage  Avas :  gold. 


i 


legal  tender. 

debts,  imblic 

loUavsiii  gold. 

ir  readiness  tn 

ting,  —  that  is. 


but  entitle  IIm 
V  face. 
1)1125  eents.  nr 

dollar  of  tli;il 
tiuitions  in  iln' 

and  of  !i  gi'ld 

»ver  of  tlie  t  ^i' 

for  publie  ami 

,  by  depositiiiu 

edeem  tlieiu  ii! 


'  1p 

tli'ij 

1 

i 

{P|< 

I  H' 

II 

' 

hi 

■  \\i 

.  .  I'l.^l 

1  ■^'1 

'1  ''i| 

! 

H 


!ia 


wr 


f\ 


^mM 


■  f|!  !  ' 

.  .  I  ^''  'i 

P     '  3>     Mr  :;i 

fill  i 

ill  i 


ni  m 


452 


TRIUMrilS   ASD    WoXDI-JJiS   OF   THE   XIX'"   CEXTUllY 


As  t'lirly  iis  ISL'O  llic  I'liittMl  Stiitt'S  hi-jiiiii  to  cxjiort  doiiit'stii'  t,'iil(l.  hcj^ii;- 
iiiiij,'  witli  uu  ('X]i()i't  (if  i^l.O.-id.OSS  of  i^dld  (;oin  iiiid  hiiUioii,  iiiid  ii'(;fi\  jn 
an  iiiiiiort  of  Jii>()7S,74l».  V \)  to  liSl>7  the  grand  total  of  exiioits  of  gold  foi' 
and  liullion  anioiintud  to  ii^LMMd.L'o.S.aH,  and  tlit-  total  ini|iorts  to  81.11. 
1.'{S.7(>('»,  an  excess  of  exports  over  iniports  of  .*!l.(»7  t.o;»',l,77.">.  In  ISDSii, 
iin]iorts  of  gold  coin  and  Imllion  into  the  L'nited  States  were  .'filL'(),.'!!t!.U7  I 
and  the  exports  .'jjil  ~).4<m;..'!1M.  making  the  net  imports  .'ii<l(l4/,)S~).l,'.S.'!. 

From  1S1.'1  to  l.St)7  the  grand  total  of  exports  of  silver  coin  and  biillid: 
from  the  l'nited  States  was  .•:^I.I,")l.'.r.SS,77(),  and  the  imports  .'i;<7."ltt.."ll.'.">.NSl, 
making  an  excess  of  exports  over  inijiorts  of  S4Lll'..'>()L'.Si>.">.  In  the  tiscii, 
year  1S'.>S.  the  silver  imports  were  .S.'><'.'*-7,7S1.  iind  the  exports  .S'")."i.l<>~>.-.'!'.|. 
making  the  ex<'ess  of  exjiorts  8-4. 177.  f."'>S. 

The  total  product  of  gold  in  the  l'nited  States  from  17'.»L'  nji  to  ISIKJ  w;i- 
.1i!-M  !-">.<  >.">4.7(;'.>.  and  of  silver  .SI.4I4,'.)7(MKK),  making  a  grand  total  (d'  tli.' 
precious  metals  of  .ii<.'>.r),")S,0()4,7();>.  The  total  value  of  the  entire  world'-. 
production  of  gold,  between  the  years  141(3  and  l.S'.Mi,  was  .SS.1».s;;.;;l'(i.(;(iii. 
and  (d'  silver  81<>,'"><).700.S(»(I.  making  a  grand  total  of  gold  and  silver  ni 
8 1*.*..")!  0.01' 1.400. 

,\s  a  comparison  of  the  money  status  of  the  l'nited  States  at  the  beginning 
and  end  (d'  the  century,  the  following  iigures  are  interesting:  In  ISOo  tli.' 
pojiulatiou  was  ,").;;0S,4.S');  the'  estimated  hank  notes  outstanding,  .8IO..">00,(i(io ; 
the  estimated  spe(,'ie  in  the  country,  ■S17..')00.0(i(» ;  the  total  money  in  the 
United  States,  8L'.S,()00,000  ;  ihe  specie  in  the  Treasury,  81,r»00,000;  il,,. 
money  in  circulation.  .S-<)..'i00.000 ;  the  amount  ]ier  capita.  84. '.IK.  In  IS'.tS 
the  ]iopidarion  was  74.."iL'L'.ooo  ;  the  total  coin  in  the  l'nited  States,  in(du(ling 
bullion  in  the  Tri'asury.  81,4!)S.!»'.».'!.L'4'.>;  total  pa.per  money,  81.1.">N.44o.lL'(i : 
total  money  of  all  kinds,  .SL',(').")7.  h"!.")..'»7r) ;  coin,  bullion.  ;ind  pajier  money  in 
the  Treasury,  .S7'.('.),.">.')7,4S(t ;  total  circulation,  .81.S.'!7,S.V,>,S!K"> :  circulation  ]ier 
cajjita.  8-4. (id. 

Perhajis  no  law  relating  to  the  coins  and  currency  of  the  T'nite(l  States  has 
been  so  wichdy  discussed,  or  has  borne  nnjre  directly  on  the  attitude  and 
influence  of  political  parties  than  the  Coinage  Act  of  1<S7.'>.  This  act  grew 
out  (d'  a  pro]iosition  to  revise  our  coinage  laws,  made  by  dohn  day  Knox  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  in  April.  1S70.  Mr.  Knox,  in  his  rough  draft 
of  a  bill,  provided  for  a  silver  dollar  of  .'>.S4  grains,  to  be  a  legal  tender  for 
sums  not  exceeding  .S,").!)!).  Thus,  the  standard  silver  dollar  of  llL'i  grains 
was  tdiminated.  It  did  not  aiipeav  in  the  l)ill  as  it  passed  the  Senatt>,  Jai 
ary  10,  1S71,  nor  in  that  rejMU'ted  to  the  House,  ]\[arcli  ".(.  1.S71.  The  1  . 
underwent  prntra(;ted  and  th(U'ough  discussion,  and  on  ]May  27,  1S7-.  wa 
passed  in  the  House.  As  ])assed,  it  contained  the  original  provision  for  coin- 
ing a  silver  dollar  of  the  weight  of  ,').S4  grains  —  twice  the  weight  id'  the 
silver  half  dollar.  These  didlars  were  to  be  a  legal  tender  for  amounts  n.'t 
exceeding  .S.">.00.  Tlu'  Senate  amended  this  House  bill,  by  substitntin.;-  a 
trade  dollar  of  the  weight  of  4L'0  gi'ains  U)y  that  of  .')S4  grains,  at  the  same 
time  i)reserving  the  legal-tendei'  limit  (d'  .S.'"'.lMt,  In  the  amend(Ml  form,  it 
])assed  the  S(^n;  te,  .lanuary  17.  1S7.'!.  and  the  House,  lu'brnary  7,  lS7.'i.  and 
became  a,  law.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  standard  silver  d(dlar  of  412i  grains 
■was  never  in  the  bill,  and  coidd  not.  thend'ore.  have  been  secretly  omitted, 
as  was  afterwards  charged.     It  was  omitted   from  the  first  draft,  and  all 


lU- 

lill 


:ttl: 


*-ir% 


])  to  IS'.M)  wa- 

[  tdtiii  i>r  'ii'' 

■  ntirc  wiirld's 

s.'.»s:;.;'>L't».(;(i(i. 

and   silver  ui 

tlio  biv^iiiiiiirj, 
:  111  ISOtl  tllr 
;,  !i>l(t.r.(»(».0(ll); 
iiioncy  in  the 
I. ■)(»»,(•<»•> :  the 
l.'I'.l.  In  isits 
ates.  ineludiu'j,- 

i.i.",s.-nt>.iL:(;: 

]iev  iiKHiey  in 
irenlatiiin  jier 


CAUPKNTEItS'    TIAIJ,,    I'lnr.ADKr.rill A. 

(First  Site  of  First  L'aittd  States  llaiili.) 


ii:/i: 


■1    »:)' 


i  :;;( 


i'v 


•■i 


>  I 


.t>  >i 


tm 


'  MK;ii. 


I  K'l^    .1 


:  m 

"■■i-'K' 


m 


i.-.i        Ti;n\triis    \\n   uo\i>i:i;s  or  ini:   \i\ 


I  i:.\rn;y 


t  Innir^ll.     liri'MH-C    imni'     Wni'     I"   up;     cnniiil,    imil     llm    >■    lli:lt     IihI     lurli    niili' 
Wrri'    r\|iii|  till,   llli       -ll\iT   'miIIiiMi    III    llirlll    liril)';.  ;|I    lli;il    tllllr.    v\ii|lli    iimii'    ; 

liiillinii  lliiiii  rum.      |1\    |nnil    1 1  •  1 0 1 1 1  ii 'II   •>{   (  i  M  r;  I  f  .-..  ,i|i|iiii\  I'll  .liil\   •_"_',  Is; 

I  III'   I  null'  ilnllai  >   |il'i>\  lili'il    I'M    III     till'    ;ii'l    Wi'M'    ili'priM'il    nj     lln'il'  |i'i;;i|  Irihl 

•  |Uiilil,\.      It    v\;i->   sii|i|iii^i'il    tlii'v    woiil'i    iiiciihli'    in    f'liiiiii.    Iml    Ilii'\    pun, 

list'lcss   CM'II    jnr   I  llilt     lHII  I'llSC. 


■W 


W'l 


III.      I    \l;l\      llWMNi;     IN     nil      IMIIM    'VIVIIN, 

'Hie  liisl    iiiiiiKs  III   llh'  1   nilcil   Slalcs  nwi'd   thfii    mioiii   In  linln'i)   Mnu- 
iiiiil  .\l('\au(ii'i'  lliiiiiilii'ii.      \lniri>,  as  cailN   a-;  1 7<'i.'i.  cniiri'iM.il   IIh'   plan  nj 
hauls  til  assist   ill  ilex  I'lnpiiii;   Anicriran  liaili'.  ami  in   \J7'.K  llaniiltnn  pinpnsi 
llii'    I'l'^ani/aluni    nl     •• 'I'Ih'   rnnipaiiv    nl    llic    I'.anK    nl    llir    Inili'il    Slati' 
'riicsc  plans  iliil  lint   iiialiiri'.  Itiit   wni'    Inllnwril.  iit    ihr  sn'_^L;('stinii  (il    rinnn  ' 
I'aiiii'.    Ii\    an    a,-.s()iial  imi    nl     niiii'tx  i  w  n    sniisn  ilicjs    In   a    I'iiihI   nl'    .'liMi.nn 
pniiiiils    rciiiisvlvauia   ciinciirv    In   siippmt    tin'    Iji'vnlnl  inii:ir\    aiiii\.       Tin 
iissni'ial  inn  Id'canic  Kimwii   as   the    I'l'iin  .\  |\  ;niia    Hank.      Il 
iii'ss  .liiU    17.  I7''^it.  ainl  alii  r  a  rain'i  n|  a  \riii   ami 


rnllllllfllrril    liil 


II  hall.  iliiiiiiLr  wliii'li  t  nil 


li  till'  !;n\('iinii('nt  111  liii  iiisliiii'.;  aiiin   supplies,  its  alliiir; 


\M   I  ' 


it  ,ui-t'at  l\   anil 
wnnini  up. 

< 'n    Ma\     17.    I7''^l.    Ilainillnii    prcscntcil    llir   plan   nl    a   liaiiK    In   ('miuii 
wliirli   was   tn  111'  tilth    iiat  mnal.  ami    •■  ciralril   avnwmlU    tniiiij    tlir  I'nii 


lltr 


States."      its   name  was  tn  lie  tlie    UaiiK   nl    Nmlli  Aiiiriica.  with  a  siihsenp 
tinii   nl    .s  ltM).(t(i()  in   -nhl   ami   silver,  ami  it-;  nnics.  payahle  mi  ileniaml,  In  lie 
reeeivalile  Inf  iliit  ies  ami  ta\es  in  every  Stale.      ( 'niinresK   appinxeil   tlie  plan, 
iiml    Mnnis.  then   Snpei  iiiteinletit    nl'    l''iiianee.  piihlished    it,  with   an   aihlie 
shnw  iie^   its   ailvatilai.;i's  to  the  e;n\ erniiieiil    ami    people,  then  siiireritii^  liniii 


the  ill  elTeets  nf 


a  (lepreeiated  «'iivreiie\ 


Tlie  r<aiiK   nt    Nmth   .\ineriea  was  nrnaiii/eil    Nnveiiilier  I.  liSl, 


ami   lie'';ili 


luisiitess  .latiiiarv  7.  1 7.S'J.  It  eiei|il;ilil\  riillilieil  its  inissioii  "lo  aid  the 
I'liited  States."  and.  alter  the  espiratinn  nl  its  eharler.  heeanie  a  State 
institution.  In  ]Si\\  it  enteved  the  national  liankiiiL;-  system,  thniieh  retnin 
iiie-  its  old  name.  This  hanK  w.is  lollowed  hy  the  I'auU  ol'  New  \drk,  w  lin  li 
be^an  husiness  .lime  '.t.  l7S|.aiiil  hy  the  Massaehiisetls  liank,  wliieli  lie^an 
business  d  uly  .'>.  I  7S|. 

I'lijsr  I'mti-.h  Siaiks  I'.ank. — This  insi  itiil  ion  ^rew  oiil.  of  the  reemn 
memlalinns  nl'  .Mexander  llaniiltnn.  and  rornied  a  pari,  ol'  his  seheiiie  nl 
st  ren'^lheniu';  the  public  eredit  and  briie^iiiL;'  about  a  (doser  union  oT  .'~^tales 
His  plan  w.'is  ineovporated  into  a  bill  wliieh  iiassed  the  Senate  .laiiiiaiy  .'1. 
17'.M.  and  the  lIous(>.  danuary  L'<>.  17'.M.  WashinL,don  sii^Mied  it  l'"eliinary  '_'.i. 
17'.M.  The  bill  was  holly  opposed  ,is  nneonsf  itntional  by  Secretary  ol  St.ii' 
Tlinnias  .IclTersnn.  .\tt(nne\  ( ieneial  I'ldniuml  IJamlnlph.  and  in  .qeneral  l'\ 
representatives  IVniu  the  Sniithei'ii  States, 

The  capital  ol'  the   bank  was   lixed  at    .'^lO.itOO.IMM*.  one  lilth  oi'  whiili  w:i 
In  be  sidisci'ibed  ii\    t  he  l;o\  eninient .      The  reinainder  was  .-nhserihed  In    imh 


\  iduals.  and  1  wo   1 


loiirs  a 


Iter 


the  openiii'4'  oi'  the  hooks  the  capital  wa.'- 


subscvibed  to  the  ainoiuit  of  lOitO  shares.  The  central  hank  was  located  .i 
IMiiladclphia.  and  arterwards  blanches  were  established  in  New  N'ork.  ISosIi'M 
IViltiinorc.   Wasliins.;ton.    Norfolk.  Charleston.   Savannah,  and    New    (ble.in 


lusincss  was 


first  opened   in   Carpeiiteis'    llall.    Philadelphia.  Deceml 


ler 


*^«l*f 


Pll 


\^t  i:,j 


7  /,'» 

Ill'Cll      CMJll.' 

illll    Minlr 
ul\    'J'J.    Is.  I 
I    If.ijl  t,.|h|. 
t  lir\     lMii\  .  ■ 


;nl.r)l     M.MP 
t  lie     li|;MI    n| 
hull    |irn|Mi',i  .1 
lied     Sl;i(('     ■ 
111   (ll     I  Imiim  I 
,1    nl     .".(Ml, ("HI 

;inil\.       'I'll! 
iliiclic'cil  l.n    I- 
I  ^  w  I  li  I  •  1 1  t  n  1 1 . 

s    ill'lllilf.    U'  !'■ 

til   ('iiii^n'ss. 
ill    tlir    I'  llili'il 

itli  II  siili-fi  \\< 
ili'ininiil.  Ill  I'l' 
nvi'il    till'   jililli. 
itli   nil   inlili'i'-' 
IsiinVriii^  liiiiii 

I.  mill  lH":;in 
"III  iiiil  till' 
llllli'  II  St;ili' 
iiiiii;li  ri'l;iin 
N'lirk,  will.  It 
wliirli   l)i";;Mi 

if    llic    riTi.in 
lis    sclii'iiii'  I'l 

linn  dl'  Sllllr  ■ 
('  ,l;iliii;il  V  ■'!. 
|'"i'lini;ir\   -■>. 

.t:ir.v  cT  Sl;il. 

in   LTciicriil   l'\ 

(if  wliirli  \\:i 
■rilii'il  li\  imli 
litiil  \v;is  i>\i  i 

,\IIS    IdCllll'il      i' 
\tM\s.   I'.<i>t.'ll 

Ni'W   (  hlc.in 
1  )crrliilii'r    1". 


,'|.i|       III    .liil\.    \i'M.    llii'    ^'ll•'    \\;\  ■    ii'iiii.\iil    In   ;i    iii'w    l.iiililiiii.;   Mil    lliml 

i  iri'l.  lii'Inu   (   li'     I  Mill.  ;  I  III  I   it    I  iMi;i  I  inil  1 1|.  ii    I  ill   I  li.'  1 1  i-,-i  i|  nl  i.  .|i  nl   I  lii'  |.  ml,. 

llll     till'    rM'i|.l|n|l     III     ;l     lilli'l     |.|IM.\lll     III    ( Illli.\',ll     III     IT'.IS.   llni  III';     till' 

,   |.|i|i'llllr    III     \i||ii\\     |i\i'l.         Tlliill'^ll     llll-'     ImIiK     |.li.\ii|    ;i    |.|i.|ll;ili|i'   I'M  I  i' I  1 1|  N|. 

..|     (III'     l;i.\  I  I  mili'lll.     II     lllll.'il     li'     -.Illll'     :i     li'lHW  :ll     m|      |I        r|i;i|li'|      |||      |S||. 
I  hii'ih    lircjlllsi'  sii  lli;ill\    III    ll  ;      ll  IP'      liihl    {.  I      ''I    lliln    l'.|.  I'   li    liiili.h, 

I'l  Mil. \'  .'^r.VIK  liAMvX.  —  lliijil  li'.KI  In  l>ll  llii'  linitilni  ii|  M;i(i'  liiiliks 
M,i.r..;i-;i'i|  liiilii  li.iil  Id  I'I'iliI  \  I'l'^llt  ;  tlii'll  '■llrili;lt  p.ii  lii.iii  ."^'J..'!!  1(1.1 1(1(1  Id 
.,_"J.7(I(».(III(I,    Ihrii    r;||.||:il    jnilll   .'51.'..*»l>(  IJ  MMII  n  .•:>  LM'.  I  ( >.(  M  K  I,       ill    III.'  -,1 1||. '  I  lllio 


I 


TrrK  (iiiiMii)  ii\NK.  riiti.Mii  I  ririA. 

(Sir.iM.l  Sill'  nf  I  ir-t  I'liil.'.l  Sl;il«-.  IImiiI;.) 

(Ill' iricliillic  cii'i'iiliitiiiii 'ir  tlip  I'mmtrv  i-isi'  Imm  .s'.i.ddd.ddO  \,,  .<i;;;d.ddd.d(i(l. 
'Ilii'si-  liiiiiks  I'liili'il  Im  iiii'i't  tin-  iiiiiiii't;iry  iici'c-.sil  ic-^  u\  thr  Wiir  i.f  |S|'J.  iind 
in  ISJI  |ii;ii')iriillv  llll  "iltlK'ni  smiiIIi  nf  \('\v  I'-ii'-rliiii'l  -n- |.i'iii|<(l  s|ii'cii'  |,!iy- 
III. .ills.  'I'lii'ir  iii.ti's  wcri-  )i(iiir<'il  (nit.  in  nil  <l''ii(iiiiiii;it  I'.im  Irnin  -.jx  cciitM 
iijiwiii'd.  imil.  willi  ciiiii  ii'ilriii|it  i'm  st(i|i|ii'il.  IIh'V  il''|irf'<i;it<'(l  rii)ii'lly.  'I'liis 
111)  Id  irrciit-.   liiiiiiiciiil   distress   in  l.'^I.S-jX'JO.  iiiid   U>  (■•<('('ssi vi'  Imtik    I'liilnri'S. 


Ill'  Sl'vinllSllCSS  dl'  till'  ^'I'lHTll 


il  sitniitidii.  iiiid    til''  d'cliniii'^  crcdil,  i.T  llii'  l;'i\'- 


'■iiiiiii'iit.  led  I'l  Mil'  I'stiililislinii'iit  "I    tin'  sccmi'l  I'lmk  "f  tli''  I'nii"'!  Stntc 

•iiii:    rsrii'ii    .^iviis.  —  Tn    (ictnli'T.    |s|  I.   Sc'Tct; 


M  ION  !>      j.  \NK      III' 


l»:ill;is  k'lid   II    ri'iiiii'l    lii'l'iiri' ( ''iii'jr''<s.  ill  whicli  lir  dr|>i'''';iti'il    iIm'   iini'i'itiiin 


:UI|i. Illll    lllld    Villi!''  i'\'    111''   |ill|.i'l'  rmrrlli'V 


'I'lnTi'   I'xi.^t--."  1 


II'  ,-iiid.  ••  lit    tlii- 


''!;  11 


yi 


'i:'f  ^ 


I  lllir   nil    llilri 


illllti'     I'lr 


■iikiliii"   iiH'iliiiiii   ri.iniiii.il  til  I  II''  I'it  i/i'iis  "t    til''  I'niti'il 


i;^i' 


Mi 


:!!•' 


m 


t     ■:; 


'id!     .1 


'y>  '■} 


h\  n 


iit 


irA\ 


TliirMI'llS   AS  I)    WOSDHHS   OF  THE   A7.V'"   I'KSTtllY 


SJiitt'S.     'I'll!'  iiiiiiH'Vt'il  triiiisuct  inns  of  iniviitc   lil'c   urc   at   a  staml,  ami  |l 
liscal  ii|M'ial inns  nl   the  ^'ovcrnnu'iit,  lalxir  uilii  cxlrrnir  iiicunvcnirncr."     IJ 
tln'M  n'coinnii'ndril  as  the   irincils    tin-  cstalilisliincul   nl'  a.  natimial  Itiuikin  , 
iustitntiiin.     A  hill.  Iiascd  u|M>n   hallas's   plan   I'nr  siicli  an   insi  iinl  mn,  tail' 
(if  passa,!,'!'  in   llic   Mouse  in    ISI  I,  and  a,i;aiii   in  lcSl,"i,  ( limii^li   passril  1)\  tie 
Senate.      It.  was,  Imwever,  tinully  passed  in  an  amended  turm,  luiL  was  velm  d 
liy   I'resideiit   Madisdii. 

(Ml  I>eeemlper  L'l.  lSl,"i,  Mr.  hallas  '.iHi  Itel'ore  ( 'nni,'fess  ;im>t,lier  plan  I'm  ; 
iiatiniial  liaiiU.  :\  liill  was  trained  aiiliiori/iii.L;  siieli  an  instilnlion,  wit  li  ,, 
capital  ul'  !:ii;!,"i.U(IO.(M)(),  .S7.(tO(».(HM»  oi'  wliicll  were  to  lie  siliiselilied  liy  lli.' 
t,'(iveriiment,  tlie  eeiilral  hank  to  he  at.  I'liiladelpliia.  with  |Hiwer  to  estahli  li 
hraii(dies,  |ia\  ni'iits  to  he  made  in  specie  at  all  I  inies  unless  ol  lierwise  ani  Imi 
i/ed  hy  Coie^'ress.  'I'liis  hill  passed  hotli  lionses  of  ('ony;iess,  and  was  si;;iiri| 
hy  rresideiil  Madison,  .\piil  Id,  I.SIC).  When  the  siihscriptioii  hooks  oIiIh; 
liank  were  closed,  il  was  I'oiind  that,  llie  siihscript  ions  fell  short  of  the  ani  lioi- 
ized  .S."..'>.(Ml(t.(M)l»  hy  .'-;;;.U(i( ».(!()(»,  wlii(di  amount,  was  taken  hy  Slepln'ii  ( iiiurd 

The  hank  could  not  lend  mor(>,  than  .'ri'.'idO.OdO  to  the  ^'o\eiiinieiit  witliuui 
iUitliority  <'l  ('oii,y;iess,  was  t.o  he  the  liscal  a^eiit.  of  tin;  Treasury,  and  In 
receive  de|)osils  of  piihlie  moneys.  No  notes  of  ;i  less  denomination  than 
Jfi.'j.OO  wcM'e  to  he  issued,  and  the  penally  for  refusing  to  pay  notes  ordcpoMis 
ill  specie  on  demand  was  tw(dve  per  cent  iicr  aniiiiiii  until  jiaid.  It  heL,'an 
hiisinesH  .laiinary  7,  tSl7.  (hviii.t;  to  the  iiiipeiidiiif,'  linancial  crisis  and  had 
iiiaiia,i,'enuMil.  the  hank  ver,L,'ed  rapidly  toward  insolvency,  hut  was  resiiscil.itfd 
under  the  vij;ortiiis  manaLfement.  (d'  a  new  president,  lianj^don  ('licives.  wlm 
was  elected  .March  (!.  ISl'.t.  He  was  succeeded  hy  Nicholas  liidille  in  ISL'.",. 
who  was  destined  (o  see  the  fall  id'  the  Lireat  institution. 

The  national  hank  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  Statn  haiik.s,  which  c.dlcd 
it  a  nioiister  hec;'ase  it  refused  to  allow  the  notes  of  tlie  lociil  hanks  to 
accuiinilate  as  deposits  in  its  hranehes  without  redemption.  Various  Slates 
])assed  (liscriminatin,!,'  laws  ajj;ainst  it.  Jackson,  in  his  niess(i}.^e  to  CoiiLtrcss 
in  1S1,".>,  attacked  the  constitutionality  ol'  the  law  estahlishin,!,'  it,  and  cliariL^cd 
that  it  had  "  failed  in  the  .ureat  end  of  estahlishinj,'  a  uiiiforni  and  sound  cur- 
rency." At  this  time  the  l>ank  was  an  iniiiosiiii,'  institution  with  its  capital 
of  .i}«,'»r).()(K),0()0,  its  jiuhlie,  deposits  of  six  to  seven  million,  its  private  dejiosits 
of  a  like  amount,  its  circulation  of  .S!L',(M )(>.(»(>(),  its  annjial  discounts  uf 
.<;.jO,d(IO,(MHt,  its  annual  prolits  of  over  .1i<.' ;,()(»( »,()()(),  its  palatial  esta.hlishiiieiit 
in  I'liiladelpliia,  its  twenty-tivt!  hranehes  thrnu^diont  the  I'liion,  its  live  hnn- 
dred  employees,  its  stock  distrihuted  throu.y:li  nearly  all  parts  of  tlu;  world, 
and  its  notes  current  at  jiar  at  lioiiii'  and  ahroad. 

.laoksoii's  niessa|j;e  was  not  received  favorahly  hy  (^iiit,'ress.  His  aversion, 
it  was  thoui,dit,  was  due  rather  to  his  helicd'  that  the  I'.aiik  was  his  eneiii\ 
than  to  any  dislike  oi  a  national  hank.  The'  irvowing  hostility  het.weeii  hini 
did  Henry  C'lay  induced  tlu;  latter  to  make  the  renewal  of  the  Uank's  chartn 
apolitical  issue.  ^Vllen  the  hill  recharterint,^  the  liank  was  ])assed  in  .Fulv, 
iS.'il.',  Jackson  vetoed  it,  eliar!,dut,',  in  the  main,  that  the  Ilaiik  was  a  nionopnh. 
This  l)rou!::jht  the  (piestion  of  the  further  existence  of  the  I>aiik  fully  into  tin- 
arena  of  polities,  in  the  ]>resi(h'iitial  election  of  IS.'JL',  with  tln^  "  Hero  of  New 
Orleans  "on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  "monster  nioiioixdy,"  "Old  Nick'-; 
money,"  and  ''  Clay's  rags."     .lackson  won,  and  s[)eedily  decided  to  remove 


rriiv 

Mini,  ami  I' 

llli'llCC."        1 

Diiiil  ItiUiki 
tiilinii,  fail' 
liisscd  l)y  1 1. 
It  WHS  Vt'td.    , 

icr  iiliiii  l<ii  1 
iilioii,  Willi  - 

•  rilird  by   iL' 

•  r  tti  cstiilili  li 
•rwisi'  ailllni- 
ml  was  sij;nii| 

1  Minks  (li  I  ills 
dl'  the  am  iim- 
•plicH  ( iirilici 
iiiiciil  williiMii 
•asiiiT,  and  ii> 
iiiiiiatidii  lii;iii 
U'S  or  (l('|"isiis 
liil.     It  lic-ini 

crisis  ami  Ii;mI 
lis  r«'sus<'itaii'il 

II    ('ll(!VCS,    \\\\'> 

'.i.l.llc  ill  IS'-'.'-. 

wliicli  imIIimI 
(ical  banks  to 
uridiis  Sillies 

t.  ami  cliari^ril 

1111(1  sound  ciir- 

ith  its  caiiital 

■ivato  d('])(isils 

discounls  (if 
(•sta,l)lisliiii('iil. 
1,  its  live  Iniii- 

(iT  till!  world, 

His  avcrsii'ii. 
I'as  his  cnciiis 

hciwccii  liiiii 
liauk's  chaitiT 
lasscd  in  .Iul\. 
^s  a  inoiioiiiil;  ■ 

fully  into  till' 

Hero  of  New 
'  "Old  Nick's 
k'd  to  reniovi^ 


!•  ]inl»li('  df|iosils  fidin  tlic  Hank.  'I'liis  decision  |ircci|iitatc(l  a  lulter  war 
I  iwi'cn  •lacivsoii  and  <'on;;i('ss.  r>nt  •l;iekson  did  iml  nwcisc  lidiii  lii^  |iiii'- 
I  Ht'.  I>y  In.").")  it  lieiMiiie  ii|>|iareiil  liial  I  lie  Hank  could  not  -.cciiic  a  icneual 
,  its  cliaitci'  from  ('oiie;rcss.  As  ii  conlession  ot  its  delcal.  and  jiisl.  Ilnilceii 
I  ,ys  licfoi'c  tlic  ('\|iirat  loll  (li  Its  tcderal  cliarler,  llic  Hank  olitaincil  from  tlic 
Miilc  of  I'cniiHylvaiiia,  {''cliriiary  IN.  IS.'!('»,  ;i  cliaiter  for  tlic  rniteii  Stales 
'  ink  of  I'cniisylvaiiia,  for  a,  iicriod  of  t  liirly  years.  Sliorn  ol  its  iiii|i(ir- 
I  ncc,  in  a  restricted  li(d(i,  yet  witli  enormous  ca|iit.al,  it  fell  into  lar.i;e  liond 
iiiid  stock  iiivcstiucnts  of  (luestional)le  value,      its  troubles  were  a;,';^'ia\aled 


'''!'■ 'ill'"  ir( 
SSi^lI  111 


SECOND   IINITKI)   STATKS    ItANK.    I'ltl  I.ADKI.rill  A.       NOW   ffSTOM    IIOISK. 

by  bad  maiiatjonuMit.  It  susjicndcd  duriiif^  tluf  \)'mw  of  l.S.'tT  and  tlic;  uoxt; 
year,  and  ai^'aiii  lor  the  last  time  in  liSH.  I'.iddlo  resii^'iied  tho  |iresi(lcncy  in 
bs|(».  and  four  years  later  died  poor  and  broken  hearted.  Thus  perisluMl 
what  is  soinetinies  called  the  third  Hank  of  the  United  States,  its  ]iie(h'C(!:;- 
siir,  the  second  H.aiik  of  the  Cnited  States.  havin<,'  fallen  a  victim  to  jioli'Icjil 
intrigue  and  loss  of  prcstii^'c.  The  shureliolders  lost  their  entire  investment 
fif  .S-S,()()(>.(l(l(>,  but  th(!  circulating'  notes  were  all  paid,  and  also  the  dejiosits. 
The  frovernmciit  .t,'ot  back  its  investment  of  .ST.OdO.OOO,  and  made  '!^i\,^)'X\,\i\l 
besides,  from  its  connection  with  the  I'.ank. 

SrArK  I>ANKs  A\i>  I  M>i',n;\iii;NT  'i"i;i;  \stiiv.  —  After  the  remov;il  of  dn- 
liiisits  from  the  I'.ank  of  tlu!  Cnited  States,  September  L'<').  bS.';,'!.  the  public, 
ii-M'imes  were  deposiicd  in  selected  State  banks,  sonietimes  called  "  pet 
l;iiiks."     Til  iS.'it;  (■i!:flity-eight  Stato  banks  in  twenty-four  States  Indd  puiilic; 


lit 


■  1     : 


1  ,% 


t\n  i';' 


■'ill 


iif'i 


fei 


458  TltlUMPHS  AND    WOXDEltS   OF  THE  XIX"'   CENTURY 

dejMJsits  1(>  the  amount  of  )8i49,.'177.!)<S(i.  As  the  State  banks  liad  tlirown  tin  i 
influence  against  the  national  liank,  tliey  were  rewarded  l>y  allowing  tJK  i.i 
to  use  the  puhlio  money  intrusted  to  them  as  a  basis  of  extending  their  loan.'- 
and  for  enormous  issues  of  their  own  notes.  JJunks  were  started  for  the  snii' 
])uri)()se  of  issuing  notes  which  they  could  use  in  buying  [)ublic  lands.  A^  n 
conse(|uenee  the  government  lost  heavily  through  the  depreciatiim  of  thr-o 
notes  and  the  failure  of  the  banks.  On  July  11,  IcS.'iO,  the  Secretary  of  tin' 
Treasury  issued  a  ciroidar  forbidding  tht;  riM^'ipt  of  anything  b>it  specie  ii; 
l)a3'ment  for  j)ul)lic  lauds.  This  caused  a  run  on  the  banks  and  aided  m 
hastening  the  financial  crisis  of  1S.'!7.  An  act  of  Congress  of  June  L'.'i,  ]S.";r,. 
authorizing  the  calling  in  of  .'!i!o7.4(»<S,,sr)l)  of  the  public  funds  deposited  in  tlic 
State  banks,  for  jmrposes  of  distribution,  forced  the  susj)ension  of  spcric 
paynnMits  by  all  such  banks,  with  very  few  exceptions. 

The  unsatisfactory  trial  of  both  federal  and  State  banks  as  custodians  nl' 
the  public  funds  led  to  the  establishment  of  what  became  known  as  the  ind.'. 
pendent  Treasury-  system,  by  which  the  government  collects  its  money  ami 
keeps  it  in  the  hands  of  the  United  States  Treasurer  or  sub-treasurers,  niak 
ing  disbursements  when  re([uired.  An  act  jiutting  this  system  into  elicit 
becauK!  law  July  4,  1.S40,  but  was  repealed  the  next  year.  It  was  repassed 
August  (;,  1S4(),  and  remained  in  operation  until  the  jiassage  of  the  Xatioiial 
Currency  Act  in  February,  lS(Wi,  whicli.  gave  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasuiy 
the  right  to  designate  certain  national  banks  as  dejiositories  of  public  funds. 
There  were  in  such  banks,  on  February  4.  ISOi).  United  States  deposits 
amounting  to  $81,120,873.  secured  by  United  States  bonds  belonging  to  the 
banks  and  deposited  in  the  Treasury,  amounting  to  $S',>,1()0,24().  I'rioi'  to 
the  adoption  of  the  national  banking  system  the  country  had  a  somewhat 
disastrous  experience  with  what  has  been  known  as  "  wild-cat"  banks.  Many 
of  them  were  organized  for  the  sole  purpose  of  issuing  notes  they  never  in- 
tended to  ])ay.  While  they  wei'e  numerous  and  dangerous,  it  must  be  renn'm- 
bered  that  in  a  number  of  States  the  leading  baidcs  carried  on  only  a 
legitimate  business,  and  State  banks  as  they  exist  to-day  compare  favorably 
in  their  management  w^ith  the  national  banks. 

IV.     IIISTOKY    OF    TlIK    LKGAL-TENDEK    NOTE. 

The  first  act  authorizing  the  issue  of  legal-tender  notes,  known  popularly 
as  greenbacks,  was  approved  by  President  Lincoln,  February  25,  1802.  It 
])rovi(led  for  the  issue  of  .'ii<ir)O,()00.0()(>  in  notes,  in  denominations  of  not  less 
than  ifirKOO.  Holders  of  these  notes  could  deposit  them  with  the  Uiuted 
States  Treasurer  or  assistant  treasurers  in  any  sum  iiot  less  than  .'jjioO.oii. 
or  any-  multiple  thereof,  ami  receive  United  States  bonds  bearing  six  ]»cr  ci  nt 
interest.  The  first  notes  were  issued  March  10,  18(i2.  An  act  anthori/in.,' 
a  second  issue  of  .«(1,"iO.OOO.(l()(t  was  signed  by  the  President.  July  11.  lS(i'_'. 
Of  these  lt;;{,"»,00().00(>  were  to  be  in  denominations  of  less  than  $r».()(».  A 
third  issue  of  .ijfloO.OOO.OOO  was  authorized  March  .'!.  18(;.'5,  but  this  act  dr- 
]irived  the  legal-tender  note  of  its  convertibility  into  six  per  cent  bond>  at 
the  option  of  the  holder. 

The  withdrawal  of  this  j)rivilege  worked  no  particular  hardship  at  the 
time,  for  bond  issues  and  various  interest-bearing  certificates  were  jdenty 
during  the  period  of  war.     lUit  after  the  war  had  closed  and  the  issues  d 


PROGRESS  IN  COINAGE,  CURRENCY,  AND   RANKING  459 

11  ,•  securities  h;i<l  ceased,  the  absence  of  this  provision  l)e!,';in  to  prevent  tlie 
a  I   iirpti(ni  of  the  h'j^al-tcndcr  notes. 

i'lic!  higln'st  unioiiiit  of  l(\ifal-ten(ler  notes  ontstandin^'  at  any  date  was  on 
,1  iiiary  3, 1<S04,  .ii<44'.)..'5.'>S.< »(»!'.  Their  (U'prei-iation  was  liastened  hy  the  issue 
ol  ilie  sliort-tiin(!  interest-l)earin.i;-  seenrilies  in  hiri^e  aninmits.  Dnrinn'  ISIIL' 
tl:  avera'j;e  ;_fold  premium  was  ll;!..'!;  (hiriie^  iSd.'t.  I4.").l,' ;  ihirint;'  ISfll.  L'O.'!..'!. 
li   .Inly,  1<S()4,  this  premium  reached  its  lii^liest  pnint.  an  avera^^e  of  L'."),S.l. 

in  l.SOi")  the  country  began  to  t'eid  tlie  necessity  of  a  contraction  of  the 
(•nircn(!y,  with  a  view  to  as  early  a  resum])tion  of  specie  iiaymenis  as  the 
liisiness  interests  wouhl  permit,  and  tin'  Congress  expressed  tlie  public  senti- 
iiiiiit  by  an  almost  unanimous  resoluticm.  Uii  March  IL'.  ISIKJ.  an  act  was 
aii|ir()ved  calling  for  the  retirement  and  cancellation  of  not  more  than 
§!".<•<•".<*<><•  of  legal  tenders  within  six  months,  and  thereafttu'  not  more 
than  !i!<4,(H)(».00()  during  any  one  month.  Tlu;  effe<'t  was  to  reduce  the  legal 
tenders  outstanding  on  December  ."M.  1S(;7,  to  ."^.'SrwMHMI.OOO.. 

This  redii(!tion,  together  with  the  rapid  payment  of  notes  of  other  classes, 
used  as  currency,  led  to  so  sudden  a  contraction  of  the  circuhiting  medium, 
and  such  stringency  in  the  money  market,  that  Congress,  by  act  of  February 
4,  ISOS,  i)rohibited  the  further  reduction  of  the  legal-tender  notes.  The 
anidunt  outstanding,  ( Jctober  1.  1.S7L',  was  .'*i.'5.">(>,(MH».(!(lO,  and  on  -Fanuary  1, 
1S74,  .l!!3Si;,()7'.).Sir),  the  increast;  being  due  to  a  construction  on  the  part  of 
sccietaries  of  the  Trea.sury  to  the  effect  that  they  hail  ]iower  to  reissue 
retired  notes  which  were  lield  as  a  reserve.  On  June  1*0.  liS74,  Congress 
enacted  that  the  United  States  notes  outstanding  and  to  be  used  as  part  of 
the  circulating  medium  should  not  exceed  8'">SL'.()U0.( >()(),  and  that  no  part 
thereof  should  be  hehl  or  used  as  a  reserve. 

Anotlur  attempt  was  made  in  187"*  to  reduce  the  aggregate  of  legal-tender 
notes,  preparatory  to  the  resumption  of  sjiecie  ]iavments.  'I"he  IJesumption 
Art  of  January  14,  187r>,  authorized,  among  other  things,  the  I'etirement  and 
Ciuicellation  of  legal  tenders  till  the  amount  outstanding  should  be  reduced 
to  .SaO( ).(»()( M»<»0;  8oo.81S.0S4  were  retired  under  this  law.  Init  further  rediu-- 
tion  was  prohibited  by  act  of  ^lay  Ml,  1S7S.  The  amount  outstanding  at  that 
date  was  J8i.'U(>,(iSl,()l(),  and  this  has  continiu'd  to  the  jjresent  time,  no  new 
issues  having  been  authorized. 

On  Jaimary  1,  1S7'.),  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  took  place  as  ]iro- 
vided  in  the  act  of  January  14.  lS7r>.  At  this  latter  date,  the  oidy  legal- 
tender  coin  recognized  by  law  was  the  gold  coin.  Ihit.  in  February,  1S7S, 
the  coinage  of  standard  silvtu-  dollars  was  authorized,  and  they  were  to  be  a 
legal  tender  for  all  debts,  unless  otluu'wise  exiiressly  stipulated  in  the  con- 
tiact.  This  led  to  the  (daim  on  the  pai't  of  those  who  favored  silver  that  tlie 
ved.'mption  of  legal-tender  notes,  provided  for  in  coin  in  the  act  of  1S7~), 
conld  bo  effected  by  the  use  (d'  silver  dollais.  l!nt  the  general,  and  doubtless 
.sound,  construction  of  the  law  id'  1S7."'>  has  been  that  it  was  an  express  con- 
tract to  redeem  the  legal-tender  notes  in  the  coin  then  recognized  as  legal 
tender,  and  in  no  other;  and  so  the  Treasury  has  rcileemeil  legal  tenders 
since  1S79.  in  gold,  when  the  same  is  demanded. 

In  ISdU  the  Cnited  States  Supreme  Court,  the  bench  not  being  full,  de- 
I'larcd  the  acts  authorizing  legal-tender  notes  to  be  unconstitutional.  F>ut 
sulisequently,  the  bench  having  its  full  ipiota  of  nine,  the  Court  sustained  the 


H: 


^   hn 


m 


f    u 


ii^ 


!    % 


460 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


w  '■  I 


constitutioiKility  of  tlio  acts,  on  the  ground,  mainly,  tliat  tlicy  wore  a  \n-i)\  \> 
exercise  of  the  war  iK)wer  v«'st<'(l  in  the  Congress.  In  IS.S.'}  the  Court  (U'ci'  X 
that  the  reissues  of  tliese  notes,  made  in  time  of  peace,  were  eonstitutiona'. 

At  the  time  of  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  there  were  )f!l.'!r),()0(>,(l(ii  >  n 
gohl  and  hnllion  on  hand  to  provi(U'  for  the  redemjition  of  such  notes  as  mi  ;iit 
be  presented.  Uy  Act  of  .July  12,  ISSL',  it  was  provi(U'd  that  wIumi  the  redfinji. 
tion  reserve  of  goUl  coin  and  bullion  in  the  Treasury  fell  ludow  .1i!l(M>,(H)(>.(i'iii. 
the  issue  of  gold  certificates  should  cease.  This  is  held  to  indicate  that  (  nn- 
gross  regard, 'd  JftiKK >.()()( >,()()()  as  the  limit  In-lpw  which  the  rodemi)tion  rosn  w: 
should  not  be  jn'miittod  to  fall. 

If  this  reserve  had  not  been  called  u[)on  to  boar  other  burdens,  then;  Wdnid 
probably  never  have  been  any  doubts  as  to  its  sufficiency.  In  1.S7S,  Iiowom  r, 
began  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars  and  the  issue  of  silver  certiticates.  'I'Ium' 
notes  wore  kept  at  par  in  gold  by  their  interciiangeability  in  the  oporatimis 
of  commerce  for  legal-tender  nt)tos.  They  werc^  thus  an  indirect  charge  i.ii 
the  gold  reserve.  From  1S7H  to  IS'.M)  th(!y  won^  iiuireased  at  the  rate  of  over 
)i)iL',r)()( ),(»()(>  a  month.  In  that  year  (.hdy  14,  1S*K»)  an  act  was  passed  i)ro\i(l- 
ing  for  the  issue  of  Treasury  notes  in  the  jnirchase  of  silver  bullion,  wlndi 
provided  also  for  the  coinage  of  some  of  the  bullion  ])urchased  into  silver  ddl- 
lars.  These  Tr(!asury  notes  were  rodeenudde  both  in  gold  and  silver,  and  as 
the  government  never  availed  itself  of  its  option  to  redeem  in  silver  wIhii 
gold  was  demanded  for  them,  these  notes  as  they  wen;  issued  became  a  furtlur 
burden  on  the  gold  reserve  provided  for  the  legal-tender  notes. 

Hy  the  beginning  of  the  year  ISU.'!  tlie  legal-tender  notes,  silver  eertiiicali's. 
and  Trea^^ury  notes  had  reached  an  aggrogattt  of  nearly  JfiSOOjOOO/MIO,  nil 
depending  on  the  Treasury  reserve  for  gold  redemption. 

This  reduction  of  the  ])ercentage  of  gold  held  to  the  iimount  of  the  demand 
liabilities  raised  doubts  as  to  the  ability  of  the  gover;nnent  to  maintain  gold 
jtaymonts,  and  th(>  legal  tenders  aiul  Treasury  notes  were  ])resented  i'nr 
redemption.  The  do])letion  of  gold  was  so  great  that  on  one  or  two  occa- 
sions there  was  danger  that  the  reserve  would  be  exhausted,  and  res(jrt  was 
had  to  the  sale  of  bonds  to  procure  gold  to  replenish  the  reserve. 

The  issue  of  further  Treasury  notes  was  stopjied  by  the  repeal  of  the  act 
of  1S!)()  in  Kovend)ei',  ISIK},  and  since  this  rei)oal  confidence  in  the  ability  ot 
the  Treasury  to  maintain  gold  redemjitions  has  been  gi'adually  restored. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Afay,  1878,  the  legal-tender  notes  wlicn 
redeemed  cannot  be  canceled.  They  must  be  ])aid  out  again,  and  therid'urc 
when  reissued,  they  may  again  be  presented  for  redemption.  This  consti- 
tutes the  so-called  endless  chain  by  which  the  gold  in  the  Treasury  is  always 
liable  to  be  drawn  out. 

V.     THK    XATIOXAfi    HAMvINMi    SYSTKM. 

The  desirability  of  )»orfeeting  the  banking  and  currency  system  of  tlic 
country  was  readily  perceived  on  the  breaking  out  of  tiie  ('i\il  AVar  in  iMil. 
Secretary  Cliase  in  two  annual  report^s,  those  of  18()1  and  18(iL*,  recommended 
a  system  of  national  banks,  whose  supervision  should  be  by  national  autiior- 
ity,  ami  whose  issues  of  notes  should  be  based  on  de])osits  of  bonds  of  the 
government.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  a  bill,  introduced  by  Mr. 
Sherman,  passed  both  Senate  and  House,  and  became  a  law  February  2r>,  iSCi.'!. 


W$  1 


■r  i« 


r  ■ 


MB 


TUIIY 

vere  a  \n-i>\    v 
Uourt  dcci'     I 
istitiitidiiii'. 
l.'5r..()()(l,(»(t"  11 

lott!S  as  llli;,'!;t 

II  tlie  redfiii,!- 
.1i;i(Kt,<>(»(Mi"ii. 
c:ite  tliiit  (  "II- 
iipticiu  rcsii  .11 

IS,  there  wiiiiid 
IS7S,  howi'vir, 
icatt's.  Tlirse 
the  operations 
rect  chav;^'t'  nii 
lie  rate  of  omt 
passed  jirov  id- 
bullion,  wlllrh 
into  silvei'  (iiil- 
L  silver,  and  as 
in  silver  wiiru 
came  afurllur 

ver  certitiealrs. 
>()(),0()0,()()(»,  nil 

of  the  doniinid 
maintain  .nidd 
)resent(Ml  I'nr 
or  two  ucca- 

and  resort  was 

)Cii\  of  the  act 
the  ability  ot 
restored, 
•r  notes  wln'u 
and  thereloic 
This  eonsti- 
isury  is  always 


svsteni  of  lln' 
War  in  iMd, 
reconiniendcd 
ational  autlmr- 
f  Ijonds  ol'  tlie 
odueed  by  Mr. 
rnary  2").  lS(i.">. 


PllOGRESS  IN  COIN  AGE,  CUIUIENCY,  AND  HANKING         401 

'I    IS  aet  emb(jdied  the  essential  features  of  Mr.  (Phase's  reports.     Under  it 
ti     tirst  charter  was  issued  to  the  First  National  I>ank  of  riiiladelphia. 

;  lie  formation  of  national  banks  proceeded  very  slowly  at  iirst.  In  order 
ti  iidld  out  greater  inducenuMits  for  liie  State  banks  to  enter  the  national  sys- 
1.  I.  till'  aet  was  amended  on  tlune  .'5,  l.StJl.  'I'he  tirst  report  of  the  Comp- 
n  der  of  the  Cnrreiiev.  Novend)er  US,  ISd;;,  siiowed  that  only  l.'!4  national 
ill'  iks  had  been  organized  up  to  that  date  ;  but  when  the  act  of  ilune  .'>,  ISCd, 
\v.  ill  into  ojteration,  new  baid<s  were  formed  more  fre(piently.  A  more  rapid 
in  lease  took  place  affer  tlie  jiassage  of  the  act  of  March.'?,  iHCu),  inii)osing 
a  IX  of  10  per  cent  on  the  circulating  notes  of  Slate  banks.  This  increase 
u  s  from  r».')(S  baidvs  in  .January,  liSOo,  to  l."*].'!  in  ()('tolier  of  the  same  year; 
Willi  an  increases  in  capital  of  from  .S 1. '>.").<>  1,S,S7  I  to  .*!.'!*.)."),  I  ST.L'Oi;;  and  in 
cinulation  of  from  .«i(;(;,7(;'.»,.'J7.~)  to  .1?1.71,;{1'1,!)0.'!.  I'rior  to  bSCi)  national 
liaiiks  w(U'e  I'erpiired  to  make  their  re]iorts  on  lixed  dates,  i)ut  after  March  .'», 
lMi',>,  they  were  reipiireil  by  law  to  make  their  reports  to  the*  Comiitroller  live 

I  lines  a  year  on  some  past  date  iixed  upon  by  tJie  (Comptroller. 

Nationai,  r.AMv  liAWs  AMI  IJ KOI' i.AiMoNs.  —  The  national  banks  are 
under  tlie  supervision  of  the  ('onijitHdler  id'  the  Currency,  who  is  appointed 
hy  llie  {'resident  on   the  recoiiimendatiou  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

II  IS  salary  is  S^AM)  a  year. 

A  national  bank  may  be  organized  by  any  iiiiniber  of  persons  not  less  than 
li\c.  on  permission  of  the  ('oni|itrollei'.  The  capital  reipiired  is  not  less  than 
.5.^11.000  in  any  case,  and  this  niinimuni  applies  only  to  towns  the  popula- 
tinii  of  -which  does  not  exci'cd  (»()(•<>;  in  idties  having  a,  population  exceeding 
.In.dlKI,  the  minimuni  capital  is  .S'_'<Hl.UOO.  I''or  places  having  a  ]iopulation  over 
(iiMiO  and  not  exceeding  ."id.OOd,  the  capital  reipiired  is  .'i>l()0,(MK».  ( »ue  half  of 
the  capital  must  be  ])aiil  in  bclure  the  bank  is  authorized  to  begin  business, 
and  the  remainder  in  installments  of  not  less  than  lo  per  cent  on  tliir  entire 
aiiiiMint  of  the  capital,  as  freipieiitly  as  one  iiislallnieiit  at  the  end  of  each 
siii'ceeding  month  from  the  time  it  is  autlioi'ized  to  begin  laisiness.  (,"a])ital 
stock  is  divided  into  shares  of  .^10(1  each. 

The  banks  ai'e  managed  by  a  board  of  imt  less  tli;in  live  directors,  chosen 
liy  the  stockholders.  Executive  ojliecrs  of  the  bank — president,  vic(;-prcsi- 
ili'iit.  cashier,  and  assistant  cashier — are  chosen  by  the  directors. 

Shareholders  arc^  individually  liable  i'or  the  didits,  contracts,  and  engage- 
inrnts  of  the  bank  to  the  extent  of  the  amount  id'  their  stock  therein,  at  the 
par  value,  in  addition  to  the  anioiint  invested  in  such  shares.  This  is  what 
i.s  known  as  the  double  liability  <>f  sliareholdei's.  and  is  one  of  the  features 
adding  to  the  strength  of  the  .system. 

National  banks  are  designated  by  the  Secretai'v  of  the  'I'reasiiry  to  net 
as  depositaries  or  custodians  of  ]iublie  money.  Such  dcjiosits  arc  secured 
Specially  by  a  deposit  of  I'nited  Slates  bonds  with  the  'I'reasnrv. 

.\11  national  banks  before  comniencing  business  are  reipiired  to  transfer 
and  deliver  to  the  Treasurer  id'  the  ruitcd  States,  as  seciii'ity  bir  their  cir- 
cidating  notes.  T'nited  States  registered  bonds  to  an  amount  not  less  than 
one  fourth  the  capital  where  the  cajiital  is  .Sl.lo.dOO  or  less,  and  to  the 
aiimunt  of  .STid.OOO  where  the  capital  is  in  excess  of  .S 1  ."it >.0( H I.  These  bonds 
must  be  taken  by  the  banks  whether  they  issue  circulation  or  not. 

Circulating  notes   are   issued   to  national   banks  on   a  deposit  of  I'nited 


iM 


V  I  M 


» 


46'J 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTL'Uy 


Stutt'S  bunds  with  the  Tivusiin'r.  Notes  aro  liiiiitt'd  to  *.)(»  per  cent  ut'  '  ,. 
par  value  of  the  bonds,  also  to  'JO  per  cent  oi'  the  capital  of  the  bank.  '1'  ,■ 
are  over-secured,  and  no  holder  of  them  has  ever  lust  a  dollar  by  reason  i 
the  failure  of  a  bank. 

The  notes  are  .secured  by  the  government  bon<ls,  there  lieing  a  differenci  i 
the  lU  per  cent  betwei'u  the  par'of  the  bonds  and  the  notes  issued,  and 
bonds  nearly  always  command  a  premium.  They  are  further  secured  l)y  ,• 
first  lien  on  the  assets  of  the  baidi,  including  the  double  liability  of  sli,  ■.- 
holders,  by  a  o  per  cent  redemption  fund  in  the  Treasury,  and  also  b\  »■ 
margin  between  the  capital  and  the  amount  of  notes  permitted. 

National  bank  notes  are  redeemaltle  at  the  counters  of  the  issuing  baiu.s 
and  at  the  Treasury  in  "lawful  money  "  of  the  I'nited  States.  Tiiis  tcMiu. 
as  commonly  used,  means  legal-tender  money,  and  in  practice,  iierhai)s,  l;..!iI 
coin  or  legal-tender  notes. 

IJeserves  of  national  banks  are  the  amounts  of  money  kept  on  hand  to  |i,iv 
their  deposits  and  current  checks  and  drafts.  This  reserve  is  to  be  kepi  in 
lawf id  money,  —  gold  and  silver  coin  or  certificates,  and  United  States  (  iir- 
rency  certificates  or  legal-tender  notes.  There  are  three  central  reserve  cit  ii'>. 
namely,  New  York,  ("liicago,  and  St.  l^ouis.  National  banks  in  thes(^  tlnvc 
cities  must  kee[)  a  reserve  of  'Jin  per  cent  against  their  (lej)osits,  and  lliis 
amount  must  be  kept  in  their  own  vaults.  There  are  twenty-four  otlirr 
reserve  cities  whicii  are  also  re(|uired  to  keep  a  reserve  of  'J~>  \\ei-  cent.  Imr 
one  iuilf  of  that  anuiuiit  may  be  due  from  other  banks  in  New  York  mid 
other  central  reserve  cities,  approved  as  reserve  agents  by  the  Comptrolli'i  ot 
the  Currency.  Banks  outside  of  these  reserve  cities  must  keej)  a  reservi'  ut 
lit  ])er  cent,  three  iifths  of  which  may  be  due  from  approved  reserve  agints 
in  the  reserve  cities  or  central  reserve  cities. 

In  times  of  panic  when  there  is  a  run  on  banks  they  may  use  this  reserve 
to  pay  their  depositors,  and  it  often  hapjiens  that  the  reserve  falls  below  the 
amount  re(piired  by  law.  Under  sucii  circumstances  the  Comptroller  may 
notify  the  banks  to  make  good  the  deficiency;  failing  to  comply  with  this 
request  within  thirty  days,  tliey  may  be  (dosed. 

National  banks  are  not  permitted  to  make  loans  on  real  estate.  The  rej,Mi- 
lations  prescribed  by  the  law  for  the  management  of  thest;  institutions  are 
very  stringent,  supplemented  by  a  system  of  examination  and  reports. 

In  185)0  tlie  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  estimated  that  the  governnieiit 
liad  made  a  net  jjrofit  of  .'i?ir)7.4.'>!>.l*4S.U.S  out  of  the  reveinies  derived  freiii 
the  national  banks.  It  was  estinnited  in  the  same  rejiort  that  the  avera;.;c 
percentage  of  dividends  paid  to  creditors  of  insolvent  national  banks  was 
7")  percent.  There  have  been  no  losses  on  circulation.  In  1878  the  ('<iiii|i- 
troUer  estimated  that  the  annual  losses  upon  all  the  cHirrency  issued  l)y  Stall' 
and  private  banks  amounted  to  r»  per  cent  annually. 

The  national  banks  are  not  monopolistic.  Any  body  of  five  re])utable  citi- 
zens can  form  one  by  getting  together  ."!!;■»(),()(  10  capital.  The  total  shares  et 
the  national  banks  are  apiiroxiinately  300,0(t0. 

Trofits  on  national  bank  stock  are  not  exorbitant.  For  a  period  of  twenty- 
nine  years  the  net  earnings  on  capital  and  surplus  have  been  only  a  link' 
over  7  per  cent. 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  national  banking  system  5171  banks  ii  ive 


('!•  Cl'llt    ul    '    ~<' 

L'  biiuk.     '1'     -• 
ir  by  veiisoii    I 

a  (litVcnMir.     1 

isSlU'll.  illui      .r 

sccuivd  In      .(' 

bility  of  sli,  .f- 

lul  also  by  ■  mc 

I. 

i;  issniiiK  b;ii.ks 

'S.     This  tiMiii. 

„',  pcrluqis,  ^I'ld 

on  luuul  tti  I'ly 
is  to  be  kt'iit  !ii 
iU'(l  States  I  iir- 
iil  resi'i'vi'  C'itn'>. 
;  in  those  tliivc 
posits,  and   lliis 
■cnty-i'otu'  otlicr 
2")  per  cent,  but. 
New  Voi'k  and 
e  Coni])tr(dh'i  nf 
cep  a  reserve  of 
d  reserve  agents 

use  this  reserve 
falls  beh)\v  llio 
)mptroUer  iu;iy 

oniply  with  this 

tate.     The  rei^n- 

institntions  are 

reports. 

the  government 

les  derived  iidm 

lat  the  aveiie^e 

jnal  banks  \\;is 

1878  the  ('oni|i- 

issued  by  State 

,'e  reputable  eiti- 
le  total  shares  et 

>eriod  of  twenty- 
)een  only  a  little 

■Jin  banks  Ime 


I'lWGRESS  L\   COINAGE,   CURRENCY,  AND  BANKING  403 

:    en  organized,  of  wliitdi  lL'1,'4  liavf  gone  into  iitpiidation,  ."KJS  have  beeonie 
-iilvent,  and  .T)"*.)  are  in  operation  (February  4,  bS',»;»j. 

riiere  is  a  marked  l;illing  oif  in   the  number  of  new  national  banks  organ- 

d  in  reeent  years.      In    I.S'Jd  there  were  ;!(»7  organized,  but  in  I.S'.IS  tiicre 

•  vii  only  r»(;  organizations  reported,  and  tliat   was   tiie  higliest  nundier  re- 

,    rted  since  18'.);>.     The  capital  of  the  national  banks  is  also  decreasing,  but 

I  ,e  deposits  show  a  hirgc  increase. 

At  prcs(;nt  the  State  banks  are  gaining  in  nundiers  nu)rc  rajiidly  than  the 
.lional  banks. 

I'lioKiT  ON-  National  JJank  CrKcii.ATio.v.  —  Many  suppose  that  national 
I  ,iiiks  make  an  undue  profit  on  the  privilege  they  have  of  issuing  notes  to 
1  leuiate  as  money,  based  (ju  a  deposit;  of  bonds  with  the  I'nited  States 
treasurer.     Uflicuil  ligures  disprove  this.     The  total  national  bank  notes  out- 


BANK  OF  ENGLAND,  LONDON. 

Standing,  February  4,  ISOO,  was  )S2().'ir.3(;,lS4.r)0.  'I'he  law  permits  these 
lianks  to  issue  notes  to  the  extent  of  '.M>  per  cent  of  their  capital.  This  eajd- 
t:d.  on  ?>bruary  4.  1890.  was  lS!«;(l8.;5(»].L'4r).  Therefore  they  might  have  had 
notes  at  issue  on  tliat  date  to  the  amount  of  .'5!r)4r>,S71,lL'(l.r»(l,  instead  of  only 
SL'O.'i.n.'U).  184.no.  This  is  conchisive  evidence  that  there  is  no  substantial 
profit  in  the  issuing  of  such  notes. 

In  the  figures  furnished  by  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  for  18',)8,  he 
shows  that  the  prf)fit  which  a  national  bank  could  make  bj'  taking  out  cin-u- 
lation  on  a  deposit  of  .SlOO.OOO  of  I'nited  States  bonds,  on  October  .SI.  1898, 
was  less  than  1  per  cent.  On  that  date  eight  leading  banks  had  no  circu- 
lating notes  at  all  out.  The  meagre  ])rofits  of  national  banks  explain  why 
tliey  do  not  su])ply  an  adequate  jyaper  currency.  The  restrictions  on  them 
make  it  impossible  to  render  any  substantial  assistance  to  business  in  this 
n  s]icct.  This  is  especially  true  in  times  of  jianic.  I'ossessing  gigantic 
strength,  thev  are  compelled  to  see  the  industries  of  the  countrv  attacked 
by  doubt  and  distrust,  and  arc  unable  to  go  to  their  aid  because  of  the 
restraints  which  forbid  them  to  exercise  their  legitimate  functions. 


|lf^'= 


'    '  'f 'ii 


-•■It. 


N'fi 


V 


'n  11 


h 


I  s . 


)M 


i|:l|i?i 


III  ill* 


'!'. 


Ifi"'!' 


li 


464         TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


VI.     FOKKKi.N    llA\KIN(i    AM)    I'lXAXCK. 

Most  toroigii  countries  issiu;  iiu'tallu!  luoiicy  only,  except  those  tliat  aic 
a  ]»ai)ei'  basis.     In  general  the  jiaper  eurrency  is  issued  hy  hanks,  iiuuiv 
which  are  more  or  less   remotely  associated  with   the   government.      So, 
of  these  hanks  issue  notes  on  the  security  of  the  government  or  other  stn, 
ami  bonds,  while  many  emit  notes  based  on  no  special  form  ot  security,  i, 
upon  the  general  assets  of  tlie  bank. 

As  compared  with  tlie  I'nited  States  there  are  but  few  banks  in  tliejn 
cipal  foreign  countries.     England  has  less  than  one  hundred;  Scotland  1 
than  ;i  dozen  ;  ("anada  but  thirty-eight  chartered  banks.     As  in  other  ioic. 
countries,  the  Canadian  banks  liave  numerous   branches  atliliated  with  i. 
head  office.     National  banks  in  the  United  States  are  prohii)ited  from  ha\ : 


(iKIlMAN    DANK.     liUKMKX. 

branches.  The  I'>ank  of  France,  tlie  Uank  of  England,  the  Tninerial  I'.ank  nf 
Germany,  the  Aust  ro-Huiigariaii  l>ank,  the  Imperial  Hank  of  Russia,  arc  ail 
more  or  less  inlimardy  associnted  with  their  respective  governuu'nts. 

The  Itaidv  of  iMigland  was  iiHrornorated  by  royal  charter,  duly  1*7.  Ifl'.U.  n 
incorporators  lending  i*l.L'( »(•.(»()(»  to  the  government,  in  return  for  which  ;  n  • 
liank  was  ]iermitii'd  to  issue  notes  to  a  like  amount.  It  liad  a  i)raci;rr, 
nu)nopt)ly  up  to  ISI'C).  and  even  now.  it  is  believed,  no  bank  witiiin  a  raiiiii- 
of  ().")  miles  of  Tiondon  may  issue  notes.  It  has  suspeniU'd  specie  payiiuii^ 
more  than  once.  In  ISII.  the  banking  and  issue  departments  of  the  l'.:i!il. 
were  separated.  <  »nc  lifth  of  the  reserve  may  be  silvei'.  tiiough  in  pran'-M 
the  reserve  is  kept  in  gold  coin  and  bullion.  Its  notes  are  based  on  g"!'i. 
excejit  -tl(!.S( )().()( K».  wliich  are  seenrcil  by  tlie  govcrnmeut  debt  and  ot'!i"i 
securities.  It  is  compelled  to  buy  all  gold  offered  at  a  tixed  ])riee,  paying  l^r 
it  in  notes.  So  it  must  redeem  ail  notes  on  demand  in  gold.  AVlien  so  '- 
deeuu'd  they  are  canceled  and.  after  live  years,  burned.      Mo  notes  of  a  i'-s 


'.NTUHY 


hose  that  avo 
hanks,  iiuiiix     ', 

■niuu'iit.      S 

t  or  otlu'r  stn.  - 
1  ot  scH-urily,  i  .t 

)aiiks  in  the  |>i  ... 
■d;  Scotland  1  - 
i  in  otlit'i"  It  111'.  ,1 
lliliatetl  Avitli  ;  .■ 
)itL'd  ii'oni  ha\ ;'  ,' 


Tniut'vial  r>;mU  "i 
,f  Uussia.  avi'  ail 
rnnu'nts. 

,hiiy  •-•:.  1  <>•»»•  "^ 
nmi  for  wliich  lii'- 
r   had  a  praci  m-h. 
k  within  a  laii;.- 
1  spi'cic  iiayni'i'- 
icnts  of  tlie  r''i'il' 
hoiij^li  in  imi'-i'''' 
,]■(■  has('(l  on  •-'."■■ 
lit    di'iit  and  oi  :i"i 
(1  i.ricc,  i.ayin-  i-v 
nhl     AVhon  s..  ••- 
>;()  iidtcs  of  :i    '-s 


lii !!'' 


I*i 


;,.   |i 


m 


tnUiti^ 


PROGRESS  IN  COINAGE,  CURRENCY,  AND  BANKING 


4( 


><j 


.iiiomimition  than  tive  iiuuiuls  an;  issiU'd.  The  l>auk  clu'cks  j^Mild  cxiiorts  liv 
,i,-,iii','  the  rato  of  discomit.  Tlu)  building  cdvois  abont  i'mir  acres  of  ground, 
lid  employs  ovi-r  elcviMi  imnihvd  lu-rsons.  It  is  the  kcystiMic  ol'  the  t'ntire 
\stcin  of  IJritish  credit,  and  coniuiands  the  assistance  of  tlic  Ciovernmcnl 
'  lien  needed. 

'i'he  Scotch  banks  issue  notes  on  their  own  ereilit  to  tlie  anioiint  ontstand- 
liig  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  liaidc  Act  in  1S44.  Their  rate  ot 
interest  is  said  to  be  the  same  at  all  of  their  tliousand  olHces.  A  nniiine 
■atnre  of  the  Scotch  banking  system  is  that  ol  cash  credits,  by  means  of 
■.  liich  a  [tersoii  of  good  credit  may  get  Ids  checks  caslu  d  without  a  deposit 
if  actual  moiu\v.  the  banks  simply  entering  tlie  credits  on  their  books. 

The  r>ank  of  l''raiice  has  a  monojioly  of  note  issues,  cliarges  a  ]preuiium  on 
uiild  for  export,  and  may  redeem  its  notes  in  either  gold  or  silver.  The  Im- 
|iirial  JJank  of  Clerinany  and  a  few  other  (iermaii  banks  issue  notes  on  gold 
,iiid  other  securities,  ami  further  amounts  on  tliciv  general  credit,  lleyond  a 
lixed  sum,  called  the  emergency  circulation,  a  tax  of  five  jier  cent  is  levied. 
Other  European  banks  are  generally  modeled  on  the  same  leading  prineiplt; 
—  a  central  bank  of  issue,  with  luimerous  branches,  and  associated  with  the 
(iovernment  directly  or  indirectly.  The  Imperial  llank  of  liussia  issues 
notes  practically  covered  by  gold  and  reileemai>lt»  in  that  c<iin.  Japan  trieil 
a  system  of  national  banks  comljiued  with  (iovernment  jiaper  money,  but  is 
now  substituting  a  system  of  l)aidv  notes  issued  by  the  I>ank  of  .fapan. 

vii.    fMri:i>  sr.\ri;s  (aivi:i!NMi'.Nr   iu-.ut  sin<  k   IS'iT. 

In  IS,')?  the  (Government  owed  only  .Sl<).(><M».(HHt  dver  and  aliove  the  cash 
lield  ill  the  treasury.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  ('i\il  War  the  debt  had 
increased  to  about  .SSO.OdO.OOO.  I'.y  August  .".l.  ISCi"").  it  had  increased  to 
81'. 7o( ;,(!(»( ).(»(>(>,  with  an  interest  charge  of  .S1.10.(MI0.(MM).  In  twenty-eight 
yars.  down  to  June  .'><>.  IS!).'!,  the  (Jovernmeiit  extinguished  !iJ!l.'.H7.."»()t».<M)(l 
of  its  debt,  ])aid  $2,.' KJI.Odt !.(»(»(»  for  interest  on  its  debt,  and  .SllS.OOIUHK*  for 
prcnnnm  on  bonds  redeemed,  making  a  grand  total  of  .S  I.  K >(».(>(  10.0(10.  or  an 
annual  average  payment  of  .Sl.^r.OOO.OOO  for  the  entire  ]ii'riod, 

The  rise  ami  fall  of  the  ])ublio  debt  from  .Inly  1.  l.S.">7,  to  fluly  1.  ISDS, 
aiiiiear  more  fullv  in  the  followiim-  table. 


Yi'iiis. 


)s:,7,  .Iiilv  1. 


I  sill, 
lSll-2, 
lSii:t, 
lsii4, 
isi;."]. 


1. 


Total  ilrt>t. 


S-28.(;!l!l.8;tl 
(U.84-.>.-'S7 

!U).:iS(),H7;i 

.V.>4,17ii.412 


1 


1.1  lit. 

I.Sir..7S4.: 


.l:iS 
7t) 


Aii','iivt  ■•!! '  -J.SH.iU'.i.il-Ji; 


\-<:.\.  .iiiiv  1. 


•1  i':U.  tSJ.'.i!i:i 
•.'.•_>4."i.4li:>. 117-2 
l,iUII.(l.")L'.!l2-2 


hTii,     •'     1 

1SS!I,     "     1 

l.s  i;i,     "     1 \   l.,-i4."i,ns.-i.iisil 

ls;i.-|,  l),.coinl)L'V  ] 1.7IW.STI.(17() 

is;ii!,  ,||,lv  1 l,7i;'.i.H4il.:!2:t 


T)ol)t  li'ss  ciisli  ill 
llic   rrca^iirv. 

SlMt'.lS.C-Jl 

.^!i. '."14, 4(12 

87.7IH.ili:(i 

.•i().").:!l2,7.V2 

l.tll.:|.->il.7:i7 

l,7i.!i,4.V2.277 

2.7:.i!.4:;i..-i71 

2.  l(i."i.4ti2.iM;il 

l,!l!)l!,414,!lll.-p 


IS!I7, 
l.SitS, 


1. 


l.si7.ir 


:.i;i;."i 

i.il,!)',t."i 


ii7 


!i:!li.' 


."ill 


N:tS,'.M;!i.47"i 
!l4H.477.i;l2 


!i: 


M.2!l7.2"i 


'.tSii.il.Ml.dSii 
1,II27.IKS.'),4!'2 


80 


lb  'i 


III 


4(10      TJiJUMpns  A\j>  w ONI)/!: Its  ur  rinc  a/.v"  vicstuhy 

111  IS)).")  the  iiiiimiil  interest  eliarj,'!'  on  tlie  |iul)li('  debt  \v;is  .Sl.'in.'.lTT.fi'.i 
In  IS'.IS  it  WHS  oniv  s;il.;!S7.  Ins. 

I'"nini  IT'.U  to  IMUN  tlie  ,i,M't).ss  iceeipts  til'  tiie  (lovernnieMt  were  ."irl.'!(>.,'i  I 
0('>.'!.."!;!(;.(t('>  and  tlie  i;inss  expenditiiri's  .'r<L".».7(')S.,V,l7.1.'.">7.1.'l.  'I'lie  net  (H'dina 
reeeipis.  wliieli  dn  not  inelnde  loans  or  proceeds  Ironi  the  issue  ol  'I'reasin 
notes,  were  Jj:!  K>.">..">L'l,;).'!."i.L'<t  i'or  the  tiseal  year  ended  .hine  .".(>,  iS'.IS.  and  ti 
lu't  ordinary  expenditures,  which  do  not  imdude  payments  on  aeeonnt  (d  pi 
ininiMS  or  interest,  on  the  |inl)lie  delit.  were  !*<  lO,'"(.7S,".,,"iL'(;..">7. 

'VI  II.      fOST.VI-    S.\VIN(iS    HANKS. 

.Many  believe  that  a  system  of  [jostal  saviui'^s  haidvs  eonld  lie  jjeneral. , 
introdnced  into  tlu!  I'liiteil  Statt's.  Such  banks  donhtless  ajipeal  to  thi  r 
who  have  more  coiitideneo  in  the  (rovernment  than  in  any  asxieiaiioii  oi  ii- 
ilividnals.  Their  safety  may  lie  eoneeded.  lor  when  the  (iovernnn-nt  laiU 
other  institutions  are  likely  to  <j;o  the  sanu-  way.  Itnt  when  peoi)le  depo-il 
money  in  a  jiostal  savin^js  liaidi,  they  make  a  loan  to  the  (iovernnieni. 
This  implies  that  the  (ioveiaiment  nuist  he  a  perpetual  liori-ower.  \vliere;iv, 
until  recent  years,  the  I'nitetl  States  lias  been  a  debt -paying;'  nation,  and  in 
the  course  of  at'i'airs  may  soon  be  aj-cain.  I'liiess  we  are  to  have  a  lar!.;e  pei- 
mancnt  debt,  the  dejiosits  in  postal  savim^'s  banks  would  have  to  be  investid 
in  .ni'uei'al  securities.  Siudi  investments  could  not  well  he  made  by  the  po>i- 
ottice  oHicials  of  tlu!  country. 

Ill  (Jreat  ISritiiin  these  banks  have  been  in  existence  for  about  tliirty-oi!:lit 
years,  and  their  ntiniber  has  grown  to  about  lL'.(K)(t.  with  more  than  (i.dOO.diHi 
depositors.  The  system  jirevails  in  a  number  of  other  countries.  The  nuMv 
concentrated  and  paternal  system  of  ,t,'overiiment  prevalent  in  countries  lia\ 
ing  these  banks  renders  their  iiianap'ment  a  much  less  diHicult  problem  th:iii 
it  would  be  in  the  T'nited  States  with  our  large  areas,  vast  number  of  ii(i.--l 
otlices.  and  general  diversity  of  conditions.  In  (ireat  Uritain  the  deposits  in 
the  ]iostal  savings  banks  are  made  at  the  money  order  ])ost-ot!iees  in  a  pa>s 
book  held  by  the  dei»ositor.  Withdrawals  are  made  by  tilling  up  blank 
forms,  and  these  withdrawals  may  be  made  at  any  money  order  jiost-oHicr. 
deposits  are  invested  in  the  jiublio  debt,  and  the  rate  of  interest  is  about  tun 
and  one  half  jx-r  cent.  The  ])ostal  savings  banks  of  (ireat  llritain  contain 
deposits  a]>]>roximating  .SoL'7.(UI(MHMI:  those  of  Kranee.  .Sl'tl'.* •(!(>.( M)0  :  those 
of  Italy,  .flXVtOO.OOO;  tho.se  of  lUdgium,  .*!<;7,0(M».(HMI ;  those  of  Canaila. 
.1ii.'{l.()0(>.(MtO. 

IX.      SAVIXOS    ItANKS     I\    Tlir.    rXITKI)    STATKS. 

There  are  no  worthier  fbiancial  institutions  in  the  country  to-day  than  tin' 
savings  banks.  Most  of  these  are  organized  on  what  is  known  as  the  mutual 
]dan.  They  have  no  eajiital.  no  stockholders,  and  all  the  assets  are  held  m 
trust  for  the  benetit  oi'  the  dejiositors.  They  are  managed  by  a  board  of  trus- 
tees, who  serve  without  ]iay.  The  investments  which  the  banks  are  pii- 
initted  to  make  are  generally  restricted  to  liigli-(dass  .securities  insuriu.: 
safety.  The  savings  banks  in  \ew  York  State,  especially,  are  dostdy  rr- 
strictcd  in  investing  their  funds,  and  failures  in  recent  years  are  alnio^t 
unknown.  A  dejiosit  in  one  of  these  banks  is  hardly  less  safe  than  an  in- 
vestment in  (iovernment  bonds.     The  savings  banks  are  the  primary  schoils 


riiWJniJSS   LV   vols. [(IE,  CL'lUlHXcy,  WD    /i.l.VA/AV/  Ui7 

I  economy  ami  tliril't,  and  I  lu'licvi'  tliat  an  cxti'iisioii  of  the  nmliial  sav- 
ins bank  system  throii^lioiit  ilic  coiiiitiy.  iiiuli  r  inopcr  Ic^al  sali'.i^iianls, 
riilil  boot'   the  1,'rrati'Sl  lifiidil  to  the  |m'oii1c  oI  the  liiitcd  States. 

Tlic  ileposits  in  hanks  of  this  kiml  are  usuall,\  limited  \\\  law  to  amounts 
i.i|  exeecdin.i,'  !it«.'>(MtO  to  ulie  iU']iositor,  as  they  arc  not  intended  to  lie  used  hy 
':e  wealthier  class  of   [pt'ople.       The   hdlowiie^'  statistics  will   he   t'oiind  inter- 


'  »! 

1 

he  ,i;eiieral. , 
jieal  to  tin  c 
elation  oi  iii- 
crnnient  tail-; 
ieo]»h'  de|in-i! 

(Jovernmciii. 
wer.  \vhere;i-, 
latioii,  and  in 
■  a  laru:e  pcr- 
(I  he  invested 
e  hy  the  ]i(i>i- 


SAVIN(iS   HANKS  IN    rilf.  INI  li;i)  SlAll'.S,   IS.-:   l,S!i7. 
(Sliiti'iiii'iit  (if  iDiiililicpii  liir  iiuli  piriiid  nl  li'ii  viai-.) 


1877 


1887 


181(7 


NmnlMTcf  Imiiks •-'■M  .i;!]  (I7:t  084                       080 

NiiimImt  (ilit,'|)i>«il.ii's 4!l(t,»-JS  1,ISS,jiil'  •J..l!iri.:tl  t  .'1,418,01:1            r),-Jl)l,t:i-J 

Viiidiiiit  iif  <l«'|Mi-iii .?i!i8.."ilL',!MlH  .<:i;17,iiii:M"iJ  >Si;ii,;!lS.:illii  sl,j:),->,ji7,:)7|  si,|i;t',i,:i7(i,():).-| 

Airiii:,'.' tiioailiilriMi<it;il'..,.  -JOO'  -iX'ii  .Ml  aOlj                       ;I72 


In  addition  to  the  nuitnal  and  stock  savin,y;s  hanks  in  the  I'nited  States,  n 
system  of  seliool  savinj,'s  hanks,  introduced  into  the  s(diools  of  the  Uinted 
States  hy  .1,  II.  Thiry.  of  I.onj,'  Island  City,  N.  ^'..  is  worthy  of  mention. 
Such  hanks  have  heen  very  snei'essfiil  in  ineulcatinj,'  habits  of  thrift  and 
economy  among  the  children  of  tlm  country. 


cloarinij-nouse  m 


X.     TIIK    Chl'.AKINO-noiSK. 

iv  be  detined  as  an  institution  for  savin-'  time, 


aiK 


I  labor.     Its  undcrlyin.u;  principle  is  that  of  setting  off  oi 
itl 


le  c 


monev, 


aim  aLMiiist 


iiotner. 


.\   baid<  in  a.  lare:e  city  receives  every  day  in  its  mail  a  jj;reat  n\uuher  o£ 


'ks  or  drafts  dr 


iwn 


on  banks  in  the  s; 


une 


It  (h 


'S  not  jiiesent 


these  cheeks  directly  to  the  banks  on  whicli  they  are  drawn  i\n-  payment,  but 
sends  them  by  nu'ssoni^-er  to  the  clearin;j;-honse.  Let  us  say.  for  illustration, 
that  the  First  National  r>aid\  ]>resents  to  the  clcarin,L,'diouse  checks  on  other 
hanks  anionnting  to  .*!1()0,000.  At  the  sann-  time  the  other  baidvs  send  to  the 
clearinj;-honso  checks  tiny  have  received  drawn  on  the  First  National  I>ank, 
j,ifn|.cir;iting  .*!7r).(IO(),  A  jiaynn'-nt  of  Sil'."'>.0<>0  in  money  to  the  I''irst  National 
ISank  will  be  all  the  cash  re(inii'ed  to  pay  cheeks  representing  .fiir.VOOd. 
The  eeononiy  in  the  nse  of  moiuy  is  still  bettei'  illustrated  by  the  following 
statement  of  an  actual  transaction.  On  a  day  in  the  latter  ]iartof  iS'.tS  the 
liank  of  the  State  of  Now  York  took  to  the  New  ^'ork  ("learing-Ibmse  chocks 
(III  other  hanks  aiuonnting  to  .SI.").*!  I7.."»S.">,SL*.  ;ind  other  hanks  brought  cheeks 
against  it  amounting  to  .*!1."),(;I7.  ltU,S.">.  The  sum  of  these  items  was  Jij!.'-?!.- 
L'Ul.'.IS.inr.  and  they  were  ])aid  with  .S1S1.*.)7  in  money,  whiidi  represents  the 


lit  balance  dne  to  the  Uank  of  the  State  of  New   ^'o^■k.     This  instai 


iTe( 
shows  \v 


ice 


hat  1: 


irge  transactions  may  he  eit'ecteil  M'ith  small  sums  of  money  by 


eiuploymg  proper  iianUing  macliinery 


di 


hanks   mu 


Iti 


i'i.y 


ti 


le    us( 


ful 


licss  o 


money  many  to 


hi. 


The   New   V(M'k  ( 'learing-llouse  Associati<in  was  organized  Seiitember  1; 


IS.'(.">.  ami  the  first  idcarin 


ade  by  the  Assoeiatit)!!  totik  phice  on  October  11 


'h 


408 


rniVMI'IIS   AM)    WOSDI'lltS   OF   THE  MX'"   ('/i'.V7'fA'}' 


IS.").').  'I'lif  l);iiik.s  l)rl(iiij,'iiii,'  ti)  till-  New  ^'orU  ('Icaiiiig-Hdiist^  Associntin,, 
it'jporli'il  (III  April  I,  l.S',(',»,  loans  and  (li.scoiiiits.  .S77'.>.".».")1,1(K) ;  lU'posits,  iiSM'.Ks, 
<.)17.<>(i(t;  s|i('i'i.',  ."iiiisr.l  ll,.'!<"t;  ciiviihitioii,  .'5l."!.S7(t,r)(M>. 

Cl-KAIilN<.-II(tlSK    J.OAN    CkIM'JI'K  Alios, — 'riu'Sf   aic   siiiiiily   (Icvict's   tll.i 
till'  liiiiiks  have  iiivt'iitt'tl  lor  use  in  tiiiit's  ol   jiaiiit'.     'I'licv  aro  issiicil  by  ,, 
roiiiiiiittt't'  oi   tilt'   l'lt'ariii,n-I  louse   Association   on    the   tlt'|)osit  ol'  a|i|iidvi'ii 
st'uunLii.'s  \<y  ihe  hank  ilesiring  tlieni,  and  are  used  only  tu  settle  lialaiiec,> 


KIOW    VOliK    CI.KAlilNd-IIDl'SE. 

hetwoeii  the  banks.  They  are  not  inoney,  bnt  serve  a  useful  ])uriiose  in 
(liniinisliiii<;-  the  demand  lor  inoiiey:  I'or  when  the  hanks  a.^ree  to  ac(M|.i 
t]iest>  oertitieates  !unon;4  themselves,  it  makes  that  iiiueli  money  available  t^ 
he  h)aned  or  jiaid  to  depositors.  In  ISU.'!.  and  in  other  years  oi'  linaiici;i! 
strinji'enoy,  the  issue  of  these  eertilieates  afforded  ,<,M'eat  reli(d'  to  biisiiir  - 
interests  and  s.aved  the  country  from  some  of  the  most  disastrous  results  ri"'- 
sequent  upon  sucli  ])anics. 

These  eertiiicates  are  not  to  he  confoniKh'd  with  ch^'irin,u,-lious(^  yohl  eertili- 
eates issued  by  the  Assuciatioii  on  ileposits  of  gold  coin.     They  are  used  ii. 


I'/iounEss  /.v  coisAdi:.  crniiKsrw  and  /hxking 


UW) 


so  Associiitin,, 
U'liosit?',  ."iSM'.t.s. 

y  (If vices  lli.i 
ro  issiu'il  \)\  ;i 
it  ol   ;i|i|irovi'ii 
.st'lllu  lialiiiu'f.^ 


:»fnl  ]nu'ii<>s('  in 
mrco  Id  ;ii'ci'|'i 
icv  iivaihililf  I'i 
ii's  (if  tiii!iiu'i;i! 
id  to  l)iisiiif'- 
oils  results  foii- 

us(i  t;-ol(l  ocrtiti- 
Ik'}'  ai'L'  used  ii^ 


iking  i>ayiiii'iits  of  liiiiiuici's  lu'twi'cu  li;iiiUs.  ami  oljvialc  llic  iiiii'»ily  of 
.!>'(|Ui'iitly  pas^iip^  tJK'  ai'tiial  coin  troiii  liaiid  to  haml. 

(Ml  April  II,  ISUS,  tlic  clrariii'^s  iit  llic  New  \  oik  ('lcatiiii;-lloiisc  tor 
i,iut  (lay  aiiiouiitctl  lo  ."!^;».~»L'.SSL'..">(»7  —  Ihc  lai;4cst  aiiioimt  ever  rc|iortcil  up 
,,i  tiial  time.  'I'iic  lialaiiccs  i,(  lie  paid  in  uioin'v  wnc  M7..'»lo.  lo-,  or  only 
liiMiit  liv(^  per  cent.  l'"or  tlie  \rar  IS'.IS  tiie  iiaiik  clearinj^s  at  New  \drk  were 
.->I1.'.I71,7*<1.('».SI.  and  tor  I  lie  wlioic  eoiintiy.  .S(i,S.7,".(MMMi.(i(K». 

All  investi},'ation  ot  tlie  amount  ot  credit  paper  used  respedividy  in  the 
,\liolesaU'  and  retail  trade  was  made  l)\  the  (Joiiipt roller  (d'  t  he  ( 'iirrcncy  in 
;s'.M).  Ill  his  re[>ort  lor  tliat  year  the  Coiiiptroller  says;  ••  l''roui  the  t'lce  id' 
I  lie  returns  tiie  coiiclusioii  to  We  drawn  i>  that  <'>7. 1  per  cint  id  tiie  retail 
imile  ot  tlie  eouiitry  is  transacted  iiy  means  ot  credit  paper  lehecks).  that 
'.Ci..'!  per  cent  ot  the  whidesale  trade  is  so  carried  on,  '.lo.l  per  cent  id  Imsi- 
iicss  other  tliaii  inercantih',  and  '.»L'.."»  |ier  cent  ot  all  Imsiness." 

XI.       I'AMIS    AMI    Tlir.ll!    I  At  sr.S. 

A  panic  is  {generally  due  to  intiation  and  speculation,  and  these,  ot  course, 
have  their  ori!j;iii  in  various  sources  not  easily  determined.  An  unusual  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  precious  nietals.  lioiintitul  crops,  a  speculative 
cra/e  takiiif,'  jiossession  uf  the  public  —  siiidi  as  tiie  tulip  mania  in  Jlollaiid  — 
all  tliese  and  many  other  causes  lead  to  speculation.  Tlie  fall  in  ]irices  due 
to  a  stoppa;^!'  in  speculation  lirin<,'s  on  the  panic.  Sometimes  llio  catastrophe 
is  produced  by  war  or  rumors  of  war.  often  by  the  most  trivial  eirciimstaiices, 
and  not  infveipieiitly  without  any  apparent  cause.  IWd'ore  everyliody  had 
desired  to  Imy  ;  they  now  became  as  caj^'cr  to  sell,  and  tliis  rush  to  convert 
securities  and  commodities  into  nioiiey  precipitates  a  ]iaiiic. 

Crises  may  be  divided  into  commercial  and  financial.  The  last  one  in  the 
riiitcd  States,  whatever  may  have  been  its  ultiiiiat(f  developments,  was  in  its 
ipccption  and  culmination  essentially  a  tinancial  panic.  The  Treasury  and 
the  banks  were  both  rci^arded  with  more  or  less  distrust. 

Tallies  or  crises  more  or  less  severe  have  occurred  in  the  I'liited  States  in 
ISII.  ISIS.  ISL'C).  lS.'!7-.'!(>.  1S4S.  IS.'m.  diiriuK  the  Civil  War.  ISC.I-*;.'..  IS7;!, 
ISS2,  ISS-f.  IS'.Kt.  1S9.").  Some  of  these  should  hardly  lie  called  jianics.  as 
tliev  were  mere  local  disturbances.      DitTerent  causes   have   been  ,t;iveii   for 


eai 


h  of  tliese  revulsions.     Overt radintj  and  s])cciilatioii  were   doubtle 


ss  re 


<|Minsible  for  them.    The  panic  id'  IS^ 


u  was 


coincident  with  uiri^e  net  imports 


of  merchandise.     On  Aii!.;iist  L'f.  lsr»7,  the  onward  wave  ol   prosperity,  whiidi 


had  1 


)cen  stcadilv  risiiii. 


a  yrcat  heii^ht.  received  a  (dieck  bv  the  failure  of 


tlie  Ohio  Life  Insurance  and  Trust  Co..  followed  by  numerous  other  failures. 
On  October  d    every   bank   in   >iew   ^'ork.  exeejit   the  Chemical,   suspended 


siiecic  jiavnici 


its.  and  iliev  did  not  resume  until  December 


I: 


The  speculation  in  liohl  in  iSCiU  culiiiiiiated  in  what  is  known  as  the  I'dack 
i'liday  panic.  September  L'l.  iSCdl.     f'iske  and  (ioiild  were  condiietiii!;-  a  specii- 


latii 


n  ill  uold.  and  soic^iit  to  corner  it 


T 


lev  torced 


th 


pric<'  up  To  a   Iiil;! 


li.Lriirc.  liut  the  Ciovernment  suddenly  a]i|ieared  as  a  sfdier  of  o'old  and  luoke 


111 


e  "corner. 


The  rear  1S7.")  witnessed  .another  revulsion  of  confidence  and  another  dis- 


rii 


otion  of  the  coiiimercinl  and  tinancial  affairs  of  the  coiuitrv. 


i.usiiiess 


Iiad 


lOllL 


been  unduly  cxpaudud,  and  the  collapse  tinally  came.     The  failure,  on 


:\i^-i 


i  '■! 

:'1 


Ill 


l1 


470 


TRIUMPHS   AND    WONDKllS   OF   TIIK  XIX'"  CENTUliY 


Soptt'inbcr  IS,  ui'  the  liouon'tl  tiriii  ol'  .l;iy  Cooke  &  Co.,  wliicli  had  not  oiil- 
Iji'fii  ideiitilietl  witli  the  buil(liii;4  ol'  tli;-  Nortlicni  I'jififir  It.  K.  but,  had  bi'fn 
a  stroiii,'  supporttT  of  the  ciodit  ol'  the  iJovcniiiu'iit  wlu-n  it  was  in  the  diic-i 
distress,  was  tlie  first  bad  iitnvs.  House  after  liouse  fell.  The  Stock  Kn- 
chaii,i;e  elosed  its  doors  on  Se[)tenil)i'r  I'O,  and  did  ncjt  I'copen  them  luitii 
Sept enil)i'i' ,"((».  M(U'e  than  tifty  Stock  l^xchan^;-e  tii'ius  suspeuch'il,  and  seveial 
of  the  leadinj,'  banking  institutions  of  New  \'ork  and  other  cities  liad  to  stop 
business. 

Duriiej;  this  i)anic  the  New  York  Clearin,n-1  louse  Association  issued  dear- 
ing-Iiuuso  certificates  to  those  of  its  meuibers  who  needed  available  fumU, 
and  during  tlie  trouble  issued  Sl.'4,ni. "),()()()  of  them.  In  May,  ISS-I,  it  issued 
$l'l.yir..O(H);  in  the  iSlXt  panic,  .SKMJUOOO  ;  in  1S'.»;!,  §41.  i'.»(MHM». 

J'ollowing  the  resumi>tion  of  specie  payments  the  times  were  good  l(,i 
several  years.  The  j)roduetion  of  tlie  precious  metals  was  averaging  .S7r>.- 
0()(>,()00  or  more  ]ier  year.  From  ISTI)  to  ISS;!  we  imported  about  ."iiillMi.doo,- 
0(10  of  gold.  Jtailroad  construction  reached  a  higher  jxnnt  than  was  ever 
recorded,  either  before  or  since,  nearl}'  40,000  miles  of  track  liaving  lieeii 
laid  in  five  years.  All  seemed  W(dl,  when  another  eollajise  came  in  .May, 
1SS4.  This  was  preceded  by  the  failure  of  (irant  tSc  Ward,  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  failure  of  the  .Marine  and  the  Metropolitan  Hanks.  The  dis- 
closures of  bad  faith  on  the  part  of  men  occupying  positions  of  great  trust, 
made  the  1SS4  panic  one  of  distin(!t  characteristics  of  its  own.  Tlie  ]irevioiis 
activity  in  all  lines  of  enteri)rise  may  have  made  the  revulsion  timely,  but 
individual  dishonesty  greatly  aggravated  tlu;  situatiini. 

The  panic  of  ISOO,  in  the  L'nited  States,  was  but  a  reflection  of  the  great 
Baring  failure  in  London  in  the  fall  of  that  year.  This  crash  was  due  to 
South  American  speculations,  and  was  one  of  the  greatest  failures  of  modern 
time.s.  It  is  tiie  ojiinion  of  many  well-informed  financiers  that  this  was  one 
of  the  causes  which  oiierated  to  produce  the  pani(!  of  ISy.'!  in  the  Initcd 
States.  The  cimrse  of  the  Tnited  States  in  regard  to  the  pundiase  of  silver, 
doid)ts  as  to  the  tariff,  deticiency  in  revenues  —  all.  ])erhaps,  had  their  share 
in  creating  distrust.  IJut  back  of  these  wei'e  the  conditions  sui)erinduced  by 
an  era  of  intiation  and  speculation.  The  ISO.'i  jtanic  bore  most  heavily  upon 
the  banks.  There  was  a  continued  demand  upon  the  Treasury  for  gt)ld.  and 
the  deposits  in  banks  were  withdrawn  so  rapidly  that  Inmdreds  of  failures 
ensued.  The  ])eriod  of  depression  contiinied  for  nearly  three  years,  and  has 
been  succeeded  by  an  era  of  general  prosperity,  which  it  is  hoped  iniiy  lie 
long  contiimed. 

Bradfokd  KnonKs. 


"URY 


liad  not  dill;, 

but  liiul  bi'cii 

in  tilt'  din  ,-' 

he  Sttx'k  V.\- 

II    tllt'lU     lllllii 

1,  ami  si'Vcnil 

■S  luul  to  St(i|' 

issued  clcm- 
iiiliiblc  l'uiiil>, 
SSI,  it  issued 
000. 

icre  good  I'll!' 
•erasing  .S?;"),- 
mit  ir!  I'.IO.1 1(1(1,- 
liau  was  e\i'i- 
.  liaviiig  lireii 
i-anie  in  May, 
id  it  was  i'ol- 
;iks.  Tlie  dis- 
of  great  tru>t, 

Tlie  jirevious 
[i\\  timely,  but 

II  of  the  great 
sli  Avas  due  to 
ires  of  iiioderu 

this  was  (iiic 

III  tlie  I'uiti'd 
lase  of  silver, 
id  their  share 
leriiidiieed  by 
heavily  u|m)u 
for  gold,  ami 
s  of  failures 

•ears,  and  has 
loped  may  bi' 

{])    KllODl'.S. 


THE  CENTURY'S  PROGRESS  IN  FRUIT  CULTURE 

l"i;oM  the  earliest  histories  of  eivili/atiou  we  learn  that  th«'  eiiltivatioii  of 
;;iiitslias  been  a  delightful  pastime  and  also  a  substantial  means  of  living, 
riieir  tempting  colors,  fragrant  perfumes  and  Inseious  Havois  are  unei[uale(l 
ill  eombined  attrat'tiveiiess  and  satisfaetioii  to  the  hninau  senses  by  anyhing 
(-Ise  among  all  thi>  products  of  nature.  'I'heir  juices  are  at  once  appeti/ing, 
initritious.  and  wholesome.  .Millions  of  [ieo[de  have  suljsisted  u|ion  them 
liigely.  from  time  out  (d'  mind. 

It  is,  thei(d'ore,  not  a-  matter  of  wondiu'  that  our  fortd'atliers.  when  they 
came  to  the  shores  of  this  New  World,  brought  with  them  seeds,  cuttings, 
and  plants  of  the  best  fruits  they  liad  at  their  old  homes.  Thus  it  was  that 
the  api)le.  jiear,  peaidi,  plum,  cherry,  grape,  (dive,  date,  almond,  European 
walnut  and  chestnut,  and  many  other  less  valuable  fruit.s  were  first  culti- 
vated in  North  .\meriea. 

TiiK  l>i:(;i\xiN(i. —  I'revious  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
there  had  been  considerable  developimuit  in  fruit  culture  in  the  colonies. 
Small  ajjplo  orchards  were  (piite  common  in  the  st^ttleiuents,  from  New  Kng- 
laml  to  the  C'aroliiias.  The  jiear,  peaidi,  plum,  grape,  and  ;.  few  other  fruits 
were  cultivated  in  less  degrei'.  The  Spanish  had  introduced  the  peaidi  and 
orange  in  Florida,  and  the  Fremdi  had  ]ilanted  the  sjrape  and  }iear  in  tlieir 
s|iarse  settlements  in  tin?  Mississi[>pi  Valley  and  near  the  (Jreat  liakes. 
There  are  to-day,  and  yet  in  a  healthy  condition,  near  Detroit,  Miidiigan, 
several  immense  pear-trees  from  these  first  idantings.  that  are  nearly  three 
hundred  years  (dd.  Tlit>  Catludic  fathers  planted  the  vine  and  the  olive,  and 
occasionally  the  date  palm,  at  their  mission  stations  along  the  KioOrande 
and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Thus  we  see  that  when  the  yt;ar  18<M)  ushered  in  the  century  now  idosing, 
there  were  many  feeble  beginnings  in  the  way  of  fruit  culture  scattered  over 
the  Continent.  The  Indians,  contrary  to  what  we  might  have  supposed, 
lulpcd  materially  in  the  distrii)utioii  of  some  of  the  (U'chard  fruits.  In 
I7',l'.>.  when  (ieneral  Sullivan  made  his  famous  raid  against  the  tribes  which 
composed  the  historic  "Six  natituis.'"  he  found  iiearing  apple  ondiards  in 
Wi'stern  New  York,  in  Southern  Canada  and  Mi(diigaii  the  Indians  occa- 
sionally planted  the  apple  and  pear.  The  triiies  living  along  tln^  (Julf  of 
Nb'xico  had  jieach-trees  in  their  little  cultivated  ])at(dies.  having  obtained 
the  seeds  from  the  Spaniards;  and  to-day  we  tind  the  descendants  of  these 
Spanish  or  '•  Indian"  peaches  commonly  grown  throughout  all  the  Southern 
Stales,  and  to  sonic  extent  all  over  the  peach-growing  sections  of  .Vmerica. 

'I'm;  Iv\i'i;i;i.MKNT.\r,  Stack.  —  During  the  lib'  (d'  the  generation  which 
existed  for  the  iirst  thirty  or  more  years  (d'  the  century  the  culture  <d'  fruits 
was  still  ju'ineipally  in  the  ex])criinental  stage.  Some  of  the  foreign  species 
and  varieties  had  not   [H'oved   satisfaetiu'v,  and   they  vrere   being  critically 


B  II 


11 


■'" 

i  ii 

f 

M 

1   K 

!? 

'IwB 

lU 


|)': 


III 


If 


<i!  ! 


Ilii 


kI-|| 


'■    r 


»n,i  ■iv.-r 


®?  i'i(  *tli|: 


f^'i'ii. 


■»i 


Jl 


.1 1 


-"» 


«i!? 


472         rillUMI'US   A\1J    \VUS]>Ens   OF   TIIE   \L\"'   CEMURY 

ti'strd  or  m1):iii(Ii)1U'(I.  Xi-w  varieties  wen;  lieiiij;'  (irii^iiiated  (Hi  our  own  so;' 
<  )iir  native  fruits  were  lieiie^-  hrou.^lit,  under  culture,  loo.  atul  with  the  nm- 
satisl'actory  results  in  many  eases,  it  was  learned  that  we  had  in  them  lli 
t'oundaliou  of  almosi  uidiiuiled  devidopnu'Ut.  'I'heir  pro.ueny  has  revolutim 
ized  soiue  lines  of  fruit  eulturi'.  'i'his  is  uspeeially  true  in  our  vineyards  air, 
lierry-lields. 

'I'here  were  men  of  noble  and  putriotie  east  of  mind,  who  devoted  their 
lives  to  the  develoiuneut  of  this  lo\ely  and  wholly  humane  work.  'rhi\ 
deserve  to  luidv  beside  the  heroes  of  oui' hattleiields.  'I'heir  victories  weiv 
those  of  |ieace.  and  were  followed  liy  an  increase  of  tin'  deiinhll'ul  product 
of  the  orchard,  vineyard,  and  garden. 

( )nce  that  our  lorciathers  were  free  I'roiu  <^he  hondai^e  of  l",ui'o])ean  ,L;ri cil. 
this  art  of  peace  kept  pace  with  our  civilization  on  other  lines.  'I'here  i. 
nothini,'  in  the  whole  list  of  our  scientilic  attainnuMits  (U'  matei'ial  industries 
that  can  show  mor<'  substantial  progress.  N(U'  is  there  a  nation  on  eaiiii 
tiiat  has  so  rich,  varied,  and  adaptable  soils,  ton'cther  with  climatic  coiiditiniis 
so  admirably  and  generally  siuted  to  fruit  culture;  nor  a  peojile  moi-c  alivc 
to  their  opportunities  in  this  dil'ection. 

'ruK  .\<;k  ok  I'l.MHiUKss.  —  Diirini;'  the  n'cneration  of  fruit  growers  who  livcj 
from  about  IS.'K'  until  the  time  of  the  Civil  War.  the  region  lying  bitwnii 
the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  tiie  Missouri  Kiver,  and  extending  irom  tlir 
Ottawa  Kiver  in  <'anada  to  the  mountains  of  'reniiessee,  which  is  now  tin- 
great  a|ii)le  bin  of  America,  as  well  as  its  granary,  was  being  rapidly  tilliil 
with  energetic  settlers.  These  pioneers  carried  with  them  carefully  select iij 
seeds,  cuttings,  and  trees  of  the  best  varieties  of  fruits  known  in  their  Ivistcin 
and  Southern  homes.  Theses  were  planted  in  t'le  rich,  virgin  soil  of  the  new 
territory,  which  w;is  then  known  as  ••'I'he  West.'"  I'lider  the  liajipy  inllii- 
eiices  of  a  congenial  climate  and  careful  cultivation,  they  developed  into 
fruit  fill  orchards  and  vineyards,  yielding  finer  specimens,  and.  in  some  case-,. 
larger  crops  than  had  ever  been  known  in  tin  older  ])arts  of  the  count  ly. 
This  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  (tnlture  of  fruits.  The  first  large  cinn- 
inercial  orchards  of  the  apple.  pea(di.  and  peai  in  the  central  I'nited  ,">talr> 
were  then  lieing  planted  in  Michigan.  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Kentu<-ky. 

T'he  South  had  not  yet  awakened  to  a  knowledge  (d'  her  possiiiilitics  in 
fruit  culture.  I'ndci'  slave  lainu'  the  land  was  almost  solely  given  uu  In 
eott(Mi  and  tobacco.  I'Morida.  hail  not  then  even  dreamed  of  her  wondeilul 
dev(dopments  in  orange  culture,  lu  Missouri.  Kansas,  .\rkansas.  Texas,  aii'l 
the  great  N'oi'thwest.  where  now  there  ai'e  fruit  ]ilantations  of  almost  iinpai- 
aileled  extent,  only  tiic  lirst  trees  and  ]ilanls  were  being  set.  and  it  was  only 
thought  /I'lssi/i/r  flint  sniiir  i/ni/  i'ruits  couhl  be  |u-o(luced  in  abundance  thcic 
The  li'ocky  .Moiinlain  and  Pacific  States  had  scarcely  been  heard  of.  even  a-; 
Terriiiiries.  and  only  an  occasional  plantation  (d  vines  and  trees  arouml  mhiic 
mission  <tat  ion  cniild  be  found. 

Tiir.  A<;i;  of  TuirMi'ii. —  .\t  the  close  ol  the  < 'ivil  N^.'ar.  which  had  soiin'- 
whal  disii-acled  tlie  atteiilion  of  our  people  both  Niu'tli  and  South  ffdui  ilic 
progress  of  the  piMcefiil  arts,  there  was  a  great  exjiansion  (d'  (air  rural  p"i  ii- 
lati'iii.  'i'he  lo\('  id'  travel  had  taken  possession  id'  many  who  had  bed'  la 
the  armies.  They  were  im  lunger  cimlcnt  witii  Llie  nai'row  boundaries  and 
the  poor  lands  of  the  old   lOastern  farms.     They  wanted  new  helds  ioril-a 


11  our  own  ^(1 


i;ul  ill  tlii'iii  1 1 
lias  rcvdliitiii 


r  victdlU'S  wr 


iiatiiiii  1)11  I'iirlh 
luatic  coiKlitidiis 


owcrs  who  livr.i 
11  lyiii.u'  Itctwfrii 
ikHiil;'  iroiii   iIm' 


rct'iiUv  sclcrlnl 


)il  of  tlic  lie 


(IcVtMOlHMt     llllu 

in  soiiK!  <';:m'^. 

)f    tllC    ('(llllll  i\ . 


riiitfd  Stal.> 


Iht  woiiilfiiiil 


if  almost  uii|i:ii 


'cs  aroiiiiii  Miiiii 


our  rural 


houiHlarU's  ;i! 


P(.'ll  \  M    I      I  KIJ-..     !■  \;.\l     Ul   Mil,     KIiA. 


,i.ii 


U4 


s  .si 


til 


i  . 


[i\  V: 


•  1  li'li 


J 


t  m 


r; 


m 


m. 


■  "I 

m 

;'!'4  i 

i 

i 

li 


'i!   ( 


'I'  '    < 


'■V 


il,i 


lit 


1    :>ii 


"I 


^1^ 


I'l     'i 


474         TRIUMI'IIS   AM)    WOMH-HiS   OF   THh:   MS'"   CEM'VHY 

«'ii('r,L,'i<'s.     Tlir  Imildiii.t,'  nl'  ilii'  i^n-iit   rinliiiiid   systi'iiis  nvmss  ( lir  ('(Hit  inci. 
;im1  llu'  (|Ucstioii  dl'  (lie  srl I li'inriit   (if  Ilii-  "  l'"iir  Wt'st,"  mid   tlic  iii\  llnr.i 


Ai 


lUTicaii 


I  >i'S('rl  "   lli;d  WHS  .sU|i|Mi,'>('d    to   lir  tlii->  side  ol    il.      'I'Ih'  | 


ir;nri> 


Wfi'i' covered  willi  lioiiirste.ideis'  slianlies,  snd  limiscs,  ;iiid  '•  diii;  nuts.""     T 
forests  of   Mieln,L;iiii,  Wisconsin,    Minnesotii.  M  issouii.  ;ind  Aii<;iMsiis    fell    1 


fore  llic  iixe  ol'  llie  pioneer. 


r 


liovs  in   I'llue"  wlio  liiiil  seen  tile  niilni 


iidviinliiLics  id'  tlie  Soullieni   Stiiles.  wliile  tiiere  on  the  dreiid  errnnd  (d'  \v;ii 
lieL;iin  llie  i'eii;iliilit;it  ion  (d    the  country  they  liiid  hclpeil  to  de\;istide.      'I'lic 


t('oi<  w  It  h   tlieni  their 


\mV 


ee   notions    Hill 


W 


eslelll    Villi,  mill    III 


lilt 


I'll    mil II \ 


kinds  id'  fimn  crops,  trees,  vines,  and  iierrv  Imslies  ii|ion  tlie  old  |(laiilat  imi 
wliere  little  else  than  cotton  and  toliaeco  used  to  orow.  I'dorida  was  veii 
talily  turned  into  a  t;ardcii  of  oran.i^e  trees  and  truck  patches.  The  clmcolai'' 
liills  and  rich  iilack  lands  id'  Texas  were  |danleil  to  i^iapcs,  peaches.  :iihI 
berries.  The  dry  ]plains  and  mesas  of  the  IJocky  Mnuntain  ret^ion.  Ili.il 
were  naturally  almost  devoid  of  vei^ct at  ion,  wore  irre^atcd  and  made  to  pi.i. 
duee  the  most   deli.nhllul    I'rnits  in  aliiiiulance.     'I'lie  ijianl   forests  of  t  tieL;on 


iiiii 


I  \\'asliiiiL;toii  wer(>  invaded  li\  the  liimliernnin  and  the  home 


'I',  anil  ;ii 


llicir  stead  were   phiiiled  trees  which  yielded  the  lar:.^i'st   •     d    iie:.i  of  IruiU. 
And  California.  —  what   shall   we  sav  id'  her  wnnderfnl   va  ;cvs.  <rrassv  fool 


In 


anil 


timliered    mount 


III!   sloncs 


All   of  the   i'rnits  of  Mie  lemiieiali 


/.ones  are  ;4rowiii!;  theie.  and  in  some  places  (he  iiardier  id'  the  frojiical  k 


mil 


.SUCt'CCl 


1.     Calif 


(irnia  is  imleeii  a  laml  oi 


^l•nit^ 


Takiinr  the   wliole   of   North    .\mc 


rica. 


exceiif,   the    I'ro/cn    rc'dons  id    Ih 


llritish  possessions,  and  ,\laska.  where  few  cidtivatcd  fruits  can  lie  f,'rou  n  ; 
and  liall'-civili/.ed  Mexico,  where  pnv^rcss  is  scarcely  known;  the  last  tliiii\ 
live  years  liave  witnessed  such  advancements  in  fruit  culture  as  seem  alnmsl 
lieyond  belief.  It  has  truly  been  an  a.i^e  of  lriiim|ili.  Not  only  has  the  tern 
tory  of  its  .successful  culture  been  woiidcrfnlly  extended,  butr  the  whole  plan 
and  science,  of  frnil-!.:iowiui;'  has  lieeii  almost  revolut  inni/ed.  Old  lliin^s 
have  lar,!:,ndy  passed  away.     >;ew  varieties,  new   methods  of  culture  and  inw 


ma 


rkets   fiu'thi'  products  of  the  fruit    farm   iiave  been   found.     Some  of  tl 


old  varieties  liave  been  retained,  but  many  new  ones  have  lieeu  orii^dnatrii 
here;  some  liy  cliance  and  others  by  scientitic  brccdin;^.  N'aliialile  kiiul- 
that  Iiad  loui,'  been  lyiui;  in  oliscurity  liiive  been  bron^dit.  into  pidilic  favm. 
Others  have  been  imported  from  l'oreit;n  countries.  .\Imost  the  entire  woiM 
lias  been  ransacked  in  order  to  obtain  fruits  tliiit  mi,i,dit  prove  of  value  to  us. 

.\t  the  bet;inuin;j;  of  this  period  of  unpar;illeled  progress  (he  expcrimenls 
<d'  former  years  luiil  shown  the  success  or  failure  of  tlie  different  sjiecies  ami 
variotios  ;ilreaily  in  cultivation  in  many  ])arts  of  the  country;  and  now.  at 
its  clos(\  lifter  nearly  forty  years  more  of  experience,  there  is  scarcely  a  sir 
tioii  within  the  entire  domaiii  of  Noi'th  American  I'lnit  culture  wiiere  it  is 
not  quite  well  known  what  is  juid  what  is  not  adajited  to  each  locality. 

The  methods  of  culture  are  (diaiigcd  from  the  old  ones,  wdiich  were  largely 
those  practiced  in  Europe,  to  siudi  ;is  have  been  evolved  liy  the  peciiliii 
necessities  of  our  siul.  (diniate,  and  varieties.     'I'his  is  esjteciiilly  true  of  mi 

ope,  wliere  the  foreign  grapes  siiccecil. 


vinevards;   for,  excei)(:  on  the  I'acitie  si 


our  native  vines  reipiire  nuudi  less  severe  pruning,  and  ti  muidi  more  romi 
trellis  upon  whiidi  to  grow  than  those  old  kinds.  The  lirst  vineyards  wi  ■ 
planted  very  thickly  anil  trained  by  the  stake  method,  which  is  the  l'"retii 


"i^\*  1^' 


^  H\ 


rruiiv 


THE   CKMIItY'S   I'llixiltESS    IN   I'ltini'   CUl.TriiE 


17" 


llu'   I'dlll  ilHM 

I  till'  invlliir.i 

Till'  |iriiiri' 

lH'Ollls."         'I'll' 

iiiiisas   Icll    Ih 

CM  till'  lllll  Mini 
t'l'I'IIMll   III'   W.ll. 

;iistiiti'.  'I'Im-. 
|il;nilril   Miiiii\ 

•  III  |il;iiil;il  inii 
iriilii  \\iis  \i'i  1 
Tlir  ('lln('(i|;il.' 

,    |irili'l|rs.    :ilii| 

II  ri'LjiiiM,    lli.ii 

I    Mlinli'  In  |<i<>- 

•I'.sts   III'  (  h  ri;M|l 

rsi''  '1',  iiMiJ  ill 
Mr::l   of  Iriills. 

■s.  f,q'iissy  I'liiil 
llir    ti'ni|prr;ilr 

'  trii|iir;il  kimis 

I'CLjiiiMS    dl'    Ilir 

r;iM    111'  Ljiiiw  II  ; 
llic  l:ist  lliirl\ 
IS  serin  iilninsl 
V  liiis  till'  li'iii 

ir  wlinic  |il:in 
Old   tlmi:;.s 

tiirc  :iMil  inu 

SuMIC    111'    till' 
CM    (iril^MMIltrii 

iliuililr    kiMils 

jlMlllic   I'llVnl. 

'  rutin'  wiirlil 
r  viiliir  1(1  ii>. 
I'  ('X|M'iiiiiriil^ 
it  sprcirs  ;iiii| 
;  llMil  MOW.  :il 
si'iU'ci'ly  .'I  M  T 
ire  wlii'iT  it  IS 
(K'lility. 

I  wi'iT  hr^cly 

V    till'     |il'('llll.il 

y  triir  (il    mil 
r;i|irs  suri'i'ril. 

II  Mlliri'  I'linlliV 

incyarils  wnr 

is    tllC    I'"!!'!!'   ll 


.1     I   (iiTMiMM   styli'.      I    ii'MH'Milirr   \vi uk ill;.;    ill   siii'li    viiii'yiHiis   Just    [irinr   tu 
I    .It.  aiiil  III  sri'iiiL;   till'  ilwarliiiL,'  ainl   ilw  nnlliir^  I'ltrrt  ii|mim  tin'  vinrs.      Nn- 


t     II'.;- 


\\    till'     killil     is    IliiW   scrll    tllissiijr     till'    Iv'nrkv     MnlllllaiMs,   lircailsi'    IMH' 


iraii  ,L;ra|ir 


ill  Mill,  riiililli'  Midi  t  iral  liii'lil  aiiil  rnnlllinc  til  lii'al'  wril. 


'  liirsi' riilliiri'  lias  in  a  uri'al  iiirasmi'  siirrrnli'i!  Iiaml  riiitiirc,  Willimil 
h  a  (■liaiiL;!'  it  wmilil  lir  iiii|"'ssililr  tu  |priiiilali|\  riilti\ali'  tlir  va.-^t  stirtrlics 
.'irli.inls,  viiiryinls,  ainl  |prrr\ -tirlds  tlial    air  In  das    runiid    iii    many  parts 


Mill  ry.      Till'   I'liMiiiiiiM    {ijiiw   and    lia  v 


I  hi'    I'll 

iilalilr    tliirt\'    iir    I'nrI  v    M'ars   w'u. 


TIli'N 


riiw    wi'ic    alinill    tlir   iilily    lnnls 
III'    linw     .-ai|i{i|rllirilli'd.    a  Mil    ill 


II'  I'asi's  s 


ii|ii'i'Sriiril.    iiv    varimis    kinds    id    rnli  i\  alms,    wrrdrrs,   and    iiii- 


.\iil    iijiiws  aiiil    liaii'iiws. 


Tlii'V  ail'  niadi'  li 


aiTN   I'lil  111.    niiidcrii  n 


Ira  i,\ 


I  ii'MiK'iil.  lint,  slialliiw  si  iriiiiL;  id'  tin'   snil.      Tins   iiii'llnid   id   mllnri'  disliirii 


['..'■  rill 


its   lllll    lillli'   and    ri'laiiis    tlir    iimisliiri 


ill    till'    siiil,    l>\    k 


ri'liiiii;    till' 


M,i  lai'i'  iiiH'ly  |inl\ri'i/i'il.  thus  riii'iniii.n' a"  dnsl  iiinlrli."'  Smni' ul'  llirs"  tnnls 
air  >ii  Ilia  ill'  as  tu  rnalilr  oni'  iiiaii  wil  li  (Hir  •liiirsi'  In  rasily  I'lill  i\ali'  I  wi'iily- 
lurarirs  |pi'r  day,  and  with    a    twn  nr  tlini'   Ikh'm'   iiii|ilriiirnt:,  In  llinimij^^lily 


il\i'ii/i'  till'  sMi'larr  nvrr  li  1 1  \  nr  innii'  ai'i'i's  in  tlial.  tiiii 


'!' 


'Mdt'nr\'    dnriii''   tlir    last,    hall    I'l'iiliii'V    has    liri'ii    Inwards 


Ill-ad 


I  III' 


iii'liai'd    t rrrs    Inwrr. 


r 


11'    lllll     SI  VII 


Ivl. 


was   t 


n    havi'    tlli'Ml     wi 


Ih    ti'iiiiks  sn  t.all 


llial  a  linrsi'  I'niild  walk  iiiidrr  llir  lii-anrlii'>.  i,nw  lirads  havr  llir  advaiitaijii 
111  ;_;iviii,L;'  llir  winds  h'ss  imri'liasr  n|inii  tJir  rnnls,  llir  Iriiil.  is  iiinrr,  ra.-iily 
^alhi'i'i'd,  and  tlir  siiii  is  Irss  likrly  tn  srald  llir  ti'iink^. 

'riir  nil!  iilra.  id'  niir  Inrrratlirrs  was,  thai  appirs  wnr  rhirlly  t-n  III'  Msi'd  Inr 
iiiakini;  cidrr.  prarlirs  Inr  lirandy,  and  ;-;ra|ii's  Inr  wiiir.  \\  r  havr  lirrnnir  ii 
iialiiiii  of  I'riiit-ratrrs,  as  riiiiiparrd  wilii  nnr  pii'i|rrr>sni's  and  tlir  I'airnpraiis. 
Tlir  ;.,Mrati'st  iiMprtais  rvrr  i^ivni  In  Aiiirriran  liiiit,  riillnrr  raiiir  Irnni  tin; 
iiirirasi'd  di'iiiaiid  in  niir  nwii  rniinli'V  Inr  i'ii';^li  fniil,.  It,  is  a  slapir  artirlr  nf 
ilii'l  lirir,  ratlirr  than  ;i  luxury,  as  it,  is  in  iimst,  parts  id  I'airnpr.  Nrarly  all 
III  iilir  fresh  irilits  air  enlisilliird  in  the,  hnmrs  nf  nnr  prnpir,  nr  I'Xpni'lrd. 
A  very  littlr  is  iiiade  into  cidrr,  lirandy,  nr  winr.  and  tlir  lar;4ri'  pari  nf 
Ilir  rciiiaindcr  is  dried  or  canned.  Tli(3  ]>i'npnrt,inii  nf  i^'iapes  inade  intn  wine 
east  nf  Calilnrnia.  is  trilliie.,'.  while  there  it  is  ennsideralile.  The  enorinnii.s 
priiiliiel  ion  and  cniisiiiii|itinii  i^\  berries  ni'  varimis  kinds  hy  the  Anieiiea.iis  is 
iiiiparalleleil  in  the  histnry  nf  t,hi'  worhl ;  and  nearly  all  of  this  has  come 
lliiiiiit;h  the  developiiii'iit:  of  our  wild  lierrie,-,. 

Iiislead  of  liiiyiiiL;  lar.iL;el\  of  fnrei^'ii  fruits  and  I  heir  prndncts.  excejit  siidi 
;is  are  sfrictly  t.rn|iieal  and  caiiiint,  lie  '.;rnwii  uilhiii  mir  linrders  mily  in  a 
liiiiiti'd  way.  we  have  nearly  sinppeil  their  inipnrtal  inn.  ,'iiid  have,  in  turn, 
hi'cniiic  expnrtrrs.  The  rapid  increase  in  nnr  pnpnlal  inn  drniaiids  ninrr' and 
iiinrr  fruit,  and  it,  is  iint.  tn  hr  wmidrrrd  al  Ihat  niir  iinpnrts  nf  nr.'iiiLjrs  and 
leiiiiiiis  is  iiicreasiii.i,' ;  liiil,  if  il  was  nnt  inr  nnr  hnnie  prndnclinn  of  these 
fruits  the  prcseiil  ainmint  would  lie  iiinrr  than  dniiWlrd.  (>iir  raisins  jind 
drii'd  pruiirs  havr  alinnst,  drivni  niil  ihr  fniri^n  prodiiel-;.  and  their  ipialiiy 
is  sn  ^'iiod  that,  t  lirrr  is  a  L;rn\\  ini,'  drinand  fnr  thrin  in  l'ai,i,danfl  and  sniiie 
iitlier  I'nrei^ii  eniiiitries.  The  same  i>  true  nf  our  caniinl  and  prrserved  fruits, 
'llir  apples  liriie^  the  hii^diest  price  id  any  that  reach  the  markets  of  I'airope, 
and  the  ili'inaiid  fnr  Iheiii  i--  iiicrca^iii'^.  I''ii'-^h  pears  and  peaches  have  al-n 
hicn -cut  tn  l'',ii'.,daiid  ill  liniiled  ipiaiititic^  frniu  as  far  west,  as  ( 'alilnriiia  and 
« 'ii'i^'iiii.    ( )ur  nraii^'i's  also  have  an  enviable  I'eputalioii  tlieru  becaiiso  of  their 


in! 


I,;:,l 


im 


:t\ 


iiji 

If   ! 


VM 


m  m 


:y  ^iii 


'm^ 


w^: 


ir 


^Ui 


470       Tiur.Mriis  .\.\i)  ]V().\i)i:i!s  or  iiif.  a/.v"  cestihy 

licautv   mill    (IcliciiMis   lliixur.      (Mir  ;i|i|ili's  arc  sent    tn    Mi'mch.   ('Iiina.   :ii,,i 
fla|iiiii.    'I'lic  St  reel  \ ciiilcrs  of  r.oiuliav.  India,  en  t  heir  salr  w  iili  Ljical  1411-1. 
'•  Aiiii'rican  aiijilfs  I  true  Aiiii'tican  iiiiplcs  I  "  and  sell  lliriiiat  a  [irici'  win.   1 
uniild  riMniiri'  nii>ri'  than  a   w  linlr  day's  wa^cs  (d'  a  'Jitn»\  wnrknian  tn  Inn  ,1 
siii'-;lt'  (Hif. 

'I'lic  world  is  licL;inninLr  to  liiiow  llii'  vahu'  and  ,L;oodni'ss  id'  onr  I'niils.  \\  ,■ 
WW  sidiiiii;'.  inside  llicir  dainty  sUiiis,  a  |iorlion  id'  our  siinslniic  and  wad  1; 
J'or  tilt'  ^(dilcn,  pink,  and  rrimsoii  tints  an'  Ironi  tlir  ^lowin-'  sun.  and  tin' 
watiT.  wliiidi  is  liic  main  pai't  id  all  Iriiits.  is  irrsh  JVoni  natnic's  ioiinlain. 

(InnwTii  III'  AiTi.K  Ci  i.ii  i;r..  —  l''riini  llic  lirst  srtt  Iniicnl  id  tlirroniilr\ 
wrll  into  till'  |iri'si'iit  I'riitury.  t  lir  |iriiiid]ial  |iur|iosi'  lorwliirli  aiiplrs  \\ii,. 
cullivatcd  in  Aiiii'iira  was  to  niaki'  ridiT.  This  was  a  roiiiiiion  lir\i'ra'_;c  in 
l''n,i;land  and  on  tiir  I'onliiiriil  of  I'lnriipi'.  wlimci'  our  forrfallins  lamr. 
Ilrrc  ilii'y  inl  rodiiri'd  t  lir  (  Md  W  oiid  rnstoiu  of  drink  inn  hard  iddr  r  '•  111  ..  ,1 
son  ;ind  out  of  srasoii.""  In  1  7L't.  in  onr  ••  town  '"  nrar  l'>oslon,  w lir n a  11  li\  cij 
aliont  torty  faniilirs.  tlii'ir  wno  niadr  in  onr  yrar  llirrr  thousand  liarirl  -  o| 
cidrr.  and  in  auotluT  of  two  hnndrrd  familirs.  nrar  ti'ii  thousand  harnU. 
'I'liis  is  lifty  liaii'ids  to  tin'  family,  whii'li  sri'ins  aiii|ili'  for  a  .nrrat  ni,iii\ 
drinks  \\vy  day  lor  rarli  prison,  with  |(lrnty  h'it  to  sell  to  ihr  iddrr  lo\  in  ; 
citi/rus  of  lioston.  ('olomd  .lohn  'I'aylor  of  N'irninia  wrote,  in  1S|.'!,  niarh 
one  hundred  years  laier:  ■' The  ap]ile  will  furnish  some  food  for  1iol;s,  a 
luxury  for  the  family  in  winter,  and  a  healthy  liipmr  for  the  iarmer  and  lii> 
laliorers  all  the  year." 

r>ut  liard  I'iiloi'  did  not  always  satisfy.  ••  A|ipli'iaek."  w  hieh  is  the  stmir,; 
est,  kind  of  luandy.  suited  the  taste  of  many  of  the  old-fashioned  folk  nnirli 
Itefter.  The  N'ii'^inia  Ljcntleimni.  the  hidrh  Inir^her.  whose  .ample  arns 
fronted  upon  the  llinlsoii.  the  solemn  I'liiladeljihia  (>nak('r  and  the  si.nd 
I'uritan  id    Xew  i'lneland.  all  loved  their  dram  ami  took  it  frei|nenlly. 

lu'sides  aleohojie  liquors.  vini'.i;'ar  was  made  in  eonsider.alde  ipiantit  ii's. 
T.ut  as  late  as  the  middle  id'  this  century  there  was  scarcely  ,a  n'ood  faiinl) 
ajiidc  orchard  fo  lie  found,  such  as  we  now  have,  with  varieties  arran^^cj  lo 
ripen  from  early  to  late.  Nui'  were  there  many  connuercial  orchacds  id'  coii- 
scipicnce.  The  i'aiiioiis  oi'chard  of  iJolicrl  \..  I'ell.  in  I'lster  ( 'onnty.  Ni  \ 
^'ork.  was  a  reniarkalile  cxci'iition.  It  consisted  of  L*(».()00  trees,  all  ol  iIm' 
bellow  and  (irecn  Newtown  apples.  I'"rnit  from  this  orchard  sold  .at  uli'ile- 
sale  in  London.  I'an;lanil.  in  iNI,").  at  the  enormous  price  of  Si'l.tM)  pe"  hunrj, 
Imt  the  next  ycirthe  price  had  fallen  to  .S<1."(»  in  New  ^■o|■kcity.  rcadv  Im- 
foici,L;n  shipment.  This  (U'chanl  i^radnally  fell  into  deeay.  and  w,as  imt  -..nn 
followed  hy  others  of  so  larp'  acrca.L;'c.  The  Newtown  apple  proved  unsiiilaMi' 
for  i^'cm^ral  cnltnre.  ami  is  miw  L^a'own  only  in  two  localities  with  miicli  -ur- 
cess.  In  the  mountain  "  coves."  or  sheltered  slopes  and  \allcys.  of  lie  I'.'ii'' 
Kid;.;'!',  in  \'ir,L;ini;i  and  North  ('amlina.  where  it  is  called  ••  .Mliemarle  I'lii- 
]iin."  there  are  many  orchards  that  proiluce  as  line  IViiit  ,as  any  from  liir  I'.  II 
orchard,  and  it  now  sells  Iroiii  .'-^."•.(hi  to  .S  IL'.'MI  and  more  per  harnd  in  lvi'4- 
land.  In  the  liiuher  foothills  of  California  and  ( )ren'on  this  variety  il'i''- 
equally  well,  and  apples  from  there  are  liciic^'  sold  in  Ijii^iand  diiriiiu'  1 'li-^ 
olosin'4'  |ieriod  of  the  reiitnry  at  almost  faliuloiis  prices. 

Ill  the  old  (lays,  if  an  orchanl  furnished  an  alnindam f  ajiples  for  cii''  \\ 

branil\.  viiieL;ar.  apple  Imtter.  some  for  dryiic^-.  and  a  few  of  fair  quality  iiit 
would  keep  for  winter  use.  it  was  all  that  was  expected. 


'•;A'777.')- 


\  it  li  ;^i('al  ,i4ii>i' 
;il  ;i  jirirc  win,    , 
irkiiiiiii  III  Inn  .1 

(lur  Iruils.  W  ,■ 
^liiiir  mill  Will '  I  : 
iiii;'  sun,  iiiiij  1 1,'' 
lire's  i'liiiiiliiiii. 
I  III  1 1ll'  rnillil  I  \ 
lirll  il|i|ilt'S  \\i  I.' 
Illiili  lirvrr;i;^r  111 
iirrl'iithrrs  (Miiir. 
I'll  fidrr  ••  III  N.  ,1 
III.  wlinriii  li\  I'll 
Misaiiil  liiirirl .  Ill 
linusaiiil  liarnU. 
ir  a    ni'i'al    iii:iii\ 

t  lir  cider  lii\  III  ; 
I',  ill  ISI.'!.  luMilv 
i'ddil  I'or  1i(il;>.  a 
e  iiiriiiiir  ami   iii,^ 

ieli  is  tlie  st  rnii,; 
llinlieil    liilk   niili'li 
use    aillple    arii's 
T  and    llie   si, ml 
ei|ueiitly. 
alile  iiiiaiilil  jr., 
V  a   n'lind  laiiiiK 
lies  arraie^V'i  In 
ireliards  nl'   r. 'li- 
ter   (  'dlllll  V,     Nl    A 

rees.  all  III    I  III' 

d  scild  111  wli'ili'- 

L'l.OO  |.i"'  liari'l 

\  eily.  re,ii|\    Im- 

lid   was  lint   .-""ii 

iiveij  iiiiMiilaMi' 

wit  li  iiiiii'!i  -iic- 

\s.  <ir  the  !'.'•"■ 

All.eiiiarle    l':i'- 

\y  rrmn  1  im  I''  \l 

r  liari'i'l  in  1'.':^- 

lis    \arii'ty   d""-- 

and  diiiiii'-;'  1 '    - 


ajiples  lor  em 
lair  (iiiality  1 


lift 


•178 


TlUUMl'llS  AM)    WOMU'IRS    OF   THE   XIX'"  (EXTUnY 


Most   (if  tlic  trees  in  tlr^sc  old  oicliards  w 


(■re 


iiilcrior  scf(lliiii;s,  and  il 


nit  woiidi'i'  lliat  the  iii'oiili-  (if  tliosc  days  diil  imt  use  aiiplcs  as  we  dn.  A  | 
(if  tlii'in  wcic  very  j^diid,  and  it  is  I'lnin  siicli  cliaiicc  tuNoritcs  tlial-  wt?  ii; 
)ircsiTV('d  to  us,  by  j^ial'lin^'.  tlic  lialdwiii  \\iiit'Sii|i  and  hundri'ds  niorc  tiiat 
our  oi'(diards  t(i-da\ 


W 


liavc  d('Vi'lo]i('d  a  new  raee  o 


r  Ai 


uencaii  secdiii 


Most  oi    till' old  xarieties  tiiat  were  so  liigidy  esteemed  across  llie  ocean 
now  rarely  mentioned.     Our  newer  and  better  kinds  have  lari^'cly  suiiplan 


liem. 


As  time  advanced  more  elioitu^  varieties  wert;  added,  nut 


II  we  mav  \\"-\ 


s  eairii 


coidideiitly  boast  (d'  liavinj,'  the  best  apples  in  existenct'.     Whoever  ha 
our  delicious  (irimes  (ioltlen,  .l(jnatlian,  and  Northern  Sjiy,  need  not  look 


better  kinds,  because  they  cannot  now  be  found.  Indci'd.  the  name  ''Sci  u- 
no-farther  "  has  been  triumiihantly  applied  to  one  variety.  However,  wc  .in. 
still  seekinj;-  and  expecting'  to  produce  by  skillful  bret'din},s  if  not  to  IIihI, 
others  which  may  lie  even  better  than  those  we  now  [lossess. 

A  history  of  the  recognized  and  name(l  varieties  of  ;i]iples  of  .\merir;m 
origin  would  be  a  book  in  itself,  it  should  bi'gin  almost  with  tin-  tirst  sctilr- 
nient  of  the  country.  .\t  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  Karly  llarvi^i^ 
llaldwin,  Swaar.  Ksopus  Sjiit/enberg,  Khode  Island  (ireening,  \'ellow  I'h  iU 
flower,  and  a  few  others  whicdi  are  yet  popular,  were  already  grafted  into 
hundreds  of  orchards,  sonn^  of  them  being  as  far  west  as  the  .Mississippi 
liiver.  William  Coxe,  in  his  excellent  book  on  friuts,  piddished  in  1!S17,  nun 
tions  l(H>  kinds.  William  Prince,  of  liong  Island,  who  ke[it  the  tirst  luirsciy 
of  note,  had  11('>  varieties  of  aitjdes  in  his  puldished  list  in  l<Sl,'r),  of  wlmli 
about  half  were  of  American  origin.  Xow  there  are  nearly  10(10  kinds  olTeivil 
by  the  nnrserynnui  of  the  country,  and  the  books  on  pomology  contain  nearly 
5(100  varieties,  a  large  part  of  them  being  Amt'rican.     Truly  this  is  pmgrcss. 

We  have  the  best  and  Iiy  far  the  most  extensive  apple  country  in  tlie 
world.  The  largest  apple  ondiards  in  the  world  are  in  America.  The  biggc-'fc 
of  all  belongs  to  V.  Wellhouse  i^  Son,  of  Kansas,  in  wliich  tiiere  are  ICiOd 
acres.  There  are  others  iii  Missouri,  Illinois,  Iowa,  ('olor.ido,  and  New  .Mex- 
ico that  are  nearly  us  large. 

The  variety  principally  grown  in  these  orchards  is  the  Tx-n  Davis.  It  is 
a  thrifty,  ruggi'd  grower,  a  most  produetivt;  bearer,  and  a  handsome  appli; 
to  s(dl.  Its  brilliant  red  stripes,  large  si/e.  and  ability  to  keeji.  make  np  lor 
its  deti(dencv  in  flavor.  It  is,  to-day.  the  business  apph;  of  .Vmerica.  r.iiM- 
win  is  the  business  ajiple  of  the    Hastern   States,     lloth  these  varieties  ;iiv 


11  known  in  every  market  of  this  country,  and  wherever  our  apph 


W( 


exporte 


The  tirst  government  iccord  of  exported  apples  was  in  ISL'I,  when  •■(iS.dl.'l 
bushels."  or  about  L'L'.TM  barrels  of  a]i]iles.  were  sent  abroail.  In  ISDT  tlinv 
were  2..'>71.1  l.'!  barrels  exported.  whi(di    is  tin*  largest  (piantity  ever  shippiil 


to    foi'cign  countries   in    one  \('ar. 


Ourni 


g  tl 


M>  same  vear 


tl 


ier(>  were 


exported  nearly  ."1.000.000  pounds  of  dried  apples,  '.(4,000  gidlons  of  vineuif, 
and  7.")0.(HI0  gallons  of  eider.  Certainly  this  is  ;i  good  showing  for  the  mii- 
plus  jirodiu'ts  of  .Vmei'ican  ajiple  orchards.  The  year  1.S9S  gave  a  ligli;i  r 
yield,  but  ISil'.l  will.  ]iei'haps.  about  e(pial  it. 

Till'",  1'kai!. —  Whoever  has  eaten  a  delicious  little  Seckel  ]iear  must  kiinw 
that  its  (Mpial  in  richness  and  spicy  Havor  is  not  to  be  found.  This  little  ^i  lu 
is  one  of  the  triumphs  of  American  fruit  culture.      How   far   beyond  ;i:i'l 


KSTUllY 


Til/':  cENTUiiY's  rnoaiiEss  in  fiiiit  cultuue 


179 


;  .ivo  till'  old  "choke  ''  jM'iir  oi.'  our  viniiidtiitlicrs'  diiys  is  this  one,  ami  niiiiiy 
;  Mi'c  (d'  the  dclicnous  iicais  that  j^tow  in  oiir  nrchards  and  i^Miilciis  to-diiy  I 

I'cMr  ij;ro\viri,n'  was  oidy  a  side  issue  uuiil  lately.  A  lew  trees  were  phuited 
;  ,ait  our  I'ottd'athers'  iiouses  or  in  tiie  edLjc  of  the  apple  ondiards  ;  Imb 
I  ,-e  were  often  sprouts  Ironi  sduie  neij;hlMir"s  seeillin,^  trees.  As  thea|ipe- 
;,:r  lor  },M)(»d  iiuit  increased,  the  I'ldse  i(hM   tiiiit    pears  should  he  L,n'oniMl  ami 

I  .cssed  into  cider,  called  perry,  decreased,  until  now  no  one  tliinks  ol'  wast- 
i;i.r  this  delicious  tiMut  hy  makin.i;  it  into  an  iut(i.\icatin.n'  drink. 

I'he  llartlett  is  our  most  popular  jiear  of  },'oi)d  (piaiity.  It  ori,t;inated  in 
icrkshirc,  Knglaiid,  about  I77<».  where  it  was  called  Williams.  Wiieii 
l;i(.u<,dit  to  America  early  in  this  century  and  jilantcd  at  Dorchester,  .Mass., 
tlic  ori,!,dnal  name  was  lost,  and  it  was  renameil  in  honor  of  Kno(di  I'.artlett, 
V,  ho  tirst  propagated  and  distriliut.i'd  the  trees  and  grafts.  The  old  tree,  from 
',\hich  came  the  millions  that  have  heen  and  are  now  a  source  of  d<dight  and 
jinHt  to  our  people,  is  still  in  iiea.ring  condition  at  Dorchester,  ;ind  I  hav(! 
laiely  eaten  as  good  I'.arth'tt  pears  from  it  as  ever  were  grown.  TIk!  vaiiety 
tlourishe.s  better  in  America  than  in  its  old  home,  ami  eveiT  year  large  ship- 
iiirnts  of  the  Iruit  ai'c  si'id.  to  I'aigland  and  sold  at  a  very  high  price. 

Some  tifty  years  ago  there  were  brought  from  China  seeds  of  a  type  of  a 
pear  that  wa.s  entirely  new  to  this  country,  and  was  called  by  us  tlm  '•  Sjind "' 
]]rar.  Th(!  only  apparent  reason  for  giving  it  this  nann'  is,  that  it  is  gritty, 
hard,  and  little  better  to  eat  than  so  much  saml.  Ihit  tin;  seeds  nuide  trees 
that  grew  with  remarkable  vigor  and  were  mu(di  alike,  and  so  was  their 
fruit. 

j'^rom  this  stock  eanie  u]>  a  seedling  some  thirty  years  ago,  in  the  garden  (d" 
Tcter  Kieffer,  in  l*liihid(dphia,  that  has  almost  revolutioni/ed  pear  growing 
in  .\merica.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  a  cross  between  a  ('liiiies(,' 
Saml  pear-tree  ami  a  JJartlett  that  stood  near  each  other,  although  this  is 
lacre  su})])osition.  The  fruit  is  only  of  medium  (piality,  and  some  say  it  is 
very  poor;  but  it  is  large,  very  beautiful  when  fully  mature,  late  in  ripening, 
and  endures  rough  hainlling  with  as  little  harm  as  so  many  potatoes.  It  is 
very  ]io])ular  with  the  eanners.  Tlu-  greatest  point  in  its  favor  is  the  free- 
dom of  the  tree  from  blight,  its  vigor  and  almost  never-failing  and  abundant 
hearing.     It  is  the  business  ]iear  of  to-day,  despite  its  inferior  (juality. 

'riir;  ri;.\(ii.  —  When  the  ]ieach  was  tirst  plaiiti'd  in  Anieri<M.  by  the  Span- 
ish ami  French,  and  later  by  other  nationalities,  there  was  little  thought  of 
it  ever  becoming  a  great  commerci.al  fruit.  The  trees  that  sprang  from  tlu! 
seeds  brought  across  the  ocean  grew  so  luxuriantly  and  bore  so  abundantly 
that  their  progeny  was  soon  scattered  far  and  wide.  I'eaidi  trees  were  early 
I'liinid  growing  wild,  like  our  native  trees,  wherever  seeds  had  been  drop]ied 
by  travelers  or  hvniters.  There  was  no  attemjit  at  commercial  peach  orchanl- 
iiig  until  well  into  the  ]U'eseiit  century,  ami  bir  the  tirst  half  (d'  this  there, 
wiie  scarecdy  more  than  a  few  seedling  ondiards  ])lante(l  for  family  nse  or  lor 

II  aking  brandy.  In  some  sections  dried  ]ii'a(dies  were  an  artiide  of  trade 
iicfore  any  eoinniercial  jieacdi  (U'ldiards,  in  the  true  sense,  had  been  jilanted; 
lint  they  were  always  the  ]iroduct  of  womeiTs  work,  and  were  jirepared  under 
tlic  disadvantageous  eonditions  with  which  they  are  usually  hampered.  It  is 
iiii  wonder  that  the  grade  was  low,  for  the  iiea(dies  were  gi'iicrally  of  ]ioor 
quality,  and  no  other  mode  of  drying  was  then  known  than  on  boards  and 


\M 


[m 


W 


m 


480 


TRIUMl'ltS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


lil        i: 


Him 


I  '! 


wooden  tniys,  exposod  in  tlic  open  ;iir  to  Hies,  mollis,  and  dnst.  All  tliiit  \v;i 
sent  to  niiii'kt't  was  first  taken  in  ;it  the  stores  wiiere  the  eonntrv  peojile  ciuii 
to  trade,  and  it  was  u  mixed  mes-<,  indeed,  that  was  thns  colleeted.  Wha 
fresh  peacdies  were  sold  bronLfht  a  very  low  }iriee,  rarely  more  than  tweiilv 
live  cents  per  Wnshel. 

Karly  in  the  century  budded  peach-trees  were  almost  unknown  in  Ann'ricii 
A  lew  were  l)ronij;ht  over  from  France  and  the  fruit  houses  of  lOni^land.  all  e 
whicdi  did  very  well  here.     Jlowever.  it  was  soon  learned  that  tliei'c  wei. 
seedlings  of  Anu'ricaii   oriijin   tluit  were   e(pial   to  the   best  of  the   forei^;: 
kinds.     Anion;^  the   tirst  of  the.se  were  Heath,  Early  York.  Tillotson,  ano 
Oldmixon  Clinj,'  and  Free.     A  little  later,  two  lar.t,'*'  yellow  freestones  earn. 
u])  by  aeciident  on  the  premises  of  \\'illiam  Orawford,  of  Middletown,  >.'.  .1., 
one  ripen  in};  early  and  the  other  late.     Early  Crawford  and  Late  Crawfoiil 
are,  after  more  than  sixty  years  of  trial,  still  very  ])opular  upon  the  market-, 
Many  other  kinds,  (juce   poi)ular,  have   long  since  been   diseartied  and  bu- 
gotteu. 

Just  before  our  Civil  War  the  Hale  peaeli  was  discovered  and,  being  eailiri' 
than  any  kind  then  known,  it  became  very  iMjpular.  About  iSOr*.  the  .\ni- 
deu,  Alexander,  and  some  others  came  to  notice.  They  were  a  month  earliir 
than  the  Hale.  .V  ])ea(di.  called  i'een-to,  was  imported  fnuu  southern  Cliiii.i 
about  the  sanu^  time,  that  ',  ipcned  still  a  month  earlier;  but  as  it  belongr(l 
to  a  very  different  race  from  our  other  i)eaches,  and  was  exceedingly  tendii'. 
it  has  been  found  suitable  oidy  to  Florida  and  other  semitroi)ical  regions. 

The  most  poj)idar  peach  of  the  jjresent  day  is  the  Elberta.  It  was  origi- 
nated by  Sannud  H.  IkUmpli,  of  CJeorgia.  about  twenty  years  ago.  Jts  lar;4r 
size,  creamy,  yellow  color,  and  good  Havor,  added  to  its  productiveness,  make 
it  very  accei)table  to  both  grower  ami  consunu'r. 

The  most  extensive  peach  orchards  in  America  are  located  in  (ieor'^ia. 
North  Carolina.  Southern  .Missouri,  Western  Colorado,  and  California.  A 
few  are  eaidi  more  than  a  thousand  acres  in  extent. 

The  advent  of  patent  evaporating  machiiu's,  about  1S7(>,  aided  greatly  in 
the  production  of  high  grachf  dried  fruits  of  iill  kinds,  and  the  jjcatdi  shari  il 
in  the  progress.  California  an<l  Oregon  alone  shipped  in  a  single  recent  year 
nearly  K >,(>()(»,()()( I  pounds  of  dried  pea(dies.  The  jH'ach  is  canned  nuu'c  than 
any  other  fruit,  as  may  be  seen  upon  the  shelves  of  any  grocery  store,  or  in 
the  fruit  closets  of  tile  country  housewives.  Whether  eaten  fresh  from  tin' 
trees,  served  up  with  cream  and  sugar  (a  dainty  dish  unknown  in  Fhinipn. 
evaporated  or  canned,  the  peach  is  one  of  the  blessings  ol  our  great  count  r\. 

Tiir:  I'l.i'M. — Tlierci  are  three  general  classes  of  phims  grown  in  .\ini'iira 
to-day,  the  European,  American,  and  Jajianese.  iMiropean  plums  were  iuti"- 
duced  here  at  an  early  day,  but  were  grown  very  s]iaringly  until  within  tlic 
last  thirty  or  forty  years.  The  iiriiicijial  reason  for  this  is  the  ])reseiice  <i!  a 
dca<lly  enemy  to  the  plum,  ajirieot,  and  some  other  fruits,  commonly  known 
as  the  plum  cureulio.  It  is  a  littlr  enemy  but  a  mhjhfii  one;  for  it  depo.siN 
its  eggs  in  the  young  fruit,  and  they  soon  hatch  into  little  grubs  that  wmk 
their  way  into  the  fruit  and  cause  it  to  die  and  drop  oil'.  West  of  the  OoiMi- 
nental  divide  there  are  none  id'  these  insects.  There  the  soil,  climate,  ami 
all  else  seem  to  conspire  to  enable  the  ])lum-grower  to  ]iros])er.  (Jreat  juiinr 
orchards  are  planted  in  the  fertile  valleys  from   New  .Mexico  anil  Colora^i 


m 


;!li 


JTUllY 


THE  cEsrrn\'s  i^noanicss  l\  i'ju'it  culture 


181 


All  that  \v;i 
v\  pt'oidc  caiii 
Ik'cti'il.  Whii 
c!  than  t\vi'iit\ 

AMI  in  Anii'ric; 
Hnj^land,  all  c 
hat  then'  wci' 
t)t'  thu   turci-i 

Tillotson,  anu 
j'ct'stont'S  caiih 
Idh'town,  N.  .1.. 

Lato  Crawtdiil 
on  the  niarkt't-. 
•anli'd  ami  Im- 

1(1,  bi'inij:  carliir 
1S«M.  till'  Aiu~- 
a  month  I'arliir 
southoni  Chill. I 
it  as  it  l)L'h)n;4('l 
eeilingly  tt'iidn. 
ical  regions. 
I.  It  was  ori-i- 
;  a'j,-o.  Its  lai:4i' 
K'tivt'UL'ss.  iiiaki' 


It 


t'd  in  (iiMiV'^i;!. 
California.     A 


aidtnl  tjrratly  in 
w  i)t'acli  shai'  il 
nu'lo  ireiMit  vi'iir 
innod  niort'  thuii 
locrv  store,  or  in 
frt'sli  from  tin' 
)\\\\  in  Kuropii. 

j;n'at  poiiiit i\ . 
■own  in  Ainciii-a 
luiis  were  iiit)"- 
iiutil  within  tin' 
lie  prostMii'i'  (i!  a 
minionly  know  ii 
I'or  it  d('lio>il- 

rnbs  that  wmk 
est  of  the  Cori;- 
,oil.  (diniatc.  an.l 
cr.  (iri'at  yrnw 
it'o  and  Cok)ra'l" 


,  I'stward.  Sonit>  of  them  cover  tlionsands  of  ncrcs  in  a  liody,  ;iiid  the  yield 
i  iMiornions.  'I'he  raiidoss  autumns  of  California  permil  the  dryiiit;  of  tlie 
,riiit  in  tiie  open  air  and  in  the  most  eennondeal  ami  |ieileet  way.  From  an 
iiliint  industry  twenty  years  ii,i;-o  it  has  imw  .^rmwii  so  greiit,  that,  in  1S'.I7, 
(  alil'ornia  alone  produced  nearly '.».S,(i(l((.U( id  jKiuuds  of  dried  prunes.  Oreju'on. 
\.  ashinj^ton,  Idaho,  and  some  other  western  Slates  are  almost   ecjually  wtdl 

liled  to  this  industry. 

f'.ast  td'  the  Iiocky  Mountains  plum-^idwinij;  is  not  so  easy.  'I'he  enrinilio 
.images  all  (dasses  oi'  plums  to  some  I'Xtent.  hut  the  I'hiropean  kinds  seem 
i..  he  much  less  ahle  to  endure  its  attacks  than  any  other.  This  led  to  the 
rlection  and  cultivation  (d'  tiie  best  varieties  (d'  our  several  native  species. 
'I'lieir  fruit  is  not  so  large  or  so  riddy  flavored  as  somt>  (d'  the  foreign  kinds, 
I,  It  nuudi  (d'  it  is  very  good,  and  the  lnilliaut  red,  purple,  and  ytdlow  cohu'S 
are  greatly  admired.  The  .lajianese  jiliims  are  of  ipiite  recent  int  I'oductioii. 
Tli(^  heginniug  was  in  INTO,  when  the  Kelsey.  which  is  the  largest,  the  latest 
tu  rijien,  and  about  one  of  the  least  valuable  varieties  of  this  (dass  was 
hiiiught  to  California.  Later  importations  have  l)rought  us  manv  ver-  valu- 
iijile  kinds.  The  trees  bear  v>.  11,  the  fruit  is  mostly  large,  handsome,  of  good 
(|iiality,  and  resists  the  slings  of  the  ouroulio  (piite  as  well  as  our  nativ(> 
knids. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  lu'omising  stejis  in  plum-growing  is  onlv 
licginning  to  be  made,  in  the  crossing  of  the  three  classes  named.  The  most 
skillful  and  i)atient  worker  in  this  lield  is  Luther  ihirbank.  of  California, 
who  has  already  produiied,  by  artificially  ixdlenizing  the  flowers,  some  most 
csctdleiit  varieties.  Some  of  these  new  varieties  are  larger  than  any  iihims 
c\cr  l)eb)re  seen,  delicious  in  flavor,  and  blood-red  to  the  stoiu'. 

Tin;  Ciii:i!i;v.  —  Away  back  in  the  history  of  our  country,  idierry  trees 
were  planted  here  and  there,  but  only  for  family  use.  'I'he  list  (d'  varieties 
was  meagre.  .Most  <if  tlu'iii  were  sour,  bitter,  or  small.  .Now  we  have  hiin- 
dii'ds  of  named  varieties  and  of  all  grades  of  eohu'.  from  creamy  yellow  to 
hlack.  and  both  sweet  and  sour,  early  and  late. 

In  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  the  cherry  does  bettor  than  in  any 
of  the  regions  farther  Kast.  The  first  fdierries  of  the  season  to  ripen  an-  in 
the  famous  Vaca  Valley  of  California,  and  sometimes  shipments  from  there 
reach  New  York  as  early  as  .Vpril  1.  The  largest  cherry  trees  in  America 
arc  found  in  the  foot-hill  regions  of  rennsylvania  and  Viiginia.  Trees  arc; 
smnotimes  seen  there  that  have,  trunks  three  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  spread 
el  liramdies  of  more  than  fifty  feet.  Such  trees  .sometimes  yiidd  more  than 
tiity  bushels  of  fruit  at  a  time. 

TiiK  Ai'i.McoT.  —  All  over  the  Eastern  and  Central  States  the  apricot  is 
almost  an  entire  failure  because  of  the  ravages  of  the  jiluni  curculio.  After 
many  years  of  trial  its  culture  there  h:is  been  almost  abandoned,  except  by 
those  who  are  willing  to  follow  the  jarring  of  the  trees  to  eatcli  the  insects. 
Across  the  (Jontinental  divide,  where  this  enemy  does  not  exist,  the  aiiricot 
flourishes  as  well  cr  better  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  one  of 
the  jirofitable  fruits  from  western  Colorado  to  the  shores  (d'  the  racific. 
California  dried  and  sent  to  market  in  one  year  over  ,'!(t.(MH ».()()( I  pounds. 
Tiiere  is  also  a  great  amount  (d'  apricots  canned  there  every  year,  a  large 
part  (d'  wdiich  are  shi[iped  all  ovi'r  the  world. 


il 


W    1 


"  t  ■ 


t   I 


lP|;iii!      ; 


iF.r, 


I  •lliw 


•'',' 


!U1» 


•IH'J 


TiiirMi'Hs   i,\7»  11  cv />/•;/.' .s-  o/'  /•///■;   v/v"  <'i:.\ri  nv 


'I'm    i,*i  iMi  MlliiMi".li     -Kill    iiiiil    uiilil    Inr   I'liliiMt   liKin   llic   li;iiiil.   Ili 

i|lllllti'   IS  olir  111    ciiil    inn. I    ilcliricMI'i    hulls   \\  lit'll    I'nnKcil.       No     .lii|i>  ii|   suit: 
IIUMIs     is    Ciillllililr     «lllliilll     .1     V.rlirl    MIS    sn|i|il\     dl     i|lllll('i'     ji'llv.         Till-     till 
ili'ln^llls   III    ,1     ll|(i|-l     Mill    iiliil   ;i   I'linl    lull    iml    ■,c\i'|c'  (■illiillli',        I  |n\\c\  IT.   ll    M|, 

I Is\i'i\    well  ci\  ,1    I  lu'    |ii;ini    |i;ill    111     NiMlll    A  llli'l  lr;|.       Allllnsl    i'\i'l\    lli'lii 

|i|ii|      ll;ls    ;\    IliT    HI     IWii.         Ill     Woli'l'll     Nru      ^nll^     niilllV     ri  HII  lllt'l  i'mI    i|linh 
(•liiliirils   li;|\  1'    Ili'iMl     |il,IMlril    Wltlllll     lln'     I.I  -I     l\M'lll\    li  \  1'  _\  (M  IS,  Snilll'  ui     lllrlii 
lirlll;;  nl    Im  t  \    .irlrs    III  I'Strlll . 

.\\llllli   AN    (illM'i:    ('l    III    l.r.  Ill     llii   ili'|i;n  I  IIK'lll    nl     .\Mli'l'ir.'lll    |in|||i)|i»'\ 

li:is  I  hi'ii-  liri'ii  iiinrc  ri'iiiiiiKiililr  ;iil\  am  Tiiii'iil  lliati  in  ",ia|ir 'jinw  111;;.  ll  \\,i, 
llir  lirlli'l  nl  llinsi'  \\\\i\  lirsl  li(";all  In  ;^ln\\  Inills  lirrr,  llial  I  lir  ;;l  ,1 1  ii'S  i  .| 
Canaan.  I'l'lsia.  (  ill'iTi'.  ami  linllir.  W  lllrll  WrU'  lirnl|;;lil  ijnwn  I  lllnil;.',ll  III.' 
il;_;i's  tn  llii'  \  illi'V  aiils  nl'  I  111  nil '11 1  Murn|>r.  wnlllil  ;;rnv\  i'i|liall\  Wi'li  III  .\  IIU'I  Ir.i 
Mill'  i^lral  rrasnii  Inr  lliis  lii'lli'l  was  tin'  aiillllilaiirr  III  Willi  i<,ia|ir:.  nl'  |ii,ili\ 
Iviiiii--  llial   wriT  Ininiij    Irniii   Nn\a  Scnl  la  In   Ti'sas. 

Mill'  nl  ilir  lii-.i  ilmi;;.  I  III'  |iinii('i'rs  nl'  fi\  ili/al  Inn  iliij  in  Ni'W  l''ai';laiicl,  .il 
KiiaiinKi'  Islatiil.  an. I  al  .1  aiiK'stnw  ii.  was  In  iiiaKi'  wine  nl  ilir  iiaii\i'  ",ra|i.  . 
'I'lii'  S].,ini;ir(ls  in  |."i(il  alsn  niailr  w  inc  n|  i  Im  wild  ;;ia|M'snr  I'lnrida.  .\liii 
ti'sliii';  1 1ll'  w  inr  .Mill  limliii;;  il  inlri'inr  In  I  lial  {irniliiri'ii  in  I  lirir  iilijliniin  ., 
ll|i'\  Well'  ninii'  ilrli'lliiilli'il  In  ..;|iiw  \inr\ari^;  nl'  llii'  rliniri'sl  ^;ra|i('.  I'l 
l'aiin|ir.  'i'lii'  l^'ri'iicli  rslalili>lii'il  a  \ini'\aril  nl  lliis  Kiinl  in  \'iri;iiiia.  ainl 
.'iiinilu'r  in  -niiilicrn  lllinnis:  nini  Williaiii  I'l'iiii  liiil  Ilir  saiiii'  near  I'liiLi- 
ilrlpliia  III  lli.'^.'i.  Till'  must  iiiilalili'  alli'iiipl  llial  was  inaiir  was  li\  .Inlm 
.lanii's  Pulniir.  a  nali\i'  nl  Sw  ii/rrhiml.  lie  r;iiiii'  m  AmcriiM  in  IT'.Ml.  :iiii| 
al  niirr  si'l  almill  tinin;,;-  Ilir  w  isrsl  iIiiiil;-  tlial  lie  cniild  liavi'  dniii'.  Ii\  In  I 
\  i.sitiiii;  and  nil  icallx  rNaininiii;,;-  I  lie  \  ini'\  ards  I  lial  Inn  I  alrrady  iirrii  ,sl;irir.i. 
lie  was  lint   lavnialilv    iiii|irrssrd  1>\   w  lial   In'  saw,  inr  liic  l'!iiii'|ii'an  \  inrs  li.i.l 

dnili'   \i'IV    |innrl\,   iii'railsc  nl    sniiii'  nilKnuWIl   iliscasi'  nr  wi'aKlli'SS  llial   sri'l I 

tn  I 'an  SI'  t  111 'III  In  iiiaKi'  Inil  I'l'dili'  .^rnw  I  li.  nr  m'iidiially  dwindle  and  ilic  Tlir 
I'ausc  lias  sinci'  liccn  rniiiid  In  liavi'  liri-n  lln-  t'iin'_;ns  diseases  and  iiiseel  pr  i  ; 
that  ail'  in'i'iiliar  In  the  eastern  iiaii'  nl  .\inerii';i.  Hut  |)iil'nni'  llinii^jii  ili.. 
liulit  varieties  had  not.  lieeii  t  ried,  exeejit  a  lew  that  he  Iniind  near  riiiladrl 
|ihia.      I''riiiii    these   lie   seeiired   a   start,  and    in    I7'.)'.t  nrnani/ed   a.  stneU    emii 

iiaiix   with   ."^Iii.tMid   m   ea|'ital.  tn   piaiil    a\ine\;ird.  I  leiiry  ( 'lav  lieiii^;  ni I 

the  stnekhnldeis.  A  traet  nl'  ().'>.'»  aei'i's  was  seleeled  near  I.eNin'itnn.  K  \  , 
and  tliere  he  lie.4aii  work  in  the  nmsl  enthiisiastie  manner,  lie  imliieed  ivvn 
(i|  his  lirniiiers  In  rniiie  trniii  Swit/erhiiid  In  Jniii  liiin.  and  they  lii'iiiiL;ht  nllier 
xaiietii's  nl  llieir  liest  '4i-a|ii'S.  lint  alter  three  years'  tii.il  he  ',';i\e  il  ii{i  :is 
a  hn|ieless  ellnrt  ai;d  lllllied  his  atteiitinii  tn  the  ellll  i\al  inn  nl'  niii'  nall\r 
,U!-a|ies. 

The  ln"_:iiiii:iiL;  'ir  -iieeessl'iil  |j;ra|ie  enltiire  in  Aiiieriea  may  lie  said  In  h  im' 
lieeii  made  li\  i'al  uii.  in  his  next  or  seeniid  atleiii|il.  which  was  in  LSirj,  ..j 
\e\a\.  Iiid..  nil  the  liaiil\snt'  t  he  ( »hi().  aiid  willi  a  \arietyol'  Mie  wild  /''''<'< 
/ii/irif.srii,  i\v  I'ns  L;raiie,  t'niind  near  ihe  Sehiiylkill  lliver  liel'nie  tjie  |;e\iilii- 
tionary  War.  ll  was  ;it  lirst  ealled  Ihe  "('ajie"  L;iaiM',  i  mm  a  mislakiii 
nntinll  tliat  it  had  lieeli  hmil'^llt  Irnm  the  ( 'a|ie  nl'  (  innd  Hope.  ll  uas.il  'I 
known  liy  seveiai  nther  names.  .Mthnii'^h  this  ^rape  was  the  lirsl  nl'  ,i  m  r\ 
loii'^'  list  nl'  iiati\('  \arietiis  whieli  ha\e  made  oiir  eniiiil  ry  rainoiis  in  .^ri;.i' 
riiltiire.  il    has  Ioiil;-  .■^in^•l'  lieeii  eiilireiv  aliandoiied  lor  lietter  kinds.      Hut  i't 


1} 


•i:.\ri  I,') 

•  III  llir  IiiiimI,  III 
S 11  slot''  111  s\\  it: 
jrlls.      'rill'.    Iiii 

llllWl'M'l.    Il     Mil 

liiiii.l  t\rr\  limn 
niiiiiirrnal    i|iiiii'  ' 

;|1S,    Mlllll'   111      t  lull 
lirllcni     ImiIIIhIm'   ' 

'-'^niwiii;.;.  1 1  w  .1 
lull    I  111'  j;i;i|irs  1. 1 

liiWII  I  lll'nll,<;ll  III' 
\  U  I'll  III  A  llI'MIr,! 
1     ",  III  1 11':.    Ill     1 11.11 1  \ 

Nrw    l'',li';i;ilicl,  .il 

I  III'  IiiiMm'  ",I';i|i<    . 
il    l'"liiriil;i.       ,\  111  I 

II  I  lirir  nlil  llnlih  . 
•Iiiiii'i'.st  ^;i';i|ii'  .  I'l 
I  III  \'ii;4iiii,'i.  :iimI 
siiiiii'  iii'iir  I'liil.i 
inir  \v;is  li\  .lulm 
i'rir;i  III  IT'.Mi.  iihI 
i;i\  1'  ilmii',  li\  III  I 
raiiv  liri'll  .sliirlm 
iiri'|ir;iii  \  iiii's  ji.iil 

lii'ss  I  liiit.  sri'liii'il 
111' mill  ilK'.      III.' 

Illlii    ilisi'i'l    |ii'    1  : 
I'liiir  IIhiiil;IiI   iIh' 

111      lll'lll'    I'lllLllIrl 

/I'll    :i.   stiiri<    riiiii 

( 'l;iy  lii'iii;^'  111 I 

l,r\iiiL;liiii,  l\  \  , 
I  II-  illilllri'il  I  Wii 
irv  liriiiiL;lit  nl  Iht 
III'  ',','IVr  il  ll|i  :i-i 
nil   111'  iiiir  ii;ii  iM' 

V  111'  .'^iiiii  111  II  iM' 
WMs  ill  j.strj,  1 
(il    Mil'  Willi   /.■ '^ 

ll'l'     till'      JIl'M      ■ 

liniii  ;i  iiUNhil-'  'I 
iipr.  i  I  w  ;is  ;i!  ■■> 
II'  lirsl  III'  ;i  \  •  ■  1 
r;iiiiiius  ill  '^r  ■  '■ 
I'  kiiiils.      r.iil   '    ' 


hm 


il 


s,^ 


mm 

1  ■!'' 


■P 


1 

,■'4 

,;!i 

'         1 
J 

■It 

f 

'  '  'W 

;V'')  %v 

m 


1S!.  i 


i 


i , 


■181 


Tnir.Mrus  axd  uoyn/'jns  or  the  xixm  century 


vineyard  at  X'cvay.   iilaiiicd  lai'L^fly  oi'  this  vaiirty.  was  llii'  iirst  really  siir 
cessi'ul  uiie  in  Aiiicrica. 

Tlio  next  I'orward  step  was  the  introduction  ol'  the  Isabella  and  Catawba, 
both  having  (M'iginated  in  America,  not  lony  previous  to  ISL'O.  althou;^h  ol 
unknown  jiareniaye  ;  but.  perliaps.  as  the  results  ol'  accidental  erossiu;;-  be- 
tween our  native  wild  grapes  and  some  of  the  foreign  kinds.  The  lsabcll;i 
is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  South  Carolina,  and  was  brought  I'rom  there 
by  .Mrs.  Isabella  (iibbs  and  jilauted  in  her  garden  in  IW'ooklyu,  M.  V.,  where 
it  came  to  the  notiee  of  William  K.  I'riuce  in  ISlC).  when  in  lull  beariii;;. 
He  named  it  Isabella  in  her  honor,  and  introduced  it  to  the  general  ]iublic. 

The  Catawba  is  supjiosed  to  have  oi'iginatcd  as  a  seedling  neai' the  ( 'at.iwlia 
]{ivi'r,  in  North  Carolina,  but  was  not  gi'uerally  known  until  .Major -lolm 
Allium,  of  the  Pistriet  of  Cobunbia.  t'ouuii  it  in  bearing  on  thi^  prenuses  ol 
T\lrs.  Scholl.  a  tavern  kee])er  !)f  Clarksbuigh.  Md.  lie  was  at  once  delighted 
with  its  good  ijualities.  and  planted  it  in  his  experiment  grounds  at  (ieorge- 
town  in  1N1;>.  and  introduced  it  to  the  I'rnit-loving  jmblic  soon  after. 

The  next  impetus  to  grape  lulture  was  caused  by  the  introduction  of  tlie 
Delaware  and  Concord.  The  exact  origin  of  tiie  J)elaware  is  not  known,  bui 
it  came  to  public  notice  aliout  I S.'m.  through  the  eflbits  of  Mr.  .\.  'I'homsoii 
and  (Jeorge  \V.  Campbell,  of  Delaware.  <  >.  It  was  learned  afterwards  thai 
the  same  variety  was  growing  in  l,s.")(>.  in  the  garden  of  a  Swiss  imnngrant. 
I'aul  JI.  I'rovost.  at  Frenchtown.  >.'.  .1.  it  may  be  that  it  originated  at  thi> 
])laee  fnun  a  ehanee  seed,  and  that  cuttings  were  thence  carried  to  Ohio. 
It  is  evidi'utly  a  cross  between  the  I'oieign  sjjeeies  and  one  of  our  natives, 
and  is  to-day  about  the  best  of  all  the  grapes  grown  in  the  Eastern  States. 

The  Concord  is  a  ]iuri>  nati\e  seedling,  jirodiu'cd  by  Eidiraim  W.  Ihdl.  of 
Concord,  Mass.,  and  tirst  shown  to  the  ]nd»lic  at  I>oston  in  lsr>."I.  It  has 
ju'oved  itself  to  be  the  greatest  blessing  of  all  grapes  that  have  ever  been 
grown  in  vVnierica.  Its  thriftiness  and  reliability  under  all  circumstance-, 
are  uneipialei\  It  is  not  only  good  in  itself,  bid.  it  has  been  the  parent  of  a 
race  of  seedlings  whi(di  have  filled  our  vineyar<ls.  gardens,  and  markets  with 
the  most  delicious  grajies.  and  at  a  very  slight  cost  of  labor  nr  money.  \\'lio- 
ever  gathers  or  buys  a  basket  of  blue-black  Concord  or  ^\'ordeIl,  [nirple 
Brighton  or  ()])al  Niagara,  sli(Mild  render  a  silent  thank-offering  to  the 
mennu'v  of  Ejihraim  W.  Ibill,  who  made  their  existence  a  possibility. 

The  first  commercial  vineyard  of  importance  was  planted  by  Nichola-^ 
Loiigworth,  on  the  hills  overlooking  the  Ohio  Hiver,  about  ten  miles  behiu 
Cincinnati,  and  it  was  largely  of  Catawba.  .Many  others  followed  his  exam 
]ile.  and  from  about  IS.'IO  to  iSCiO  so  great  an  interest  was  shown  that  llie 
liills  bordering  the  Ohio  for  many  miles  were  dotted  with  vineyards.  ISii! 
mildew  and  black  rot  devastated  them  anil  iilmost  destroyed  their  nsefii]iie.->~. 
These  diseases  are  now  largc'ly  overcome  by  s^jraying  with  a  solution  n: 
sulphate  id'  copper. 

In  northern  Ohio,  about  Cleveland  and  Sandusky,  and  on  the  islands  iumi 
the  >.onthern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  the  Catawba  was  planted  with  much  beiii  ; 
success,  owing,  iierhajis,  to  the  climate  not  lieing  so  favorable  to  grajie  'Ji^ 
eases.  The  lake  region  of  western  >"•  \v  York  is  perhaps  more  ileii-e'\ 
iTianted  with  grapes  than  any  section  e;ist  of  California.  Thousands  of  en 
loads  oi'  grapes  oi  high  quality  arc  shipped   from   there  every  year.     Ti  ' 


WTUllY 

lirst  really  s\ic- 

a  and  Catawbii. 
L'O.  altli(iii-li  (il 
al  crossiiii;'  hc- 
.  Tlu'  Isalu'lla 
light  Irtiiii  tliciT 
11,  M.  v.,  whi'iT 
ill  full  licnriii;;. 
•iicnil  ]iulili('. 
I'ar  llic  ("al.i\vli;i 
ilil   .Major  -Idlm 

\\\{\   JM't'lllist'.S  (i| 

.,  (iiu'c  (li'li|j,'lit('it 
luuls  at.  (Jcoi'^r- 
1  lifter. 
•(i(liictiim  (iT  till' 

not  known.  Imi 
ill'.  A.  'I'luunsoii 
at'tt'i'wanls  tli;ii 
wiss  ininii,i;i'ant. 
i'ii;inat('(l  at  \\\\> 
'aiiit'd  to  (*liio. 

ol'  (uir  natives, 
istcrn  States. 
[aim  \V.  I'.iill.  ol 

i,s:»;;.    it  ims 

lave  cViT  lieen 

eifcninstanees 

he  [larent  of  ;i 

1  markets  wiili 

money.     W'lm- 

kVorden,   jiurple 

ol't'eriiig   to    the 

dhility. 

(1  by  Nil•ll^l;|■^ 
■n  miles  lieliiw 
owed  his  exam 
diown  that  the 
■ineyards.  Ihii 
leir  usetulne.---. 
a   solution  e: 

ho  islands  ne:ii 
itli  mueh  lietiii 
le  to  L^-raiie  'M- 
niore  den>el\ 
ousands  ol'  e,ir 
■rv  year.     Ti' 


rill':  cENTunvs  rnoanKss  ix  Fituir  cult  cue 


185 


Sduiliern  Stati-s  h  ,ve  awal^ened  somewhat  to  t he  imporlanee  ol'  Liiape  culture. 
Some  ol'  the  poon  st  sandy  lauils  ot  North  Caidlina  and  i'Morida,  luive  l)eeu 
I'lauted  to  vines  and  i'ound  to  ]ii'iiiliice.  when  I'ei'tili/ed.  excellent  gi'apes. 
I'cNas  is  also  a  most  product  i\e  i^rape  region.  'I'lieir  earliui'ss  t;auses  theiii 
.11  liud  a  ready  markei  in  the  North. 

I'>ut  in  all  ot  North  .Vmerica  lliere  is  no  section  wiiere  the  i^rape  llonrishes 
with  such  wonderi'ul  succes^;  as  in  ( 'aliioiiiia  and  ot  her  regions  lieyond  the 
l.'dcky  .Mountains.  There  the  teiuh're^l  and  most  delicious  ot  all  thei^rapes 
■  •1  France.  Italy.  INu'sia.  and  Palestine  ripen  their  luscious  clusters  hciuMth 
ihc  li'lowiiii;'  skies.  The  ^fapes  of  J'^shcol.  !  iniai^inc.  did  not  surpass  those 
!i(i\v  ij;rown  in  California.  .\ri/.ona.  New  Mexico,  and  lilaho.  .\ll  up  and 
down  their  fertile  valleys  and  footdiills  may  he  seen  j^reat  stretches  of  vinc- 
;.ard  after  vineyard.  The  raisin  indnst.w  alone  is  immense:  :;iiil  the  product 
is  of  such  hii;-h  ipiality  ami  is  produced  at  so  low  cost  that  the  im|ioriation  of 
fairopcan  raisins  is  hecomim;-  less  each  year,  and  may  soon  he  jiractically  at 
an  end.  \\'c  have  alreaily  lie.i.;un  export  in;;-  our  raisins  to  i'aiu'laud  and  other 
parts  (d'  the  world.  Over  l(»;;.{MM).(i(i(i  pcuuds,  lilliun-  ."iiHMl  cars,  were  shipped 
from  Calitornia  alone  in  one  year.  Single  clusters  of  ^-rapcs  have  lre(pienlly 
hccii  L,'rown  in  ("alifornia  that  wcii^iied  from  ten  to  lifieen  pounds,  and  four 
(If  live  ]iound  clusti'rs  are  very  common.      i'ruly.  America,  is  a  laud  of  L;fapes. 

Till".  I>i:i;i;ii:s.  —  .\m;'rica  stands  ah.iie  in  the  popular  use  <il  herries.  Ex- 
cept in  the  matter  of  ;4dosidierries  and  cuia'auts,  whi(di  are  rather  plentiful  in 
some  parts  id'  I'ai.'opc  and  a  lew  st  lau  he;  i  ies  and  laspherries  there  and  in 
.lapan.  there  are  vei'y  few  Iterr  es  <4'rowu  outside  of  .Vmerica. 

'i'lic  strawlierry  was  found  wild  luu'c  in  all  si'ctions.  'I'he  fiaiit  was  small 
hut  <if  most  dtditdoiis  ila\or.  .\  lew  of  the  \arieiies  '^low  n  in  the  mother 
country  were  hrou,L;ht  over  here,  hut  they  did  not  llouri>li.  .\hout  IS.'!!  < '.  M. 
Ilovey,  of  ('amliri(l,n-e.  .Mass..  i^a'cw  some  seedliiiL;s  of  the  old  I'iiie  straw- 
hcrry,  which  is  ,an  offshont  of  the  wild  strawiierry  of  tiie  west  eoasi  of  .'^outli 
.■\iu(M'ica.  and  his  introduction  of  varieties  named  ilovey  and  lioston  I'iiie 
marked  the  lirst  steji  in  oiir  modern  si  raw  heia-y  culture.  Next  canu'  the  Wil- 
son, which  ori<;inated  ahout  lS."it»  on  the  nfonnds  id'  .lohn  Wilson,  of  .\llian\', 
N.  V.  This  variety  really  populari/ed  the  urowinu'  of  strawlierrics.  heci.use 
of  its  hardiness  ami  productiveness.  Soon  after  this  the  Crescent  was  liaind 
al  New  ( (rleaiis.  La.  Other  kinds  were  sooii  ori;.;iiiated  from  seed  hv  experi- 
menters, and  chance  seedliic^s  were  found  comiuL;'  up  in  all  fruit-i;rowiiitj 
ri'.^i' lis.  It  was  not  loin;-  until  ihuewcre  hundreds  of  named  varieties  of 
.^■oed  4'  ."\  .iiid  that  hore  alnimlaully.  Within  the  last  dec;ule  or  two  there 
have  been  hundreds  iuoi'(>  oi  iLjiuati'd  iiy  the  most  skillful  liyhridi/ers  usinij,' 
11  .1  native  sjiecies  and  the  foreign  ones  also.  (  Mhers  just  as  '_;-ood  wiu'c  |iickeii 
II  i  wherever  they  (dianced  to  i^-row  froui  seed,.  Thus,  we  now  have  the  most 
\oe  lerfnl  assortment  of  varieties  ,  sirawhcny  in  the  world.     They  are 

<•  11  ly.  medium,  and  late.  The  lacililies  I'm- shi|ipin;4  are  so  con\-e!iieiit  that. 
II  c.\',  it  is  jiossihle  to  have  strawlierrics  in  the  fancy  m.irkets  almost  every 
day  of  the  year.  Ifoin  some  M'ctiou  <  f  uiir  L;reat  country.  In  tiie  Hush  of  tlie 
S'-asoti  they  are  so  (dieap  and,  aluindani  tiiat  the  jmor  can  enjoy  them  aloii.;' 
with  the  rich.  I^'rom  litih  ••.■aide,  jiatdies  lijty  years  a';o.  and  \ciy>maU 
I'lics  too,  we  have  now  eo,iic  to  ^lo.v  thi'iii  liy  ilie  thousand  acres. 

The  ra.^plieriy  is  aiaithei'  o.  our  dtdicioiis  berries.     At  lirst  our  pioneers 


rfi*s 


m 


■IJ?:^ 


m 


mu 


J  m 


m 


M 


m\ 


rsi 


II 


**'■ 


4,S(J        iiiirMriis  AM)   II  <»,v/>/;/,'.s-  or   iiir:  .v/.\"'  r/.;,v/7  /.•)" 

were  sill  islicti  willi  (luisc  llicv  ciMild  t;;illi('i'  Irniii  the  wild  liuslics.  ImiIIhw 
ill;;  llic  sMiiu'  |iliin  IImI  whs  iiscil  witli  u\o^\  ullirr  liiiils,  llio  l'',uni|)('im  r:i:;|i 
hiTiu's  ucri'  liii>U!',lil  (i\('r  lln'  sci  iiml  iiliiiili'd  hi  IIh'  ;',;iril('ns  r\  Anicnrii 
r>ut  llicv  tiiil  poiirlN .  ;ni(l  :ilM>iii  IS.'tO  dill'  |H>(i|il('  1m'<;iiii  to  plant  IIh'  iialixi 
varii'tii's.  riu'si'  i;r('\v  ami  Imri"  wi-ll.  Now  \\i>  liavf  limiiiirils  nl  tin'  \('i\ 
cluiu't'st  iiaiiK'il  l\iU(ls.  lilarK.  icd,  |iiir|>lr.  ami  ncHcw,  carK  ami  laic,  and 
more  ln'iii;;  orij'.iiiai i-d  i-ximx    \i>ai'. 

Till'  lii;|iir\  ol  t  lie  ;;iiiisidii'rr\  is  aliiinsl  idi'iilical  willi  llial  <d'  llii'  rasp 
litMiv.  riu'  ItinMiiii  kinds,  all  liiMijjIi  licariiii;-  vcrv  iiincli  larrMT  I  mil  llian 
iMii  iiali\i"  Kinds,  well'  inini'd  li\  mildew.  .MuMit  ISj.'i  Mud  lliiii;;|itiin.  n| 
Massatdiiisi'lts,  )';\i'\\  a  sci'dliii;;  Irom  (lie  wild  linix.  wlindi  was  iiamrd 
I  Iniiijiliin.  ami  lri>ni  this  canu'  amillicr  sccdlin;;,  llic  l>ci\vninLr.  wliicli  wa 
(Mi;;iiiat('d  al  Nrw  liin;;li.  N.  \..  sninc  M'ars  lain.  'I'ii.  r  lwi>  vaiiclics  an' 
now  aimiii;;  niir  \('i'\  hcsl  Kinds.  Siiu't'  Ilic  lii'iiclils  id  s|ii'a\  iii!.;  w  it  li  riiii;;i 
cidt's  iiavi'  lici'ii  Knnwii,  tin'  lari^cr  and  milder  llavnrcd  Imi;_;1isIi  l<inds  air 
IxMii;;  ;;ri>w  n  willi  etni'-idcialilc  sm'i'css. 

rill'  lilarkln'iTv  IS  lonnd  native  nnh  in  Anieriea.  It  lias  lieen  mie  id'  Hi- 
ni."-l  iisi-lnlid  all  Kiirwiid  hints  Ir.aii  Hie  earliest  srit  lenient  id'  lliecinin 
Irx.and  was  iiscd  I'V  I  lie  almri'-jnes  lei'  eeiil  nries  iie'nie  I '  nl  il  aliniit.  |.S|0 
there  was  nut  emMi;;li  lliini'dil  v.nen  te  MaeKliei  r^,  eidlii,,  'r  iiiaKe  the  lea, I 
atlemnl  in  tli.il  dii  eel  ;(iii,  w  lien  ('aplain  I,ii\'etl,  m  )'■  \-\]\  ^<ass..  );a\e  lli< 
name  1  >i'ielies|i'r  in  a  elianee  \  aiiet  \ .  and  dislriliiiin  it.  '.'un  alter  jS.in 
the  I..iwli'n  was  i.iken  Irniii  lis  wild  lialnlal  mi  il.e  .i.inK  .  nl  llie  llmLsnii 
Kner.  I'lii.  \,iiiel\  w.is  tlie  tii'sl  re,ill\  !;niid  lilaeK  lierry  Ilia  was  naimd 
am!  dislidiiiled.  The  Kitaiiiinx  Inllnwed  aliiinl  ten  \  I'ars  "lali"  .  Iiavii",  Imth 
Inmid  wild  ill  tlie  iiieiinlailis  nl  western  New  .lei'Sev.  \l  I  •:;  .'  twii  wlilte 
\.irieiic's.  ami  se\eral  liaviii",  piiiK  lieriies,  llial  were  '''imii'  ".n  wiii",  \\\\<\. 
Were  aanied  ami  '-eiil  nut.  Tliesi'  iinvellies  ale  \el  e.  'ii\ati.|  li\  a  lew 
am.ilenr  Imri  anil  iire-l  s.  ||  ma\  seem  sliaiiv.e  to  sav  that  we  lia\e  while 
and  red  I'laekhi'iries.  luil  it  is  a  lael.  ,\l  tins  date  we  have  nianv  Kind.-nl 
l.llei'  ml  1  ndiiel  inn,  ^.nme  e.il'lv   and  snilie  late,  and  nl'  limst   delielniis  llavnr. 

I'ei'h.i]'-  all   Aiueneaiis  Kimw   that  eianlierrv   saiiee   i;iie,s  with  'i'liaiiKs^ji  v  iii'. 
t  nrkev  .      Nn  enniil  r\   iii  I  lie  \\  mid  has  sn  manv  eranliei  I'le  ;  as  Nnit  li  .Vnieiir.i 
'The  lin;:s  nl  Tape  ('nil  are  laniniis  I'nr  this  li'iiit.  and  the  I'llniims  id    !'!'    ■■•  miIi 
eolnin    Km"\  nl'  them,  and  served    Ihem  nn  their  nistie  lahles.      Nnv     i'e  s 
marshes  alnii;;  ihe  Atlaiilii    are   nearU   all   iiiider  eiill  ival  inn.  .and  lli'  pinli"  ! 
has    heeit    imreased    iiiaiM    Inld.      I''nll\    I  .(HIO. (»(!(»   Iiiishels  are  ni;;'  d    \  hen 

1  lie  It  np  1-,  '.;'nnd.  The  same  is  lielli",  linliewilh  the  lin';s  in  t  '■.  !'iiil  .  m' 
the  (Ire, il  h.ikes.  ( 'raiiheiries  ';|-nw'  in  iiiitnld  ipianlilies  mi  "he  mai'i;  .•■I 
.M.isk.i. 

('iii;is  l'"i;ri  I's, --  When  the  Spaniards  in\aded  l''lnrid;i  in  seareh  nl' "njij 
lhe\  lM'i>n;;lit  willi  them  seeds  nl  the  eilriis  I'niil  ,  I  rnin  Ihr  i'e;.;imi,  id  IIk 
Mediterranean.  'I'liere  llie  nran'.;e,  leiiinn,  iiml  lime  w.  le  pl.inled  in  lip 
genial  elimale  nl  mirSniilhern  Imrdeis.  'I'lie  rniil  w.'is  earned  Intlier  and 
t  ilil  her.  ami  simll  esiMprd  the  liminds  nf  the  eillli\aled  are.is.  'Ihe  I'me-,! 
ill  I'laeeswere  til  ied  w  il  h  w  iM  mam^'e  I  rees,  I  he  nmst  id'  \\  hieli  hme  lin  it  nl 
pnni' ipialil  \ .  When  the  tide  nl'  immi'^iMl  mil  sel  smil  hwaid  a  Her  I  he  ( 'iv  d 
War,  lliese  wild  urnxes  were  liiidded  In  'Mind  varieties,  ami  ".'W  land  wa 
cleared  and  planted  with  small  seedliiiLis.     These  were  limliieii  1  >  l""   i  '.ars 


MM 


\rnn- 

l'',iirc>|i(Mn  I'iuip 

IIS    el     AliH'llcil 

iImiiI    tin-  ii;il  i\ ' 

I'lls  111    till-  v  i'r\ 

mill    lull'.    iiikI 

i;il  111'  llir  r:r|i 
i|M«r  I  mil  lliiiii 
•I  I  liill;.;lllnll,  I'l 
irll  Wil.s  IKimril 
iiiil:.  wliirli  \v;i 
iVK  viinrtii's  iih' 

I  ill!;   \\  llll      tlllI'M 

r;lisli    Kiiiiis  ;mv 

liri'ii  mil'  III    I  li 
ml  id    llll'  riMiM 

nil!  ;ilii.iil    IS|I> 
I'  liiilKr  I  tir  !r:i  -I 

\';iss.,  !',;i\t'  III' 

'    ,MI|I     lllIlT      IS..II 

111      llll'     lluilsnll 

|1i;i      \\;is    li.iliM  il 

ill",   li;i\  I  1",   liri'li 

I  ■;:    '    I  Wii    wlilli' 

i'    "ji  will",    w  llll. 

llll  . I     liV    ;i     11  ^\ 

w  1'    li;i\  r   w  lull' 

in.iiiv    K  iml  .  Ill 

irliillS   IlilVnr. 

I  11  'rii;iiil<s",i\  III" 
Null  11   Allirlli'  I 

IlllS  111     l'l>   "■   Ml  li 

Niiv  i'l'  '" 
iiiil  111"  |iri'h 
lli;',i  'il     \  I"  n 

II  I    ■  ■   ■,  :  ■  11,1      "i 
'  I h;i'  i;-  .■  "I 

11  M'lirrl'  111  ".I'I'I 
'  ri"_Miiii -,  111  111' 
|i|.illlril  ill  ill' 
Tlril  lul  lirr  ;iii  : 
I-,.  'I  111'  Imr  ' 
irll  liiilT  Irilll  I 
I    jlli'l-  llir  (  'l\ 

III  ".'W     >:illil    U- 
I'll    1    1  ■_""    .    '■■''■  '' 


Till:  iKsrruvs  I'liuu.in-.ss  i\  lurir  criirin' 


■|K7 


•i'';  ill  iliii'  liiinv  <>i:iii!M'  riilliirr  wii:^  snnii  ;i  lix-'ij  iiiilii;;li\  in  ||'liiriil;i.  Tills 
M'lriisi'il  r;i|iiilly  ii|i  In  I  In'  liiiir  ul  I  In-  si'vcir  rn'i'/i>  nj  IS'.M  "•.'•,  wlnii  llii'it- 
ill'  slli|i|iril  iiviT  i"t.lMMt,(HM!  Iiumvi.  Simit  llini  llir  irsiill  ;  nl  I  lie  lii'ivilii;  nl 
ic  |rii('s  lins  fji'''''ll.\    ii'ssfiiii'il  llir  |iiiiiliirl,  iiiil   il   i;  sli'iiiiily  iiii'K  j smj;  ii!;;iiii. 

rllf   Irillnll     IlilS    llllrill'li'ij    inui'll     li'M-i     lllli'liiij     tllilll     llll'    ii|;lll';i'.    lull     1    |i;IVi' 

I'll  mil'  Iriiimi  mi'liin'il  in  l''lmiil;i  nl  iiimi'  lli;iii  tun  Iniiiilii'il  inirs,  miil  llii'ii< 
,111'  1IIJI1IV  f;niiillrr  niii'j;. 

rill'  liiiii'  IM  Iml  hull'  riilli'il  Inr.  .iiiil  I'l  I  lirri'lnii'  ijmwii  ninii'  ;i;!  ii  imvi'lly 
.;i;lll   im'  I'miinii'iriill   |ilir|insi>M, 

rill'  |imi,i'lii,  li\  smnr  niisiMiiiril  "!',r;i|M'  Iniil."  i;  ;i  \ri\  linjn',  w  linli';iiinr, 
.iiil  ili'licin  IS  rilnn  Iniil  lliiil  i:;  liriniiiiii!;  i|iiili'  |iii|iiil,ir  ulnii'  il  !',rii\\  ;.  ;iiii| 
III  I  lir  iini'l  iirrii  iii;irl(rls. 


UltAMII':    1)111  11  \KI>    111'     I.VMW     rill, 11'-       -Wlnllli      l'i.\ 

I II  ( ';llilni'iii;i  I  lir  iir:i  ii';i'  \\;i, ;  Hr.l  |il;inl('i|  liv  llii'  iiil;.imi  Lit  Ikt^  I'l'ii!  n  Mi'-i 
il'^ii.  'I'lli'  lir.sl  ri'iil  nri'li;iii|  i;  .:iii|  III  h.ivi'  lii'i'll  Iil;ili|ii|  ,il  >;ili  (iiililli'i  111 
IM'I.  Ili'lnrr  I  111'  i|isrii\ri\  nj  inilil  in  tlijl,  I  ,i  r  ,i  w  .i  \-  rcMnn  \ii\'  ti'W  iir;in"i' 
iiirli:iii|  ;  I'si-.lcil  llirri',  ;iiii|  I  lii'\  wi'ir  nl  ^;lll;lll  >\/i-.  \  \\  In  |S7'J  vm  \  litln' 
iiiiiH'  lliiiii  lliis  \v;is  ilmii'.  u  lirn  llir  riiiiiiijiii'.;  nl  I  In'  mlnnv  ,il  I.' i  ,  it  nli-,  ;iiii| 
llll'    lull  illiiili'    llil"ni|iii'|  inn    III     llll'    i'l.ilii.i   nr    N.ivi'l    n|:iii'ri'    Irniii     r.r.i/il     li\    mil 

"ii\  rrniiii'iil,  ;il  Iliis  jiinrl  iirr,  w.is  llii'  ,.t;iil  nl  |iin  |ii'rmi  ;  cilni'.  I'li  11  m  ii'  nn 
lli;il  rnlisl.  Nnw  llirii'  lll'r  ;inilli;ill\  ;iliniil  .">,(l(  Ml,(H )( I  linxi',  nl'  ni:i  ii'ii' ,  I'lil 
mil    nl     lliiit.    Slillr  .ilmir,  :illil    I  lie  liliiniint    I  ,      li';ii|il\     llii'i'i'jslli'.;.        A    l,ir"i'    |i:ill 

III  I  licsi' HIT  (iT  I  111'  jiisl  I V  1:11111111,  Niivi'l  v.'irii'lw 

l.i'iiinii  i,'rn\viiiL;  is  ,'ilsn  Imtiiiii  I  im/  ;i  '.^rcil  iiii|ii,lr\  tlii'ii'  ( (ii'li.nils  nl  mil' 
llll  III  In 'I  I  iirri's  llll'  rill  111' r  mill  iiinn.  Mill  I  miiih'  ;ii  i'  lulls  11  \<'  I  iim's  hii'.'iT.  '  Ki'i- 
'J.nini,!!))!!  liiiM'S  111'  lii'liimis   wi'fi'   |i|niiili'i'i|   til"   |i;i    I     , I'M    nil. 

Tin;  ( >i,i\  i:.  —  A  inmi'/  tin'  hi  .lnrir  I  in  it     nl    i'.ili' .1  iiii'  iiml     nut  Ih'i  n   I'liimpi 

111!'     nlivr    liuiils    ;i    l'nllS|iiri|nil  ,     |il,iri'.        Nllllirrnils     lillt.    tillllr    :it  li'lii  j  it  .    Wi'li' 


HE) 


*>  •  ii) 


m 


11 


u 


■^  '  ip 


%\\A^ 


m 


ii[i 


liiuM 


mi 


m, 


Si' 


fei^iy^ 


III 


I! 


fii 


i^1;:!l 


jss        ih'/rMi'iis  .i.v/»   \\(>.\i)i:i{s  or  i iii-:  .v/.v"  <i:\iri(Y 

UKiilr  ill  cirlv  liiiii's  hi  rsdililisli  it  m  \'ir;;iiiij  :iiiil  iilmii;  llir  Atliiiilic  (mimm 
I  Ih'  illliiiilc  I  lii'ic  I  Ml  i\  ill';  liusillllllilc.  r>lll  ill  I  lie  wjiniliT  |i;ii(s  dl  (  ':llllcii  111 
till'  iiil\i'   1^    pi'rl('(ll\    III     IhMiii'.         Till'     lil'st     (i|i\i'    nrcliiiril     nl     fnnsri|iic|iri'   W.I 

lijiiiili'il  liy   I'lllw.Kiil  ('(Mi|M  1.  ill    Siiiitii   r.;irl);ii:i.  in   IN7L'.  mikI    hi    I.S7<i  lie  imhu 
<iil     IliMll     llic    Irilil     ;;ln\\  M     (HI    tllc    llri'S.        Now     llnii'    ;in'     lii;ili\     cxd'ii.u 
(ucliiiiils    ill    iiiiiiiy  iMils  ni    the  Sliilc.      ||    is  rsliniiil  cii    lliMl    tlicrc  im-  iMMi  I', 
'J. 0(10.(1(10  nlivc   tires   now  L^rowiiii;    in   lliiil   Stiitc.      riic  nil  mill  pirklnl  Irn,; 
nil'  stri|i|il\    lirrnillillLJ  |in]iill,ir  ill    iiiir   l;i  lii'V    lllillkrls    ill    mill  |ii'l  it  ii  HI   wilhllh 
liiri'i!L;ii  |iriiiiiu'l. 

'I'm;  l''iii.  N'l'iv  litlli'  is  ilniic  in  li^  I'lilliiic  cisl  ol  (';iliri)rni;i.  :i!l  linin;li 
liic  Iri'i's  ;iri'  tint  li'iiiiiT  ;iliiii'4  liii'  ( lull  ciMsl.  cxcciil  mrMsr  nl  I'Sl  itmhI  \ 
srvrrc  winti-rs.      In  (':iliruiniii    \i  is  ii,  (Iccidcil  siicci-ss.  ('oiiiiii<'rci;iilv  iis  well 


oi.ivi.  iiiii'ii  Mil),   i;rnu   i(\Mii,   M:\ii  san  ,ms|.-..   cm,. 

;\s  I'nr  luiM'i'  plc'isurc.  I'lii'  i>;ist  yi';ir  iliicil  \\>x^  \u  (lie  ;iiiiniinl  nl  iir.iiU 
■I. 000. (too  iiniiiiiis  WiM'C  siiil  III  iiKirki't.  .'iiiil  the  (|ii;iiitity  IiMS  hi'i'ii  rniisl.'inl  h 
inri'i'jisiin;  Inr  si'vcral  years. 

'I'll  I'  I'lN  I'  V  M'l.i:.  —  Tim  r  w  lin  ha  VI'  iir\i'r  si-i-n  |iiii('a|)|ilrs  <^rii\viii'_;  an'  a  pi 
til  tiiinl\   tln'v  ari'   iirniliiri'il  on  i  rrrs.      Tliis  is  iar  iroiii  tin-  lart.     'riir\   !.,mm\s 
nil   till'  tips   ol'  stalks   aliniil    tun  li'd,  lii;_;li.     Tlic   plants   liavi-    lar.^r   iiarn'>\ 
Icavi's    that    I'liisliT   at    tin'  i^riiuml.   I'mni    thr    ri'iitrc   n\  which    tlirsi'  stall,, 
sprinu'.      .\  I'i'w  patrlirs  wrri'    plantnl   mi   Ihi'   islamls   nrarlhi'    l''lnriila   nai 
ill   JSdO.  hut    it    is  mily  almnt,   lil'li'i'ii  years   siiicr   thr   first   \  i!.,fnr(iiis  allrmi'i 
wiTi'   iiiaili'  In  irinw   this  ili'liciniis  Iniit  in  llii>  rnili'il    Slatrs.      i'lnriila  i-;  iIm- 
niily  it';_;inii  wiihiii   niir  cninitiy  whrrr   thr  cliinati'   is  sntliririitlv    iimist    .nul 
warm    Inr   il     In    tlmirish.       .Mmi'^    ihr    rasi    mast.    Irniii    ilnrk     l.i'il'^i'  sniilh 
waiil.  aiici  nil   till'  west    mast    lirlnw   Tainpa.  air   tin'  iiinst    iavnralih'  sictimi-. 
Manx  ani's  an'  ili'vnfi'ii  In  iis  riiltmr  then-.     I''rnsts  dania.L;!'  thr  plants  smn' 
tiinc;'.   Imt,    tlii'y   snnii    rccnvi'r.      In   rrntral    l'"liiriila.   iiiaiiy    ai-rcs    .w^-  i^iu'a  n 


(i||'^i'(|lH'llcr    \\  ,1 


'I  il  ioii  will)  1 1 


ilnniiii.  ;ill  lioii' 


ii'Tciiilly  ;is  wdl 


hem  ni|ist;nil  1^ 


inowiiiu  ;ir<'  iip 


"■(irdiis  iitlciiii'i 


'Illl\'    llinl-,1    ;ili 


'/■///■;  ri:.\iii:ys  ri;n(;i;i:ss  i,\  ii;iir  crf.ii  !,'/■: 


|H<.> 


.,|rr  slicds,       Tl 
ip;lis    IIS   :i    iini 


|i'.-r   :irr     lllili 


l<'   nl      Icill 


M'  w  1 1|  I, ,  w  liii'li   I  .  CI  ivi  rill   Willi  ■.|,il  ,  nr 


Iri'i  mil    I  rmii    lin  .1 .      I 


iw.inl  .  Ill    .'l.dllll.llllll  jiiiils  III    iii;iikr|. 


<i/ 


i>  ill)'  iiitw   jiinihiri'il  III   I'lm  nhi  ;iiiiiii;il 


•  Mlll'.ll     l''nilis.         Till'  ihili'    1,    jiisl    liri.||||||||ii;    | 

Ari/Hiiii    iiihI    MHilliriii    4 ';ililiirni;i,    mnl    wilji    imumI 
;l(;iilv    llllinv    lli'iv;    mi'    iii     Ihmiiii;',    iilnl     I  lie    lillll     I 


II  lie  :;i'l   in  I  In'  iiiiil   ir!;iiiii  ; 
|il  II  ;|i('rl  s    oj     slirrcss. 


Ill      I'M'I'ljl 


III    i|M:ilil\', 


III'  I'll 


i)ii'i'..|    \  Ml  li'l  Ir  ;   Ii;i\  I'   liri-ll    llll|ii  p|  I  ril    llnlll    Allli':i.       'I'lir   ",n:i  \  ;i    1.;    Iii'lli 


•A  II    III    I  III'   w  ;il  III    |i:irl   .    Ill 


.Hill    <  ',1  II  Inni  i;i.       '1° 


II'    lii;ili".i>    li;i  .   I  in  11 


llli'il    III   IJM'   \v;il'llir,,|.  |i;ii'l  ;  ii|     rliuiil.i   ;i||i|   <  III  I  j  lui'li  l;i 


\l    IS.         'I'lii'    swil'l     :illl|i>ll>l    111       nllllnrii     l'',III(i|ir     li;is    lnil>.;    Ini'li    II'    ti'il    ill 


mrrii 


;i,    lull,    liiiwlirrr    Willi    .  iii'it  .s    i' 


xi'i'lil.   Ill    ('.iiilunii 


I.    wlii'li'    tlii'ir    ;iri> 


iiiil    iiirli;iii|.>    III     ..I'Vi'ial     liiiinli'i'il    iirrc 


■h.       'Ilir     I 


rr..i;m    ( \viiiii'.;ly 


riNi;\iMM.i;  iii.i.d    \r  i'mm    i.IvMii,  \-\,.\. 


illi'il  I'ji"lislO  wiiliiiit    is   ;i    '_M('.'it    stici'CiS    ill    tin'   rii'lnT  Iniuls  i,\'  (';iIiforiii;i,, 


w  iii'ii'  nii'li;iri|s  III 


iii.'i  ji 


.(  il-      I  ll'C.^    Il 


l\  1'   lii'i'li    ill    lull    lii'.'il  lli'f    jnl'    III 


iM\    M'lir,- 


(  M  iiiir  niil  i\i'  mil  s   t  lir  in'i'iin   i  .  tin' 


.1     nl'   ;ill.  :iiii|   it 


I  1   llililllt    t  III'   (Mil  \    lillll 


I  h.il    li;is    sn    l;ir   prns  ril 


wmt  li\-  III'   mil  iv;il  imi.      1 1   i 
I 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1  III  .1 


•A  1 1 1 1  . .  I ;  1 1 1  •  III 


I  lliiiiiis.  Missmiri.  iiini  Ni'lir:i-.l<;i.  iiinl  s.niit  liwiinl  I"  t  lir  ( in  11  i it    Mr  •,  im.       i'lii' 
I  III  k  ;iiii|  riviT  liiittiiiiis  suit,  it,  lir  t,  Iml    it,   will   iln  \i'i\    \m11    mi    .ilinn  t  ;iii\ 


■Il    l;iMi|,      I  > 


II     iiiiii'   lit    till'    li;i iiiiiiiii' 


lllli         il      i'lnliil.l      lll|l|i||ii|s     (il      ;il' 


:iri'   imw  |il;in 


li'il    111   tl 


II'    pi'iMII. 


'I'll''  Lii'.'i'  ,t,    hi'i'iiii   iiri'li;iri|    i- 


tliiit    (il    I''.  .\. 


Nu  linlcli,  n|     |.|(i\\  liu mill.    Ii'Mi    .    \V 

<i  r 


hii'i 


I     I'liViT 


(IVIT     ti\i'     llHIIil  ll'il     ll'Ti 


111'^'  iiiri'cMSi'il  IriPiii  \i';ir  tn  vi';ir. 


'  hir   n;il  ivi'   clic.-^t  nut    i 


't  Icr   i|ii:i  lit  \'  t  |i;ni 


tl 


'inl  -  ;ii'i'  IIIIII 


'iii-lii'S    III    (hiiliicli'r. 


li  siii;illi'r.      Till'    i.ir'M'sl    mr  rimn  .Lih^i 


M, 


|i'     t'ili'l',,'11     Klllil-. 
III.    >iiliii'  111    '.\  h  H-li 


II  \     II 


Iii'->i'    dinli'i' 


; mils    li;i ',1'    lii'i'ii    nil \>i >v\ i-i|.  ;iii< 


llllt      till! 

;iri-  t.'.vo 
I 


iiilii'Ts  wiTi'  iin'j;iii;iti'i|    Iriiiii    .snil    .  wliii-li  ;iri'  iim\',    lii'iir^'  |i|;iiitii|   in  iiii'im  ril,- 
TIm'  licsl  111'  till'   l'',iir"|i":iii  rill'  imit      li;i\i'  iil^n  lii'iii  i  In  |  n  irt  I'll.  ;ini|  ni'W  kiiiil 


■.:  'J 


Si  il'l 


m 


::'Jt'^ 


HP 


i  ■'!•!}' 


TRiUMPIlS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CKNTUHY 

li;iv(>  1)0011  grown  lioro  from  tlio  mils.  Noiirly  ull  of  t.licsc  variotios  succpci, 
ill  Aiiii'iicii,  1111(1  many  small  orcliartls  have  Ihu'ii  planted.  Some  liavo  graft('(i 
simnits  from  our  native  clicstmit  stumps  and  small  trees  with  these  imin'ovei, 
kinds,  and  fcnind  them  to  grow  and  hear  abundantly. 

The  eocoanut  is  strictly  tropical,  and  can  only  be  grown  in  the  ver\ 
warmest  parts  of  Florida.  It  will  not  endure  as  low  a  tem])eraturo  as  tin 
pineapjile  Avithout  injury.  As  a  commcreial  venture  its  culture  will  ]trobabl\ 
never  pay  in  America,  but  for  ornamental  jmrposes  and  as  an  interestiii'; 
novelty  it  is  already  a  success  from  Lake  Worth  soutliward.  The  waviii;.; 
])lumes  of  this  giant  jialin  are  a  source  of  <'onstant  (hdiglit  to  those  who  an' 
jirivileged  to  see  them.  The  huge  cluster.s  of  nuts  are  indeed  an  interestini; 
sight. 

Surely  we  have  a  great  and  fruitful  country,  from  the  cranberry  bogs  ol 
aretie  Alaska  to  the  waving  oocoanut  groves  of  Florida.  This  c(>iitury  closes 
and  the  new  one  begins  with  wonderful  advances  in  fruit  ciiltun^  beyoml 
those  of  a  hundred  years  ago. 

li.  E.  VAX  Dkman. 


THE  CENTURY'S  COMMERCIAL   PROGRESS 

<'oMMi';it<'iAr,  activity  lias  three  jjiiases.  tiaile,  shippinj,',  and  ,sliii)lMiil(liii<,'. 
Ill  ciii'li  of  tiiese  tiiree  pliases  oT  eoiuiiieice  the  iiineteeiil  h  eeiitiirv  lias  wit- 
iii^sed  a  reinarkahle  jirDj^ress.  The  expansion  of  Ixitli  doniestic  and  interna- 
limial  trudo  has  i'ar  exceeded  the  anticipations  <il'  those  who  lived  a  hnndred 
\>:irsagi);  and  the  aj^en<'ies  of  transportation  bv  water,  the  luinieroiis  anxil- 
i:iries  of  coniiiKM'oc!  and  the  shipbuilding  industries,  have  undergone  a  tecdini- 
(il  revolution  so  c.uni])lete,  and  with  conse(|nen(!es  so  beiielicent  to  our  social 
jiiiii  industrial  lift(,  as  to  make  the  coniniereijil  progriiss  of  the  past  huiulred 
yc.irs  one  of  tlu>  salient  features  of  the  history  of  tlu!  centurv.  We  shall 
heticr  appreidatt!  tlu;  nature  and  scojx)  of  the  coninii'rcial  jtrogress  (d'  tlie 
p;isl  luindred  years,  if  we  glance  for  a  luonicnt  at  a  pict'if.!  of  the  conmierce 
of  llic  world  at  the  close  of  tlit;  eighteentii  centurv. 

I.     MUX     I'KATI  KKS    Ol'    Till'.    WolJI.Ii's    (  (iM  M  KlK  i:    Al'    Tlll'.Cl.OSi:    OK    TlIK 

KHlMTKIATIl     (   ,XI'l    l!V. 

A  Inindred  years  ago,  the  volume  of  tr:id(\  botli  domestic  and  forei:>n.  was 
necessarily  ke]>t  within  proportions  relatively  small  ;is  (toinpiired  with  picsent, 
tratlic,  because  of  the  slowness  and  higii  costs  id'  inhiiid  t  riinsportid  ion. 
Domestic  inland  tratlic  is  directly  dependent,  upon  facilities  for  wider  and 
land  transportation,  and  until  the  railrond  came  into  use,  some  seventy  years 
ago,  only  those  countries  having  numerous  nnvigable  rivers  «v  well-devcdojied 
ciiiimI  systems  could  extend  tlieii'  commerce  nuadi  beyond  tlie  cities  and  dis- 
trii't-s  adjacent  to  ti<le  water.  In  all  ages  since  the  world  becaiiii'  civili/e(l 
enough  to  engage  in  commerce,  ;iii  overland  tratlic  by  (Mravan  (U-  wiigon  lias 
been  (tarried  on;  but  the  anionnt  of  c(Uiim<idities  could  not  be  huge,  and  tin; 
kinds  of  goods  transported  were  necessai'ily  limited  to  articles  of  higii  value 
per  unit  (d'  bulk  or  weight.  Such  an  iiihiml  tratlic  as  this  did  not  est:iiilish 
t-lie  basis  for  a  large  coastwise  f)r  over-se;i  coimuerce. 

\{  iireseiit,  bulky  commodities  produced  long  distances  I'roni  the  sea-jxu'ts 
coiiiprise  a  lurge  portion  of  international  tratlic.  and  supply  the  coast  cities 
with  the  raw  materials  from  whicdi  they  mauufact  ure  the  arti(des  they  eon- 
Iribute  to  swcdl  tin;  volume  of  b>rci;,Mi  trade.  When  the.  means  were  wanting 
for  the  inland  transportation  (d'  these  Imlky  c,ommoditi<'s,  only  a  b'w  coun- 
tries, such  as  l'hoMii(da.  the  Italian  cities,  I'ortugal,  the  Netherlands,  the 
I'nitcil  Kingdom,  and  the  ISritish  colonies  in  .\nicrica,  could  dev(dop  an 
important  maritime  coiumerce^  During  the  ])ast  tifty  years,  tlm  imjirove- 
lucnts  in  transportation  have  been  such  as  to  enalde  all  industrial  countries, 
inland  as  w<dl  as  maritime,  to  engage  extcnsividy  in  tne  world's  trade.  Coni- 
ini'rcc  has  become  general ;  and  countries  like  Swit/crland  and  .Sa.xony  readily 
market  their  wares  the  world  over. 

The  Volume  of  foreign  trade,  as  lat(»  as  a  hundred  years  ago,  was  really 


!i  y^ 


I  »    ! 


m^i^'-^ 


•lO'i        mil  Mi'iis  AM)  \\i).\i)i':i;s  nr  iiii-:  xix'"  r/wV/r/iT 

siiiiill.  t'\('M    ill    till'  (MM'   (i|    till'    iiiMsl    iiii|M)M;nit    iMiiiiiiU'i'cial    iiiitiniis.     'I'l 
iiii|M>rls  and    ('\|M)i'ts  of   llic   I'liitcil    l\iii'-;iiiim    in    IN""  aiuiiniilcd    In  alioi, 
.S.'i(l".<MM».(t(i(>.  wlii.'ii.  Inr  a  |iM|iiilati(iii  ><\    a|i|ir(i\iiiiat('ly   I.S.(MMt.(l(l(l.  wmilil  l, 
aliniii  SL'd  |irr  capila.      Al    llial    tiiiic  llic   iradi'  nl    tlic  I'liiti'd    Kinj^'dnni  w 
aiiinii    one  lentil  what    it    is  imw.      At  llii'  ihi'm'iii   tiiiii'tlii'  rnrciv^n  ('niiniin.  ,■ 
(i|    the  t'liilcd    l\iii;A(l(iiii  aiiKniiils  to    luailv  S |tMt   lurracli  iiilialiitaiit di' 1 1,^ 
(•nnni  r\ . 

Tlir  lliirtci'ii  I'.i'ilisli  ('(iliiuics  in  Aiiicrica  and  llu-  (H'i'^iiial  I'diiiiiiniiwcali  li , 
(d'  till'  I'liiti'd  Stall's  wcrr  all  iiiai'ilinic  Slali's  willi  iia\  i,i;alili'  riviTs,  and 
llii'ir  iiuliisirii's.  Imiilirriiiu;'.  tislirrics,  |iriidiiri  inn  <d  iimd  in'odiicts  and  tnhari ,,, 
I'alli'd  Inr  till'  cM'liaii.nr  id'  lar,u;('  (|iiani  it  ii's  ni'  rnmninditirs  with  thr  niannla. 
tillers  ni  Ihe  hniiie  eniiiilrv.  and  with  the  lrn|iieal  islands  id'  the  West  Indh  . 
I'"nr  their  lime.  then.  tlii'M'  Stales  were  lai\:^e  liaders.  The  statistical  inloi 
iiiatinii  which  we  imssess  id'  their  eniiinieree  is  niea.Ljn'.  liiit  we  Uimw  thii 
the  intal  trade  id'  the  eolniiies  with  the  nint  her  eniiiil  i'\  in  177"  was  ah"iii 
8l.">."<Mt.""(l  a  \  ear.  nr  sniiiethin;^'  nver  i'niir  dnllars  per  |,ersi.n.  'i'liere  wa  ,i 
trade  nT  ennsideralile  |irn|u>rtiiiiis  with  the  West  I  inlies.  snnie  with  the  Miih 
terraiiean  emintries  and  Al'riea.  and.  alter  the  enlniiies  lieeanie  Stales,  wnh 
the  Mast  Indies  and  the  Orient  :  Imt  in  all  prnlialiilit y  the  InreiL;-]!  trade  nj 
the  Aniericaiis  did  iini  reach  leii  dnllars  per  ca|iila  iintil  alter  I7'.>".  Ai  iIm' 
present  time,  in  spile  id'  the  very  rapid  .i^rnwth  id'  pnpulat  imi  in  the  I'liilrd 
Slates  that  lias  enntiniied  tlirnni^'linul  the  nineli'enth  eeiitury,  nur  riirei:;ii 
trade  is  i'i|nal  In  iwenty  li\e  dnllars  per  ]iersiiii. 

It  is  when  the  cnmnierce  nl'  the  eighteenth  eentiirv  is  viewed  rrnm  the 
standpninl  nl'  tlie  transpnrtat  inn  atj;eiicies  liy  w!iieli  it  was  served  —  the  si/c. 
speed,  and  ellicieiicy  nl'  the  ships  —  that  I  he  eniitrasl  with  present  cniidil  imi-; 
liecniiies  mnst  striking'.  Twn  hnndred  years  a'^n.  the  .'')(i"  ships  nwneil  :it 
l.niidnii  avera^"eil  l."'>7  Inns.  A  century  a.'^n.  a  vessel  <d'  .">""  Inns  was  >iill 
eniisideri'd  a  larn'c  shi|i.  and  as  late  as  tSI"  vessels  ni'  tliatr  size  traded  lieiii 
the  I'nited  Slates  In  India  and  China.  'I'lie  (iraiid  'I'lirk,  nl'  T)*!!  Inns.  Imdl 
in  I7'.tl.  was  innliahly  the  lai'u'est  ship  hiiilt  in  .Aiueriea  up  tn  that  tiini'. 
Dni'ini^  the  I'nnrth  decade  id'  the  niiieteeiith  century  iiiiiiieroiis  vessels  id'  nv'!' 
!""(»  tniis  were  cniist riicled.  and  in  ISto  the  (ireat  Itritain  nl'  .'•"""  Inns  was 
(ii'dei'cd.  Ill  her  day  the  (Ileal  Uritain  was  iiinre  n|'  a  niarvel  tliaii  is  ihe 
recently  laiincheil  (>ceaiiic.  id'  L'S,,'((lO  tons  displaeeiiient. 

When  we  eniisider  that  these  small  vessels  in  use  a  century  ;i,i,'n  Innk  iinin 
a  mniitli  to  six  weeks  to  crnss  (he  .\tlantie,  —  their  s|ieeil  heiiii,'  almul  mic 
third  that  nl'  the  trei'^lit  steamers  ni'  (n-ilay,  —  ^ve  realize  the  j^'reat  diireri'iicc 
in  the  (dlicieiicy  of  the  nierchaiit.  niarine  ni'  the  present  as  cniii|iareil  wiili 
that  liy  which  ei'iiinierce  was  served  in  ISO".  'I'lie  ellicieiicy  nl'  the  shi|--. 
]inwi'\er.  does  nnt  depend  almie  uimii  their  size  and  speed.  The  cnninieic;  d 
auxiliaries  which  enalile  vessels  to  enter  anil  dear  liarhnrs  witlinul  delav.  and 
to  Inad  and  unload  carn'nes  ipiickly. — li^dithmises,  lieacoiis.  Ininvs,  spaciniis 
w  harves  and  dneks  eipiipped  with  mechanical  ap](liaiiees  Inr  handlinn'  i'rei'_;lil. 
—  make  it  pnssilile  inr  vessels  tn  sjieiul  a,  Ljreater  portion  ol'  the  time  al  >•  :i. 
.\  merchant  iiiariue  to-day  has  iully  live  times  the  etliciency  t  hat  one  w!ili 
an  eipial  toiina.ue  had  a  ceiiliiry  aiLjo.  We  shall  helter  see  Imw  this  has  ln'ii 
l)roii!j;lit  ahiiiit.  hy  luieily  reviewing'  the  technical  revolution  which  lias  tak'  'i 
place  in  ocean  navigation  duriieg  the  past  seventy  years. 


i'lil: 


H'. 


r/;.v/77.')' 


THE    Ci: Ml- ID'S    COMMI.IiilM.    I'lKxiltr.SS 


\m 


i:ll  IMllnllS.  'I'l 
nnUlllcil  III  ;ilii> 
,(HI(».(I(((I.  wnlllii 

ti'il   Kiii.i,'(liiiii  \\ 

I  (I  re  !'^  II   ('nllllliri  ■ 

iiilialiiliiiil  III'  1 1 

il  i'iiiiimnii\\i';ili  !i  . 
i-alilc  rncrs.  ;ii.,i 

llli'ls  iMiil   Inliiir.  .1. 

u'illi  III!'  Mi;iiiiil.,< 
r  llif  WCsl   liiih.    . 
'  sliilisliciil  iiil.'i 
ml    \vc  kiinw  tli.ii 

II  I  77<>  \v;is  ;ili..iii 
^i.ll.      Tlicrc  \\;i      I 

lie  w  il  li  I  111'  Ml .' 
rami'  SlaLcs.  w  i;  h 

'    InrriM-ii    ti'ailr    ,i| 

Ifp  IT'.IO.  At  1 1,, 
limi  ill  tli<>  I'liiiril 
l.iiry,  (Mir  rnrciin 

viewed    Irmii    llir 
served  —  t  lie  M,  .•, 
ireseiit  eoiidit  imi 
>    slli|is    (iWlieil    ill 
!(»(»  tiuis  was  still 

size  trade<l  Irmii 

I'  r)(l|   tons,  iiiiili 
U]i  to  llial    liiiH'. 

IS  vessels  ( ij  (i\  I';' 
of  .'((KM)  ti)iis  w  .IS 

rvel  than    is  ilir 

rv  at,'(i  tddk  I'll '111 

heiii.Lj  alioiil   m:!' 

I'  i^jreat  dirfereiiri' 

eiiiii|iar('d  Willi 
iiey  dl'  the   slii|'-.. 

"he  eiiiiiiiii'iv:  li 
ith<iul  delav.  n'l'l 
.  iiiKiys,  s|iaeiiiNS 
laiidliiin'  Iri'i'^lit, 

the  t  iiue  ill  -•  '. 
'V  that  (Hie  u  "  'i 
ow  tiiis  has  ill  .  4 
which  has  taK' 


!'•    'I'll:  (INI  I  i;s  N    iiiiiMiM,    i.iMu.i   ri(i\    in    (  mi  m  iijci:, 

I  >iiriii,i;  I  he  lirsl   limr  ihtihIi'.  nj  I  hi  .  n'tit  ni\   ihr  wiiuiii'ii  •.ailitr.;  M'ssel  was 

I  ;,i'  SI  lie  canii'i'  III  I  MTU  II  I  lallir.  and  in  II  ir  emi   1 1  ml  imi  inm  ii|irr,il  imi  nl  siieh 

snijis  the  Aiiienraiis  had  s|MM'ial  advaiila'^e-  and  iiiaiiilr,.|i'i|    |M'eiiliai'   iii'^eiiii 

IV.      I""i'  I'nrtv    Ncars  the  Ann'riean  sailiie;  rli|i|M'r.  whnse   liiii'   lines   made   il 

..inch   and   s|iei'il\.    had    iieeii    ••Un'   Ivpc   and    nindrl   ni    (•xcrilrncr    m   .shiji- 

I'lildin.^';"      hnl      iieliire     llie     middir     n|     || nllll\      llir     .slllMrinacS      nl      Ihc 

V lell    cli|i|ier  shi|i    iiad     lieeli     di'stlnvi'ii.    .Hid     ihe    lerlllllcal     Sll  |  lelli  i|  Il  \     i  d' 

.'■Icani  and  iron  had  lieen  deiiinnsl  raii'd. 

Theic  are  si.\  disliiiet.  .■  li|is  in  i  he  iici al  ex ol in  ion  oj    ihe  ocean  liner  ol' 


/>i^' 


'  JatS. 


\    '  I.II'PII!    Sllll'. 

llie  |iri'S('iit  day.  — six  eliaii!,'es  which  mark  the  ejioclis  in  liie  history  oj  the 
siilisl  il  111  ion  ol    sieaiii  aihl  sleil  for  sail  and  wood,      'i'lii'  liisl  sle|i  in  the  e\o- 

liilioii  was  taken  when  llie  sieaiii  eii'^iiM'  ami  llie  |iaildii'-wl 1  took  llie  plaei' 

ol  wind  and  sails.  lake  most  eiioch-makiicj  (diaic^es.  this  om'  was  made 
slowly:  indeed,  it  was  iircccdnl  li\  thii'l\-  years  o|  lirsilat  ion  and  coiisei'va- 
live  eN|M'rimcntation.  Ii'olieit  {■'niton,  lakim^'-  adv;iiila'_,'e  ol'  ideas  and  plans 
uliicli  lie  had  olitaineil  in  l'",nro|ic.  iirodnred  his  Cleriiioiit  in  ISIlT.  ard  de- 
ini'iisl  rated  tlie  ]iracticaliilily  ol'  the  stramship  lot-  ri\er  I  rallic,  l''i\e  years 
iiiicr.  ilcniy  I'.ell  ol'  Scotland  const niriril  the  ''oiiict.  the  lirst  iiasseie^'er 
■^icamlioal  liiiilt  in  l'airo|i('.  a  vessel  only  loii  \  jfit  Inti'^.  ti'ii  and  one  hall'  leet 
III  width,  aiui  ol'  I'oiir  lior.-,c-|io\\  n-.  'I'lic  ( 'ji'inioiil  was  soincs  hal,  lar'.'cr. 
li;niii'4  a  Icic-dli  <d'  l.'iU  i'cci .  a  Ih'iiiii  o|  ci'^lili'i'ii  I'd.  and  a  hold, ax  led  in 
d''|it|i.     She  succeeded  in  iiiakin;^  il\c  miles  an  hour  a'^Miiist  stream,     'i'liesc 


''I         ',■; 


Wt 


'■  i'; 


404 


TIUUMI'llS   AM)    noXlUCliS   Ol'   Til  hi   XIX'"   CEXTUliY 


little  vi'sst'ls  iittniclcd  ^iciit  iittt'iitioii.  and  the  prolilt'iii  (if  coiistriictiiii,'  shi| 
that  could  cross  tlic  occiiii  liy  steam  |io\vef  liej,'aii  to  he  studied,      in  IM'.I.  tl. 
Savaiiiiah  was  titled  witli  eie^iiies  and  crossed  the  Atl;,ntic.  usinj,' lioth  stcai  • 
power  and  sails,  hut  the  vessel  did  not  prove  a  suiteess.  .;nd  iier  eULrines  wei  • 

taken  out  l!ie  loliowini:  yeai. 
Ind('e<l,  it  was  not  until  IS.;;; 
tiiat  a  vessi  \  st-eanieil  ail  the 
way  across  the  .Vtlanticr;  ami 
this  shi]),  tlie  Ikoyal  William.  ,i 
Canadian  craft  (d'  I'our  or  ti\r 
hundred  tons,  was  aiile  touiai.e 
the  trip  from  (^)uel)ec  to  (iravi  - 
end  on  the  Thames  only  hy 
stoppin<,'  for  coal  at  Tictoii, 
^iova  Scotia,  and  Cowcs  ni'ar 
I'ortsnioutli.  Kn<,d!ind. 

The  iirst  sti'aniships  to  cross 
the  ocean  without  recoalin,; 
were  the  Sirius  and  ureat  \\  l■^l- 
orn.  which  arrive<l  in  New  \nik 
the  same  day,  April  li.'l,  l.s.';.s. 
the  i'ornu'r  vessel  having  sjulcd 
from  London  and  the  latti'r 
from  I.ivei'pool.  'i'his  acdnevc- 
ment  on  the  part  (d'  tliese  twn 
wooden  craft,  neithi'i'  one  capa- 
hlc  (d'  carrying;-  more  than  seven 
The   New  York   '•Courier   and 


HOISKItT    I-ri.TOX, 


Jiundred   tons,  created    a    i,Meat  impression 
En(pnrer""  said,  in  its  issue  of  Aju'il  L'4.  KS.'iS:  — 

••  What  may  he  the  ultimate  fate  of  this  excitement — whether  or  not  the 
expense  (d'  eipiiiimeut  and  fuel  will  adndt  (d'  the  emploNiiu'ut  of  tiiese  V('>- 
Rtds  in  the  lU'diuaiT  ]iacl<et  service  —  we  cannot  pretend  to  form  an  opinion; 
hut  (d'  the  entire  feasiiiility  of  the  passaije  of  the  Atlantic  l)y  steam,  as  far 
as  regards  safety,  comlort.  and  dispatcdi.  even  in  the  roii.nhest  and  most 
boisterous  weather,  the  most  skeptical  man  must  now  cease  to  douht."' 

'I'he  employment  of  steamships  in  tlu^  regular  i)a(d<et  servi(H'  was  assured 
in  lS.">i».  when  Samuel  ('unard  foumled  the  famous  Knglish  line  that  still 
bears  his  name,  and  ordered  four  steamers  of  moih'rate  size  that  cost  betucin 

four  an<l  iive  hundred  thousand  dcdlars  eacli.     These,  however,  wei-e  w hn 

vessels,  and  it  was  not  until  lS."i('>  that  the  conservative  Ciinards  construiinl 
any  iron  shi] is. 

The  construction  of  iron  shi])s  for  ocean  navigation  marks  the  second  iin- 
portatd  phase  (d'  the  tetdiideal  evolution  of  the  past  century's  comnieree.  It 
began  on  a  snuiU  scale  about  bS.'iO,  and  in  1S."»7  an  iron  vessid.  The  iJaiidn  w. 
(d'  six  hundred  tons  was  built;  but  tlie  Iirst  large  iron  steamer  was  ordeivil  in 
1S4().  and  was  the  famous  (Ireat  iiritaiu  before  referred  to.  constructed  liv 
ISrumd.the  engineer  who  sidisequeiitly  built  the  unfortunate  naval  mousliii>- 
ity.  the  ( Ireat  Eastern.  The  completion  <d'  the  (Jreat  llritain,  in  IS-i.'!,  wa<  .m 
important  event  in  the  progress  of  ocean  navigation,  not  only  because  -he 


VESTUUY 

I'oiistnictiii^'  shi| 
ifd.     Ill  1S1<».  tl, 
.  usiii.y;  Imtli  sIimi  ■ 
I  licr  ('ii,L;iiirs  we; 
ic    I'dl lowing'   vc:i  . 
as  iidt  until    liS,;.; 
1   stciiuicd   all   tl.' 
-lie   Atlaiilir;    iihl 

K'oyal  William,  ,i 
lit,  dl'  i'mir  or  li\  ■■ 
.  was  alilc  to  iiiaKi' 
(j>uelK'(i  to  (Iravr  . 
'I'liaiiics  only  liy 
'    ('dill    at    I'ictiMi, 

and  Cowt'S  iicir 
Kn<,dand. 

ti'auisliips  to  cross 
Ailliout  I'ccoaliii.; 
IS  and  viicat  W  i>t- 
rivt'd  in  New  \i>ik 
y,  Ajiril  L'."!,  In;;s. 
'sscl  having  saiirii 
n  and  the  lalln- 
lol.     'I'liis  acliicvc- 

part  ol'  these  two 
,  neither  one  caiiii- 
ig  more  than  seven 
ii'k    "('niirier   and 

hether  or  not  the 
lent  ol'  these  vc^- 
t'oi'ui  an  opiniiiii ; 
IC  by  steam,  as  lur 
ugliest  and  niii>t 
to  doulit.'' 
rvice  was  assuiril 
sh  line  that  >iill 
that  cost  lietwnii 
ver.  were  wimhIih 
nai'ds  cdustriiiiiil 

■cs  the  second  \'\\- 
\"s  cdninicrec.  It 
-;el.  The  llainln  'a, 

er  was  onh'ieil  in 
o.  constructed  li\ 
e  naval  nidiisip -- 
n,  in  IS-i.'t,  w;i-  m 

only  because  !"• 


rill-:  cicyrnin's  voMMEiiriM,  riioaiiKss  405 

as  fiv(i  times  tlie  si/e  of  her  largest  inui  pivdccossor,  hut  also  hecauso  (d'  the 

,ct  that   I'.niiud  decided,  while  building  the  vessel,  td  adopt  the  screw  lor 

,(i]i(dling  the  shi[t. 

The  sid)st,itution  (d'  the  screw  instead  ol'  ].aildle-wlieels  represeids  a  third 

,ase  of  the  technical  (ivohition  of  drcan  navigatidu.     .bdin   I'hiessdii.  who 

il)se(iueutly  built  the   tanidus   Monitor,  had  denionstratcd  the  iiracticahility 

.,  the  screw  tis  a  propcdlcr  in   IS.'!*;,  and,  three  years  lali'r.  the  Andunicdes.  .if 

iwo  hundred  and  thirly-seveu  tons,  was  titled  with  a  screw,      it  was  the  siic- 

r.'ss  of  the  Andiimedes    that   led    I'.ninel    to  adopt  the  screw  on   the  (livat 

r.ritain. 

The  superiority  of  the  screw  over  jiaddle-whetds,  and  the  greater  merits  of 
lion  ships  compart'd  with  wooden  vessels,  have  long  been  acce[itc(l  ;  but  the 


Tllli   CI.KKMONT.       Fri/roN  ■<    KlllSf    STl'.AM  I'.OAT. 

adoptiim  of  iron  as  ii  material  and  (d'  the  screw  lor  a  propidler  cauK^  about 
slowly.  Indeed,  iron  shipdniilding  made  little  progress  in  ( iieat  l>iilain  be- 
fore liS,-)(l,  and  in  this  country  wood  was  adhered  to  till  nnudi  later.  < 'ne 
reason  why  the  iMiglish  did  not  idiange  to  the  screw  and  iron  more  cpiickly 
was  probably  the  great  intbiencc  exerted  by  the  poweil'id  Cunard  line,  whose 
conservatism  caused  it  to  hold  to  wooden  ships  until  IN.')!').  The  (!rcat  Kast- 
eni.  tiuished  as  l.itti  as  IsriO.  was  an  iron  ship,  but,  was  tilted  with  both  sci'cw 
and  ])addle-whe«ds.  OF  the  total  toiniage  '  '  'i  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom  in 
IS,'),'!,  about  twontydive  per  cent  w;is  steam  tonnage,  and  a  little  more  than 
twi'idy-Hvo  ])er  cent  was  (d'  iron.  At  the  ]iresent  time  three  I'ourlhs  (d'  all 
r>titishd»uilt  vessels  are  steamers,  and  no  wooden  ships  are  iiuilt  in  the 
I  lilted  Kingdom. 

America  wiis  slow  in  (dianging  frfun  wood  to  iron,  because  the  cost  of  iron 
waa  bo  high.     AVo  had  wood  in  abundance,  numerous  yards  for  the  construe- 


i 


i 


hit 


»':''H(  1 


Ii 


"-  W*It 


m 


'">>, 


i 


i 


r     < 


l%4 


^ 


*«  (M . 


:m 


"i.^j 


400 


Tiur.Mi'iis  .\.\n  ]\(>.\I)j:i;.s  or  riii-:  a/.V"  ciisTrity 


tioil   of  WdinliMi    Vt'SSfls,  iiliil    Were   the    luiJldcis   of   llic   Ix'sl    ty| I    wuoilr 

.slii|is.      Ill   liS,-).'!.  tlic  ycMi'  just    fctciTi'il  Id  Inr  (iit';M    lliitaiii.  t  \\riil\ -tun  |ii 
(•I'lit,  111'  tlic  tniiiia'^i'  111  llic  M'sscls  liiiill  ill  tliis  ciiiiiitry  was  in  st('iinislii|is,  Im 

Hilly  all  iiiaii|irtTiiii)lr  iioitidii  was  in  iron  vt'sscl-.     'I'ln'  adlifiriii I    Ann  r 

•  •an  sliiii-ltiiildfrs  and  dunci's  Id  Wddd   is  wtdl   illustrated  hy  tlir  arlidii  lakf 
liy  llir   dWiHis  of  tilt'   laiiidiis   hut    illii'diliiiiatc  Aiiu'iicaii  Cdllins   liin',  cslal 
lislicd  III  |SI7.     Tilt' cdiniiaiiy  lif^aii.  in  lS,"»ti.  tn  niii  I'diir  jialatial  sliMiiifr-. 
liiiilt  witlidiit  ri',i;aiil  to  fdst.  aiitl  sui>|)lii'tl  with  liixiiridus  a|i|pdintiiii'iits,  sinn. 
i>l'  which  ail'  ri'taiut'il  ill  vi-sstdstd'  tin-  prt'st'iiT   day;   lint;  tlic  fdiii|iany  Imill 
till'  ships  df  Wddd  and  jirdindlcil  llifiii  with  |pad(lli'-\vlifcls,     Thf  i,'n'at  Aiiit'i'i- 
faii  ship-i)iiildin:4  linn.  William  ( 'laiiip  i\:  Sons.  IdiiiKifd  in  |S."t(t.  did  not  l)C'!.^iii 
cdiistnictiiiL;-  iron  ships  (ill  INTO.      l'',V('n  in   IN'JS.  il  \'"^v  u[  wootlt'ii  vcs- 

sfls  cdnstnu'lcd  was  diif  and  a  hall'  tiiiH's  thf  stctd  ;  .lOii  tdiiiia^t'.  Ahuiit 
twi'iity-six  per  ci'iit  dl'  our  iiitTclKint  iiiariin',  lond^ii  and  ddiiii'stic,  is  iiou' 
iiiado  lip  ol'  ifdii  anil  slfid  vt'ssi-ls. 

'I"hf  ni'xt,  inipdrtant  step  in  iiiaritiinc  proLirt'SS.  I'dUdwiii'^-  the  ailupt  ion  nj 
iron  and  thf  scrfw.  was  takfii  ahont  1.S70.  whfii  thf  fdinponiid  t'n,!;iiif  ran; 
into  jffiii'ral  iisf.  'I'licui^h  thf  fdiiipounil  fiig'iiu'  liail  liffii  iisftl  on  a  sini  1 
Vfssfl  in  Fniiiff  as  early  as  1SL".».  it  was  first  fxtfusivfly  iuhiptfd  as  lii. 
result  of  thf  rajiid  ilfvtddpnifiit  in  -tcaiii  navinatioii  whitdi  took  plat-f  in  llir 
sfVfiitifs.  In  thf  fdnipdiind  fiij^iiif  ihc  stfani.  instfad  of  bfiii^'  usfil  in  only 
oiif  I'ylindcr  in  passiii;,'  I'rdiii  the  lidilcr  to  thf  cdiidfiisfr,  fXfrts  its  forcf  in 
two  or  thiff  f.yliiidf IS.  and  fvcii  in  four,  in  thf  (|iiadrn|plf  fX|)aiisidii  fiiuiiih  . 
This  ri'snlts  in  a '^ifat  fcdiidiiiy  in  thf  aiiidunt  of  fiifl  usfil.  In  thf  eaiiM 
inariiif  fiiL^iiifs  thf  pri'ssiirf  nf  stfani  in  thf  Imilfrs  was  thirtffii  pouiiils  \n 
the  sipiai'f  iiitdi.  and  the  fdiisuiiiption  of  foal  pfr  lidisf-]idWf r  por  lioiir  Wiis 
livt;  ami  out'  half  pdiiinls;  whereas.  ,it  thf  prt'seiit  '"iiif,  a  ]iressure  of  two 
liuiidrftl  pounds  jier  sipiare  inch  is  iiiaintaiiied,  ai  .'  fuel  used  lias  Ihmh 

reilucfd  to  k'ss  than  one  ami  a  half  poiimls  per  lior  ach  imlieatetl  Iioim'- 

power. 

Ten  years  after  the  eonipouiid  eie^iiie  eaiiio  into  i^eneral  use.  the  eliea]M'iiiii 
cost  of  steel  iiiatle  it  ])ossil)l(^  to  adopt  steel  in  the  ]>la('f  of  iron  in  thf  edn- 
.struftioii  of  hulls.  This  may  hi-  ri'nardfd  as  niiirkini,'  a.  lil'tli  fpoeh-iiiakin- 
stf))  in  the  jiroLtress  of  coiiimeree  ;  heeause  the  steel  ship  was  st roir^ri', 
li;4liti'r.  and  alile  to  carry  morf  ear,!L,'o  than  iron  vfssfls  of  thf  saiiif  si/r. 
The  substitiitidii  td'  stftd  for  i'mi  in  thf  IWitish  yards  was  matlf  iapitUy.  In 
1S7!),  only  tfii  and  a  (piartfr  per  et-iit  of  thf  tonnage  eonstinctctl  on  tin' 
Clyde  was  of  steel  ;   hut  in  1SS<,»  the  per  ct'iit  had  risen  to  ninety-seven. 

I>iiriiii,'  the  past  twenty  years  there  have  lieeii  many  improvements  luaiji' 
in  the  fdnstviictidii  and  appdintinent.s  of  ships  ;  hut  the  more  import.int 
tdiaii;4es  have  coiisisteil  in  tlividing  Vfssfls.  hy  means  of  luilkhfatls.  into  siv- 
fral  water-tight  compartments,  and  in  substituting  twin  screws  for  the  sinuli' 
sfi'fw.  Thf  lumaiis  plaecd  twin  sert'ws  on  the  City  of  New  'S'ork  in  isss. 
and  since  then  their  use  has  bfconif  gfiifral  on  thf  larger  ocean  Iiiu'in, 
The  twill  screws  adil  somewhat,  though  not  greatly,  to  the  speed  of  vesscU ; 
but  they  rciider  shi]is  mufli  safer  and  Ifss  liable  tti  be  disalilcil.  An  dr.nii 
steamer  with  twin  screws  and  water-tight  foiiiiiartnifiits  can  i-iift'cr  any  ii>' 
of  till.'  common  aticidciits — such  as  breaking  of  diie  (if  its  shafts,  losing  oih  "t 
its  screws,  having  its  rudder  damaged,  or  one  of  its  engines  give  out.  or  li  iv- 


I 


•/•;.V777.')' 

,    tvpr   "t    WOddr 
11.   l\VI'lll\-t\V<>    1" 

ill  stfiim>liM"^-  '" 
liciciii't'  (il    Ann  I 
,■  till'  lu'lioii  tiiki 
I'nllillS  lilK'.  f'^i;'' 
jiiilatiiil  >iiMmi'i 

lllKliutlllt'UtS,    Mill, 

tin'  cniiiiiaiiy  \>n\' 
■rhc  Kiviit  Ahum 
IS.")!),  (litl  iii>t  Ih'lm  1 
•IOC  ot  woudt'ii  Vi- 
lli t(>uii;i;4f-      AliHii' 
il  (Idiiu'stic,  is  nn.. 

iiio-  the  iidiiiition  >  i 
i|„,nna  cu-iHi'  ''iiiih' 

•  11  usimI  on  II  siiiiiU 
■cly  mluPli'il  us  tlh' 
ch  ttujk  I'lii''''  '"  ''"' 
r  bciiit;'  uscil  in  (Hily 

•  exerts  its  i'orcf  in 
B  cxiiiiusioii  fii;4iii'  -■ 
ascil.  lu  tlu'  (!iiili.  1 
i  tliivtci'U  pomnls  id 
-iioWi'V  por  liiiiii'  \v;is 
('.  a   invssiiro  ol'  twn 

■iifl  used  lias  licrii 
iieh  iiidi^-iitfd  lioi-r- 

nsi'.  the  clifavt'i"''- 

lit'  iron  ill  tin'  I'cn- 

iil'tU  ciioc'li-iiiiikiir-; 

sliip  WHS  stv()ii;4'i'. 
s  of  tilt'  siiiiK'  si/i'. 
s  iiiadc  vaiiitlly.      In 

constructed  on  iIh' 
ninety-seven. 

inilii'ovonicnts  iniHif 
the   niort'   inii>ort;iiir 

hulkhrads.  into  srv- 

rrews  lor  tlu;  sinul'' 
"New  York  in  l^"^"^. 

l;iv'-;tM'  oci'an  lui'i'-- 
the  sjiei'd  of   Vcsx"-  ; 

disabled.  An  oc  ;m 
is  can  Miffcr  any  ■  H'' 
s  shafts,  losini;-  oii.  -t 

incs  <4ive  ont.  ur  li  iv- 


TiiK  ('Kxrrin's  com m Kite i.xL  rnoaiiEss 


407 


11,'  its  side  pnnetiired  \\y  eidlision  —  witlmnt  lieins,'  tlisaMed.    Alth  ><,i,'l»  ocoan 
ravtd  still   has   lis  daiiifer.-;,  tlie  risks  at  the  pieseiit.  time  an'  lar  li'ss  tiian 
ii,.y  wore  a  iialt'  or  a  (inartcr  of  a  century  ai,'o. 
The  teidinical  proj^ress  of  coiunieice  during,' tiic  Mincte'-nlii  centnry  i^  well 

iiiiiiiari/cd  hy  Mr.  Henry 

ry    in     his    hook    on    the 

listory  of  North  .Xtlanlic 
,-lpaMi  Navi^'ation.  wrilten 
,11  IS'I.").      He  says  :  — 

'•'I'lie  Comet  of  ISJL'  has 
I  ndtiplied  into  twelvo 
iliousand  stt'auiships,  niea- 
^aritiji  over  sixteen  niillioii 
iiiiis.  .  .  .  llcr  twenty  tons 
liavc  heeii  Minlti|ilicd  into 
a  ship  of  eii^^hteen  tlion- 
>and ;  her  forty  feet  to  six 
Inmdrt'd  and  iiinely-two 
!■  ct  ;  and  her  fonr  horse- 
niiwer  to  thirty  thousand 
in  a  sinijle  ship.  Syiuin,y;- 
len"s  four-inch  cylinder  has 
urown  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  inches ;  the  pres- 
sure of  steam  in  the  hoiler 
lias  iiKU'cased  from  thir- 
iccn  pounds  to  two  liiin- 
liied  pounds  on  the  square 

inch:  the  two  hundred  and  forty-three  knots,  the  maximum  of  the  (Jreat 
Western  in  ISMS,  to  live  hundred  and  sixty;  and  the  avera,i;e  speed  from  S.li 
to  -L'.(ll  knots,  wliile  the  cuiisumi'lion  of  coal  lias  decreased  from  ahout  live 
and  one  half. to  one  and  one  half  pounds  jier  indicated  horse-power  ])er  liour." 
The  century's  naval  tecdmical  ]iroj;;ress  is  epitomized  in  the  White  Star 
liner,  the  ( ►ceanic.  The  length  of  this  mammoth  vessel  is  over  an  eighth 
of  a  mile,  being  7(K")  feet,  ft  intdies.  !.'>?,  feet  longer  than  the  (Jreat  Eastern 
was.  When  loaded,  the  Oceanic  draws  .S2  feet,  0  inches  of  water,  and  on 
that  draft  her  displacement  is  USjoOO  tons.  The  figures  for  the  Great  Kasteru 
wore  2.5  feet,  ('»  inches,  and  27,<M)()  tons.  Tlu;  capacity  of  lier  engines  is 
I'S.IKK)  horse-])ower.  or  tw((  and  one  third  times  the  capacity  of  those  in  the 
(.Ireat  Eastern,  The  pressure  in  her  boilers  is  I'.L'  pounds  to  the  stjuare  inch. 
or  len  or  twelve  times  that  in  the  lioilers  of  her  famous  ])re(h'cessor.  Though 
imt  built  for  speed,  the  Oceanic  can  average  .'lOO  miles  a  day,  or  sixty  jier 
cent  more  than  the  (Jreat  Eastern  did.  The  Oceanic  will  acconnuodate  4<K) 
tiist-'dass  ])asscngers.  .">0(>  second-class.  10(K)  third-class,  and  a  ship's  comiiany 
111  .■!;i4.  making  a  total  of  L'l(>4  jiersons.  In  this  regard,  however,  her  figures 
arc  fortunateh'  less  than  those  of  the  (Jreat  Eastern,  for  that  vessel  was 
ili'signed  to  carry  4000  ])ersons.  besides  crew.  These  figures  regarding  pas- 
srngcr  accommodations  indicate  in  a  forc(d'ul  way  the  great  advancement  that 
lias  been  made  in  the  comforts  of  ocean  travel  during  the  jiast  forty  years. 
32 


I    11 


w; 


. « 


i' 


'vm.. 


M' 


S'' 


hi 


mu4 


mm 


498         TJiWMl'HS  AM)    WOaMJEHS   OF  THE  XIX™  CENTURY 


111.      IMl'KOVKMKN  TS    IN    i  (IM  M  |:K(  I  Al,    Al  X  1 1.1  AIM  KS. 

Tlu'  ))i'()yi'(.'ss  of  commerce  (luriiiij  tlic  iiim'tfeiitli  ei'uturv  has  Leon  pic 
mciti'd  not  only  by  the  evolution  oi'  ships  of  jjrcat  speed  and  capacity,  hu 
also  hy  the  improvements  made  in  niiiiierous  otlu-r  auxiliaries  of  commerci'. 
(.'hief  amont,' these  aids  to  commercial  activity  have  heen  the  lietterment  n 
natural  waterways  and   the  construc^tion  of  ship-canals,   the  improvement 
of  harhors,  the  layiiii;'  of  cables,  and  the  extension  of  international  bankiii, 
facilities. 

The  improvements  of  such  rivers  as  the  Ikhine.  Danube,  Hudson,  and  Mi- 
sissippi,  and  of  such  natural  wateiways  as  the  «'.haiii  (d'  (Jreat  Lakes  in  tin 
northern  jjart  of  the  I'liited  States,  are  conspicMious  instances  of  tlic  maliiir; 
in  which  the  canalization  of  natural  waterways  has  been  undertaken  for  tii^ 
](roinoti()n  of  tratlic.  That  part  of  the  IJhine  Kiver  tiaHic  which  ])assc-^ 
Knnnerich  and  Mannheim  amounted  to  L'.S(t(».(MIO  tons  a  year  from  1S7L' 
to  IS?.-.,  but  by  IS!)."")  it  had  increased  to  1(>.;!0(I.(»(»0  tons.  The  tratlic  on  tin- 
rivers  of  the  Mississippi  \'allev.  according  to  census  statistics,  iiici'cased  from 
l.S.'.)4(;,r.L'l,'  tons,  in  ISSO.  to  l".US,"i.(M(;  tons,  in  1SS<>;  ami  since  that  ye;n- 
the  increase  must  liave  been  considerable.  The  effect  (d' tlie  impr<ivenient  nl 
Witterways  upon  commi'rce  is  most  strikingly  shown  in  the  casi;  of  (>ur  (ire;ii 
Lukes.  In  the  seventies,  the  demands  (d'  tratlic  wt-re  for  cliiiunels  and  harbiUN 
11,'  feet  in  depth.  During  the  next  decade  it  was  necessary  for  the  rnitnl 
States  to  increase  the  depth  to  Ki  feet  ;  and  in  the  nineties  tiie  channels  iiiid 
to  be  made  deep  enough  to  accoium<idate  vessels  (d'  L'O  feet  draft.  .\l  tlh' 
])resent  time  the  tratlic  on  the  Lukes  is  probably  over  7(>.0(  10.(100  tons  aunii 
ally.  During  the  year  LS'IS  the  freight  that  passed  the  locks  at  the  Sault  Si. 
^Llrie  ecpialed  LM.()00,000  tons,  two  and  a  half  times  the  tonnage  ]iassing  tlir 
Suez  (";inal. 

During  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  six  importaid.  ocean  ship- 
canals  hiive  been  opened:  the  Suez,  opened  in  1S()'.I:  the  IJotterdaui  Cnuiil.  in 
LS7L* :  the  canal  connecting  .\msterd;im  directly  witli  the  Noi'th  Sea.  1S77: 
the  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  iS'.f.'i;  the  Mancli(>ster  Canal.  IS'.H; 
and  the  I'.altic  or  Kiel  <'aual.  finished  in  Ls<.),"i.  Tlie  Panama  Canal  \\a> 
begun  in  LSSl'.  and  the  construction  o\  the  Nicai'agua  Canal  was  cominencid 
in  LSS'.I ;  but  th(>  d:  te  of  the  completion  (d'  these  most  importaid  work>  i- 
still  ]iroblematical. 

In  the  improvement  of  its  harbors  every  governiiient  has  been  acti\c 
Tliirty  years  ago  a  depth  of  L'.'!  i'eet  was  considered  ample,  but  after  ISSO  n 
became  necessary  to  adopt  L'7  icet  as  the  standard.  During  the  jiast  li  <■ 
years  the  larger  seajiorts  have  I'lMpiired  hai'bius  w  ith  .">0  feet  of  water  in  ordci- 
to  acconimodat"  the  largest  ocean  vessels,  and  tlie  liniil  has  by  no  means  1m  cii 
reached.  The  I'liitcd  States  (lovernment  lias  just  recently.  ISitU.  authori/i /i 
the  deepening  of  New  \'ork  hiirbor  to  .">.")  i'cet.  .\s  noted  bid'ore.  the  Oceania 
can  be  load.'d  to  a  draft  (d'  .">L'.V  feet. 

The  docks  of  the  great  seajiorts  have  l)eeii  iiiiproNcd  at  a  cost  of  iiiai  \ 
millions  of  dollars.  .\s  an  illustration  (d'  tiiis  Liverpool  may  lie  cited.  Tin 
('it\"s  ]iositioii  gave  it  great  commercial  possibilities,  but  a  trouiplesoiiie  !■  r 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey,  and  a  tide  with  a  rise  iind  fall  of  tiiiity  !■  ■ ' 
made  the  coiisl  i  net  ion  of  its  liarb(U' and  docks  a  nillicult  matter.     The  pi    ' 


I  II 


!L_ 


NTUHY 


IKS, 

/  li;is  bi'Oii  Jiiv 
1(1  caiKU'ity,  bii 
•s  of  (umiiuorc'f. 
u'  licttcrmcut  n. 
t!  improvt'iiH'iil 
latioiiiil  liiuikiu, 

liulsDii.  ;in<l  .Mi> 
iMt  Lukes  in  tin 
's  of  tlu'  miUiiii'i 
(lertakiMi  for  tli.' 
lie   which   jmssi  - 

vi-ar  from  1S7L' 
riiii  traflif  on  ihr 
s.  incrcasi'il  from 
[  since  that  vein- 
I'  innirovcnifiit  ol 
case  of  t>uv  (I real 
nnels  ami  harlmi-^ 
■y  for  tlie  Vu\\r,\ 

the  channels  iiini 
■ct  (lr;i!t.  Al  tin' 
100.0(10  tons  annu- 
vs  at  the  Siinll  Si. 
nuage  jjassing  the 

•tant  ocean  shiji- 

tcnlam  ('an:il.  m 
North  Sea.  1S77: 
sicr  Canal.  IN'.H: 

nama  t'anal  \s;i- 
was  comnienri  il 

prntant  workN  i- 


in 


has  be(>n   acti\i' 
hnt  after   INSO  ii 

■iiiu'  the  (last    ti>'' 
iif  water  in  ordcv 
liv  no  means  I" m 
IS'.t'.t.  anthori."i 

M'l'ore.  the  t)ceaiM' 

a!  a  cost  of  ni;n.\ 
nay  he  eitetl.  I  '■  ' 
a  trouhlesonie  1'  1 
fall  of  thirty  I-' 
nalti'r.     'I'hc  j" 


=.•     -3 


!l 


f  ■ 


an?:.. 


500 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  A/A'"  CENTURY 


liMu  wiis  solved  by  thi'  ponstnietion,  iiiiilor  juililic  control,  of  a  largo  immlx'r 
of  commndious  wet  docks  with  gates  which  are  opened  only  a  few  hours  n 
day,  during  high  tide.  These  harbor  improvements  have  made  possihli- 
Liverpool's  phenomenal  expansion  in  eommerct;  during  the  past  (piartci 
of  a  century,  an  increase  that  has  given  the  city  third  i)lace  among  tlu'  sim 
])<)rts  of  the  world,  witli  an  annual  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  u\ 
1(;.()(»0.(M)(>  tons. 

The  achievements  of  ^Manchester  during  the  past  decade  are  even  mori 
notable  than  those  of  Liverjiool.  ^lanchester  is  situated  on  a  small  stream 
thirty-tive  miles  from  the  ocean  ;  but  she  has  beconu^  a  seanort  for  the  larg(>>i 
ocean  vessels,  and  has  docks  and  wharves  e(iuipi)ed  with  the  most  imi)rovci| 
ai>i)liances.  Her  dock-slicds,  for  instance,  are  twin  structures,  three  storie- 
in  height,  and  the  arrangenuMits  for  handling  freight  are  such  that  goods  aiv 
taken  directly  from  tht;  ships  to  any  one  of  the  three  stories  of  the  sheds. 

Jn  the  rnited  States,  the  government  and  private  corporations  are  rapidly 
improving  the  harbor  facilities  of  our  jjorts.  During  the  past  decade  thi: 
(JuU  jiorts  have  received  especial  atten  .  with  the  result  that  a  large  ]iaii 
of  our  export  trade  is  now  moving  throi.,  .1  tlu^  (Julf  harl)ors.  As  an  instami' 
of  what  private  corporations  are  doing,  mention  may  be  mad<'  of  tlie  fact  tlmt 
a  railway  corporation  has  recently  completed  a  wharf  in  New  Orleans  that 
cost  .'iiiL'.(KI(».()(l(>. 

Uesides  these  harbor  improvements,  the  erection  of  more  ami  better  light- 
houses and  signals  has  uwuh'  the  apitroach  of  vessels  safer.  The  rnitcij 
States  AVeather  IJureau  has  also  done  nuu'li  to  lessen  tht^  dangers  of  naviga- 
tion by  its  weather  forecasts  and  its  warnings  of  approaching  storms.  Al- 
though the  iUireau  was  established  imly  twenty-nine  years  ago.  and  in  a 
small  way,  its  services  have  .so  increased  and  in  su(di  a  practical  manner  as 
to  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  indispensable  by  the  commercial  interests. 

The  first  successful  trans-Atlantic  cable  was  laid  in  1S(;(>;  at  the  jjresenr. 
time  there  are  170,000  miles  of  submarine  telegraphs  in  use.  'I'he  cables  now 
used  for  commercial  {mrjjoses- number  IVJO  and  include  about  ir>(M>00  miles  nf 
lines,  the  other  20,000  miles  being  short  government  lines  connecting  forts. 
batteries,  signal-stations,  aiul  lighthouses.  The  total  cost  of  these  cabli's 
has  been  about  .Sl.'ijO,00().00(».  The  influence  of  the  cal)le  upon  commerce  lias 
been  so  great  as  to  revolutionize  the  methods  of  international  trade  that  jmi'- 
vailed  a  century  ago  ;  iiuleed,  ocean  telegraphy  has  made  it  no  more  difficult 
to  effect  intertiational  sales  and  purchases  than  it  is  to  make  (hmu'stic  ex- 
changes. "With  thirteen  cables  in  successful  operation  i)etween  the  Cnitiil 
States  and  Europe,  we  have  had  no  ditticulty  in  building  uj)  an  immense 
trade  across  the  Atlantic;  but.  with  lui  trans-I'acific  line,  we  are  experiencing 
much  ditticulty  in  securing  a  large  jjlace  in  the  trade  of  the  Orient,  of 
»..  ..rse  the  development  of  our  commerce  with  the  East  is  conditioned  Wv 
numerous  other  factors  ;  but  no  one  doubts  tliat  the  c(mstructio'i  of  the  pi'i- 
posed  Pacific  cable  will  be  of  assistance  to  our  commercial  jirogress  in  1  in- 
Orient. 

Among  the  other  agencies  that  hav(>  promoted  the  progress  of  commi  i' ' , 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  extension  and  improvenn-nt  of  internatiiHi;il 
credit  systems  aiul  banking  facilities,  in  this  regard  the  rnited  Kingil'  n 
leads  the  natioiis  of  the  world,  Lomhrn  being  the  clearing-house  lor  a  lai  '• 


NTUllY 


THE   CENTURY'S  COMMERCIAL   PROGRESS 


oOl 


a  Itirge  immln'i 

a  few  hours  ;. 

niiule   possihlr 

e   past  (iiiai'tfi 

jiUKJiig  tilt'  SL'a 

ami  cleared  ul 


i;irt  of  the  world's  trade,  (leriuany,  Krauee.  iiiid  the  Netherlands  hiive  also 
icveloped  good  facilities  for  iuteriuitioiial  bankiiii;' ;  but  the  rnited  States 
las  tiot  yet  done  so.  Our  niereliauts  are  still  oltliged  to  settle  most  accounts 
lirough  foreign  banks,  but  it  is  prolable  that  our  recent  ae(iuisitioii  of  for- 
ign  possessions  will  cause  us  to  establish  some  system  of  international 
'unks. 


are  even  more 
1  a  snuiU  stream 
t  for  the  largest 
:  most  improved 
I's.  three  storie- 
li  that  goods  iw 
:)f  the  sheds, 
ions  are  rapidl\ 
past  deead(i  IIm: 
;hat  a  large  pan 
As  an  instaiiii' 
'  of  the  fact  that 
>w  Orleans  that 

and  better  liglit- 
r.      The  Unite.  1 
ngers  of  naviga- 
ing  storms.     Ai- 
s   ago.  and   in  a 
ctical  manner  as 
ial  interests. 
at  the  ])reseiit. 
The  cables  now 
ir)0,()(»()  miles  of 
onnecting  forts, 
of  these  cabli's 
m  commerce  lias 
I  trade  that  piv- 
no  more  ditficuh 
ike  domestic  ex- 
veen  the  ('nil id 
u])  an  immensi' 
ire  experiencing 
the  Orient.      '  M' 
conditioned  liv 
tioM  of  the  jii'i- 
l)rogress  in  ili'- 

ss  of  commtMvi , 
of  international 

•j-di'lil 


IV.     EXPAXSIOX    OF    IXTKUXATIOXAt.    TKADK    DriMXO    THK    rKXTVUY. 

In  the  introductory  paragraph  of  this  paper  it  was  stated  that  the  com- 
lercial  progress  of  the  jjast  hundre<l  years  is  om;  of  the  salient  features  of 
■  he  history  of  the  century;  and,  in  contrasting  the  commerce  of  a  huiulred 
\cars  ago  with  that  of  the  ])resent,  a  few  Hgures  were  cited  that  indi(!ated  in 
a.  general  way  the  growth  that  the  foreign  trade  of  <ireat  Uritain  and  the 
Tiuted  States  has  enjoyed.  The  expansion  of  international  trade  during 
the  century  merits  fuller  presentation  anil  analysis. 

Accurate  figures  for  the  wliole  world's  trad(!  are  not  obtainable  for  the 
earlier  years;  and  if  it  were  ])ossible  to  present  comjiarative  statistics  of  tiie 
international  trade  of  the  world,  as  a  whole,  the  comparisons  would  not  be  so 
instructive  .as  those  which  ]iresent  the  ]irogr(>ss  of  the  comniei'Cf  df  those 
countries  which  rank  highest  among  trading  nations.  Accordingly  it  will  be 
most  profitable  to  contine  our  statistics  and  analytical  stmiy  to  the  commerce 
of  (ireat  Ib'itain,  Oermany.  Krance.  and  the  I'nited  States. 

'I"he  progress  which  the  commerce  of  the  I'nited  l\ingd(  in  has  made  during 
tlie  century  is  shown  by  the  following  talile.  giving  the  imports,  exports,  and 
total  trade  for  the  years  INOU.  IS.'iU.  1S'.)7.  and  the  annual  avi  rage  for  alter- 
nate (piinquennial  periods  between  IS.V)  and  ISIM). 

taulk  fsiiowixt;  (iKowni  ok  co.MMi.Kt  i:  di'  Tin-;  rNnr.D  KiXdDoM. 


Years. 

Iinimrts. 

K.\  ports. 

Tcitiil  Tradp. 

ISIIO     .      .      . 
|s:ili    .     .     . 

8148.8711.(100 
:!00,474.(IOO 
X!l(l.7-J:l.000 
1.4-J."i.o:i(l.000 
l,S(i-'.77"i,(iOO 
I.s:i7,:i."c'.oo0 
•.>.l!t4.!t:tL>,;,-24 

.-L>10.L>40,(HHI 
•  l-JI.  ■"1(14. 000 
(l(l4,H."i4.000 
01  l.."iHii,(IO(l 
>IMII,S|H.(I(KI 

I,4'i-i.(iO."p,(HIII 

],4:il,.")!iH,;i4.> 

.^:!.-i!l.ll(i.O0O 

i;:iL'.o:)s,ooo 

1.40."i.."i77,0OO 

]si;i;  70    .     .     .          

2  ^140  -il'I  000 

|s7(;  so 

■2  84:1  .■iici  000 

ISSII  1(0 

:i,  •';,")  1.047,  (100 

]8!l7 

;t,ti:i(i,.'>:io.8(('J 

niteil 


Kii 


)use  for  a  lai 


During  the  first  four  decades  of  the  century,  the  growth  of  the  commerce 
(if  the  I'nited  Kingdom,  though  consideralile.  was  not  rapid. — the  tigures  for 
iS.'tJ)  showing  an  increase  of  7.'>  ]ier  cent  over  those  for  iSOIt.  —  but  during 
the  tiftli.  sixth,  and  seventh  decades  the  progress  was  phenomenal.  The  value 
(if  the  exports  in  1S7."».  as  coiiiiiared  with  IS.'I'.I,  shows  a  gain  of  .'>71>  per  cent, 
anil  the  total  foreign  trade  increased  nearly  4r)(>  per  cent;  that  is.  it  was  five 
and  a  half  times  as  much  in  lS7o  as  it  was  thirty-four  years  previous.  Since 
JSSd,  the  (piantities  of  imjiorts  and  exports  have  largely  increased,  but  the 
fill  in  prices  has  been  su<di  as  to  make  the  increase  in  the  total  value  com- 
jiaratively  small. 

The  commerce  of  the  (Jermaii  States  during  the  nineteenth  ci-ntury  did 


ii''''i 


illll.  '^ 


ir  f 


i|;!l.    if 


602 


TRIUMPHS   AM)    \VOM)EIiS   OF   TUE  XIX'"   CEyTUUY 


not  j,'i't>\v  v(MT  niiiidly  until  utter  IS.IO.  Diiriiiij  the  early  jiart  of  the  centiii\ 
the  great  Continental  wars  rendered  eoniineret!  nearly  iin])Ossil)le.  Tear, 
was  restored  in  ISl,").  l)nt  the  (Jernian  States  liad  neither  political  nor  coin 
niercial  nnity.  Kacdi  State  hail  a  taril'f  which  ajjplied  against  all  other  Statr- 
(Jradnally  a  Zollvtu'cin.  or  eustonis  union,  grew  \\\k  which,  ity  18,71,  had  conn 
to  include  all  the  (Jernian  Slates  except  Austria.  Uolstein,  .Mecklenbur.L;-. 
Ijauenhurg.  and  the  thiee  llanse  towns.  II;md)urg.  liiiheck,  and  IWvnien.  In 
1S()(>.  the  North  (Jernian  I'"edcralion  was  organized,  and  this  paved  the  w;i 
I'or  the  i'ornialion  of  the  (iernian  Knipire  in  1S71.  The  ZoUverein  luad' 
coniniercial  progress  possible,  and  politi(!al  unity  gave  it  a  great  impulse. 

The  statistics  id'  the  CJeiiuiin  trade  iielore  liie  eslahlishiiieiit  ot  tin'  Znl|. 
veroin  are  very  meagre.  A  (Jcrman  authority,  ( Mto  Iluehner.  estini;ites  tin 
value  of  tlie  total  iiuiport.  and  export  tr.idi  of  the  (Jei'iiian  States  tu  lia\r 
been  ."iii.'UI'.ljt 1 1 '.►.!'(»( I  in  IS,-)0,  and  .S'.'JI.'.ISS.L'dO  in  1X7.'..  The  value  ol  tlir 
imports  (d'  lliiniburg,  the  idiicf  jmuI.  of  ( Jermany,  rose  fi'om  an  annual  avci 
age  of  $1>L',.".L'(>.(»."'.<»  tor  the  live-year  period  1  S,"i  1 -o.".,  to  .Sl.-.7.<!(;(>.i7L'  din- 
ing the  half  decade  iSCdl-Tt*.  The  growth  ol'  (Jermaiiy's  foreign  ciumueiic 
during  the  pa.  L  twenty  years  has  been  |ilienoiiieiial.  and  her  trade  is  now 
second  only  to  that  of  (Jreat  liritain.  In  ISSl.  the  imports  were  valued  ai 
!ii>7()4.'.H»-M)<>(K  and  the  exports  at  .S7<t7.'.>7.S,(K)(),  being  sliglitly  more  than  the 
imports;  whereas,  by  IS'.H).  the  imports  had  risen  to  .S'.ISd.Cdl.OOO,  and  t!ic 
exports  to  .S7'.>l.'.(>i;t».(Mi().  a  sum  nearly  a  hundred  milliiui  dollars  less  than 
the  value  of  the  imports,  'i'lie  foreign  trade  of  the  coindry.  partieularh 
in  imports,  has  continued  its  rajiid  growth  since  IS'.KI.  the  iigures  for  iN'.tT 
being,  imports    .'ir!l.l.';»l,7o(;,S(;L'.   and   exitorts  !i}!'.t77.H7.1'.»S.  a  total   trade  ul 

if!L'.L'o;>.L'()i,(»(;(». 

The  foreign  trade  of  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineti'entli  century 
consisted  of  .^.SO.oOO.OOtt  worth  o\  imports  and  .*!.")'.).0()( »,()(>(»  of  exports,  a  total 
of  $1.'!'.>.."»(H>.0(KI.  The  Continental  wars,  up  to  l.Sir>,  were  even  more  disas- 
trous to  l-'remdi  trade  than  they  were  to  (Jermaii ;  liiit  witli  tlie  restoration  nf 
peace,  commercial  progress  began,  and  iietween  ISl."*  and  IS.'tt  tlie  total  tra.lc 
increased  from  .IJfniM'Ott.OOO  worth  to  .IJiKIS.mL'.OdO  worth.  The  growth  liy 
decath's  since  l.S.'JO  has  been  as  follows:  In  ISlO.  the  value  of  the  total  fnr- 
eign  trade  was. SL'7.S.;!S;1.L'(I(I:  in  1S.~.(».  .1i;.",.~.S.74S.4(K»;  in  ISCO.  .«!S(>r..()r.<.».L'()(l:  in 
1871,  .it'l.l.ML'.7(M.(l()();  in  ISSO.  .'«;i.(il(>.7lL',.'!(K> ;  and  in  1S<.)().  . Ij; !.',(»( );j,.-.r)7..'"> Hi. 
These  figures  show  that  the  rajnd  ex|>ansioii  of  French  commerce  began 
about  1S.")(>.  Tlie  highest  ])oint  was  reached  in  tiSDl;  but  since  tlicn  theic 
has  been  a  slight  falling  off  in  the  total  traiie.  (hie  to  a  (h'crease  in  imports. 
In  ISUl,  the  value  of  tht'  impiu'ts  was  Sl.l,"..;»7.'!..'!lO ;  in  1S'.»7,  $<.>l»l,r.;!7.7ii(). 
The  exports  were  valued  at,  8'.»L'<>.S.",<.t.l;!(t  in  IS'.M  ;  and  at  iiti9L'<;.U9S.;!(Mt  n\ 
l.S«.t7.  T!ie  total  trade  for  these  years  was  ii!;L'.(t7(;.Srj.4-Kt  for  IS'.H.  and 
lf!l,<>lS,.'.;!,7.S(»0  for  1S<I7. 

During  the  lirst  (piarter  of  the  century  France  had  a  strong  balance  ni 
trade  in  her  favor:  that  is,  she  soM  more  ('onnnoditics  than  she  bought;  and 
between  ISL'7  and  1S4<I  the  exports  and  imi>orts  about  balanced  each  otlnr: 
but  since  that  date,  with  the  exception  id'  the  years  1.S71  to  1S7o.  when  tli' 
huge  war  indemnit\i  was  paid,  the  lialance  cd'  trade  hail  been  \iiifavorable,  a- 
would  naturally  be  ex|)ecti'd  id'  a  counti'y  su(di  as  P'rance.  whose  people  arc 
extensively  engaged  in  inanuf;icturing.     France,  as  well  as  the  United  Kin,- 


THE  CENTURY'S   COMMERCIAL   PROGRESS  .TO3 

1111.  (Jcrniiiiiy,  li('l:j;iiiiii.  S\\  itziTlaml,  and  otlier  HuroiM.'an  comitrit's,  iiuiioils 

i\v  iiiatcrials  ami  I'ood  in  lar.i^c  i|uantiti('s. 
I'lic  (Ifcliiic    in   tilt'  valiii-   ol    l'"rt'iicli   trado,  tluniyii  due   to   iailiii,;;  iniccs 
.  itlitT  than  to  a  di'iTCfasc  in  tlic  (|\ianlitics  of  coniinoditit's.  lias  t^ivcn  tlic 

irindi   people  niiudi  eonceru.      It  is  not  pioliaiile,  iiowever.  lliat.  tiiis  decline 

due  t,o  permanent,  causes.     'I'lie  populat  ion  and  industries  id'   h' ranee  liave 

,  .it  reuclied  ;i  stationary  sta.i,'e  ;    they  are  f^oiiij;  to  increase  and  cause  a  natu- 

d  ,!,M-(»\vtli  in  the  (M)unlry's  I'orei.i^ii  coiiiiuerce.  'J'lie  coniiiieicial  pi-n<^ri,.,.,s  of 
i  laiicL',  Iiowever,  can  hardly  l)e  so  rapid  as  thatol'  Germany  and  the  Tnited 
,'i;ites.  Tliese  ai'e  the  (ioiintries  whose  coiumercial  vitality  is  str(Ui;.,'est.  and 
nl  these  two  countries,  the  Tnited  .States  ])os.>esses  yreater  natural  resources 
iiid  larj^er  possibilities,  industrial  and  comiiieicial.  'I'he  pioi;ress  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  United  .States  merits  a  somewhiil  closer  survev  tiiaii  has  lieen 
-iveii  its  three  leailin,;^  rivals  in  I  rad.e. 

V.    TiiK  TiiADi:  o|.'    riii;   imiko  siait.s   i>ti;iN<;    riii:  (  i;\ti  i;v. 

'I'he  economi(!  proi_fi,.ss  of  the  rinled  States  durin;.^  the  pa.-t  hundred  years 
i,•^  most  (dearly  indicated  l)y  the  ,i,Mdwtli  of  its  iorei<,ni  and  domestic  coiu- 
imrce.  Ileinj,'  a  lu'w  country,  hiisied  with  occupyinif  and  di'Velopiu'^'  our 
l.ii'^e  ti'rritory,  our  domestic  commerce  has  lieeii  ol  enormous  propoitioiis. 
With  nearly  two  Inindred  tli(jusaiid  miles  of  railroads,  comprisinjj;  four  ninths 
11*  the  total  railway  mileajj^e  of  tiie  worM.  with  our  (diain  of  the  (Ireat  Lakes 
and  our  admiraltle  system  of  navi^ahle  ri\-ers,  it  lias  lieeii  possilile  to  exploit 
iiurnatui'al  resources  on  a  lar,L,'e  scale,  and  to  devt.dop  an  inland  tratlic  several 
limes  the  volume  id'  our  lorei<4n  commerce. 

( lur  international  trade.  Iiowever.  altlioiinh  smaller  than  our  domestic 
tratlic.  has  been  lar.uc  tlirou,i,diout  the  country,  has  urowii  r:niidiy.  especially 
since  the  year  1S."»0.  t lie  period  of  the  Civil  War  excepted,  and  is  now  increas- 
ing^ in  smdi  a  manner  as  to  t^ive  our  fiu'ei.i^ii  rivals  niiudi  concern.  The  jumi- 
t,'iess  of  our  for(d!,'ii  trade  during  this  century  is  shown  by  the  following 
table  contaiiiin<,'  the  statistics  of  the  valiu  of  our  merchandise  imports, 
exjiorts.  and  total  forei<,ni  tnule  for  each  decade.  iiej^iiiniiiLC  with  IT'.IO. 

TAiii.i;  siiowiNi;  iMi'(»i!rs  a\i>  lAroitTs  ok  mi'.kciianmusi;  itv  i)i:(Ai)i;s  iuom 

ITIHI    I'd   I8!)8. 

I 
Yriir.  I         Iv\|Hirl-.  liii|Kiil-.  'I'lilal  'I'niili'. 

ITim .^-Jd/Jiiri.  I'll!  .•i<2;!.(iii(i.(Miii  I  1*4:1. -JO.".,  l.'di 

IWill 711.1171.78(1  !H.i!.-i:i,7(W  Iti:i.-J24.ri48 

ISKi i;ii.7.'i7.!i7(l  I  8.'>,4(l(l,lllK)  I.")2,l."i7.'.i7(l 

IK-Jii ilM.iliM.ilil'.t  j  74.4.")(MH«i  144.l41.iiii!i 

ls:iii 7l.ii7ii.7:i">  I  (;L'.7i'(i.!i,-iti  i:i4.-'!!il.t;!M 

IS4II |-.'-i.t;ilS.!l.l-_>  '  !lS,i)."iH.7("!  >J-JI.!lL>7,ii:iS 

js.-iii I44.;!7."i.7-Jti  I  ]7;i,"i(i!i,.V.'il  ;            .•tl7..'>H.i.-j:i2 

ixiiii .■|:M,."i7(i,(i."i7  I  :i.":i.iilii.  Il!i  i;H7,  I'.ii.  I7ii 

IH7(I ;ili--'.771,7iiH  4.)."i,!t.^H.4(lH  H-.>H,7:ili,  I7ii 

IMSK 8:i.-i.i;:;H.(;:iS  '  (;fi7.!t."i4.74i!  l,."i(i;i..V.i:i.4li4 

ISIHI H.-,7.H-2M.8(!4  7h:i.:i!(I,4()Ii  1.(147.  i:;!i.(i!i:i 

I8'.t.s I,-Jlli,_>!ll,!ii:t  il|(i.04!i,(i.j4  I,82(i,:i41..".ti7 


1 


,;';'l; 


;il'' 


504 


TlilUMPIlS  AND    W(h\'J)liJlS   OF   Tllli   XIX'"   CENTURY 


J  ''f  !i 


Diiriii},'  the  first  lialf  of  tlic  ('('niiirv.  llui  cxpitiisidii  of  our  foreij^n  trru. 
was  not.  ('S|if(Miilly  rapid.  Tiic  Coiitiiit'iital  wars,  liisliiig  from  17'.>."»  to  Isi.  . 
and  our  own  war  witii  Kn^dand.  from  ISlU  to  \H\n,  intt'rfcrt'd  oijusidcralii 
wilii  international  trudc.  l'roltal)ly  our  tariffs  of  ISKJ.  IS'JI,  and  ISL'S  In:  , 
tlic  idfi'ct  tlii'V  were  intended  to  aeeoini)lisli.  and  .reslrieted  sonu'wliat  t!  ■ 
volume  of  our  foreij,'!!  commeree.  'I'lie  criiief  reason,  however,  why  our  tr;i(;  ■ 
jtrojjress  was  much  more  riipid  after  \S~}{}  was,  that  it  was  not  until  al)oi:t 
that  time  tiiat  tlu;  means  of  iidand  transportation  htianu!  developed  sul.- 
ciently  to  make  possible  a  larj,'e  domestic  traffic.  Wlien  our  central  W't  ! 
was  aide  to  exchan.ne  commodities  on  a  larf,'e  scale  with  the  seaboard,  tin  .1 
our  forei;^n  commerce  Itej^aii  to  increase  rapidly. 

The  growth  of  our  imports  was  very  rapid  for  the  period  of  fifteen  year  . 
1X71)  to  ISIK'J,  their  value  havin-,'  risen  from  .«!  I4r..777,77r)  to  !t!i.S()C.,4tt(i.<JL'i; ; 
but  since  then  there  has  been  a  sharp  dc(dine  to  liitOK),*  140,054.  (Mir  export, 
liow«'Vcr,  have  in<'reased  in  a  phenomenal  manner  during  the  past  decadr. 
Trior  to  liS'.>7.  the  inghest  jioiut  was  ri'aidied  in  LSKL',  when  the  value  of  tli.> 
exports  was  .'!i<l.o;!(l.L'7.S.14S.  In  1S',>7.  the  value  was  !i!:i,(>o(».'.»U.'5,r>."i(;.  and  m 
IS'.tS  (the  oflicial  year  ending  .lunc  .'{(I),  the  value,  as  shown  iiy  the  foregoiin; 
talile,  was  .SI.L'1(I.1".H.'.>1.">.  In  eonseijueiiee  of  this  great  increase  in  our 
exports  the  total  foreign  trade  of  the  I'nited  States  has  not  dc(!reased  111 
value  during  recent  years,  although  there  has  been  a  considerable  fall  m 
prices  and  a  large  falling  off  in  our  importations.  Our  total  trade,  din- 
ing the  fiscal  year  IS'.IS.  was  much  larger  than  it  was  in  IS'.M).  and  fell  only 
.SKl.dttO.OOO  short  (d'  the  value  reaehed  in  the  record-breaking  year  of  iN'.tL'. 
The  calendar  year  ISD.S  shows  a  larg<'r  tradt;  than  has  been  shown  by  any 
jtrevious  year,  the  value  being  .'ii!l.tS(i,S.r»L*."!.(>r)7. 

The  leading  industry  of  the  I'nited  States  being  agriculture,  our  export-; 
consist  largtdy  of  various  products  id'  the  farm.  In  ISKS  the  exported  ngii- 
cultnral  prodm-ts  were  valued  at  .*(S,">,"..(i,S,"!.r)7(>,  and  comprised  7<>.r>4  ])er  crnt 
of  our  total  sales  alu'oad.  In  si)ite  of  these  large  figures,  the  preponderance 
of  agricultuial  over  other  products  is  being  reduced  with  considerable  rapid- 
ity by  the  growth  in  the  exportation  of  maiuifactures.  ISefore  1S7(»  our 
exports  of  manufactures  were  less  than  .iiil (»().( MKI.OOK  a  year;  whereas,  in 
the  calemlar  y.'ar  IS'.IS.  they  were  .'i:<.'!70.'.H.M.'t'.>4.  In  iss'o.  agricultural  rx- 
jiorts  comprised  S.").l.'.">  per  cent  id'  luir  exports,  and  manufactures  T_'.4S  p.r 
cent;  and  in  the  calendar  year  IS'.tS,  a  year  of  exceptionally  large  forci-u 
sales  of  food  iiroiUuds.  agriculture  furnishc(i  oidy  (»".).(l(>  ])er  cent.  —  less  than 
seven  tenths  of  the  exports,  while  manufacture  sup])lied  l.'4.'.((»  ]ier  cent,  or 
one  fourth  of  the  total.  The  year  1S<.)8  is  a  notable  oiu'  in  the  history  nf 
American  maiuifactures.  for  it  was  then,  for  the  first  tinu*.  that  wc  sold  lo 
foreigners  more  of  tmr  manufactures  than  wc  bought  of  theirs. 

A  table  showing  the  total  foreign  trade  of  the  I'nited  States  from  17S'.t  lo 
189.S,  the  first  (dcven  decades  of  our  national  existeiu-e,  has  recently  bc'ii 
prepared  by  tlie  ISureau  of  Statistics  in  the  Tnited  States  Treasury  Dejiart- 
ment.  It  shows  the  total  imports  and  exports  of  mendiandise  and  specie, 
and  on  which  side  of  our  trade  account  the  grand  balance  comes. 


I*  :^f= 


I'oroiRii  tr.'ui 
ITW.'Ud  ISI. 
(!(jiisi(lt'r;ili. 
111(1  ISliS  li;. 
Illlt'Wllilt    tl  ■ 

*-liy  our  triK;  ■ 
t  until  iil)(>i;r 
vi'lopod  sill. 
(•('iitriil  W'l    ; 
I'jiboard,  tin  .1 

lit'tccn  yoai  . 
!!S(;(;,4(I0.'.JL'L' : 

Our  ('Xpoii  . 

piist  (It'caii.  . 

value  ol'  till' 
K>.r>r)(*.  and  III 
tli(^  i'()n'<i;(iiii.; 
n't'asi'    ill  our 

dt'cn'cast'd  in 
crahlc  iall  m 
111   tradt',  liiii- 

aiid  t't'll  only 
year  of  IS'.i'J. 
dunvn  by  any 

('.  our  cxiiori-; 
xporti'd  a,i;ii- 
((.r»4  [H'r  (Tilt. 
reiioudciaiirc 
derablc  ra|iiil- 
brc  iSTCf  (iiir 
:  whereas,  in 
rieultural  1  n- 
res  l'_'.4S  |mm- 
laii,'e  lorei-n 
t,  —  less  tliiiii 
■)  ]ier  cent,  nr 
the  history  nf 
at  wo  sold   111 

from  ITS'.t  In 
recently  ben 
asury  Dejiari- 
se  and  s[»'fic. 


THE  vENTunrs  commercial  progress  -*05 


TABLK  SIKiWIXi;  TOTAL  TItAKi:  Ol'  Till;  IMTI.I)  STATK.S  178U-18U8. 

Merc'liuiiiliM- 

Kxport^ *.'m,!t.V.>,J((2,  ilH.-) 

Iiii|"'rls -J!!,!!;!!, '.nil, 487 

Kx(C>>  <if  r..\|)(irts !»7l',24I,4!»8 

Oiiid  mill  Silver 

Kxp'TN ;),4(lii,(12:i,."iKl 

Iiii|"iit» I,!l4li,  Iri0,;i2l) 

l^.\l(•^^  (i(  I'.xiporls 1.4(i(l,47;i,:J<il 

Mcrciiaiulisc  iimt  (julil  iiini  Silver  ((iinliiiied 

l'X|"'il- :i4.:i.VJ,H:iii,,-ii;ti 

lin|iiirl- :il,!i2if,  1II.HU7 

K.\ee"  (if  i'.xiHirl  - •J,4:iJ,7  U.7."i!) 


The  table  shows  that  we  have  exported  nearly  thirty-one  billion  dollars 
v.orth  oi'  coiuniodities,  —  about  a  billion  dollars  more  t  liaii  we  have  ]iiircliased. 
Ii  also  shows  that  we  have  sent  out  (d  the  country  .S1.4()0.47.'!.L'()I  more  of 
the  jireeioiis  metals  than  we  have  received.  ( »iir  exports  ol'  merchandise 
iiiid  ^old  and  silver  combined  exceed  our  total  imports  by  the  hir^e  Mini  of 
SL'.b'i-.Tbi.rri'.).  It'  the  statistics  of  our  imports  and  exjiorts  for  caidi  year 
since  17.S'.>  be  consulted,  it  will  be  found  that  duriiiy  the  eighty-seven  years 
prcceiiini,r  l.S7<>  there  were  but  sixteen  years  when  our  exoorts  id'  merchaii- 
liise  exceeded  our  imports.  'I'h"  balance  id'  trade  was  nearly  always  ••  iinia- 
viuable."'  Since  IcSTCt.  however,  the  balance  has  nearly  always  been  lui  thi; 
other  side,  there  haviiii,'  lieeii  only  three  years  when  our  exports  did  not 
exceed  our  imports. 

ill  return  lor  sollletllin!.,^  we  have  ;.4iven  fiucii,'!!  countries  nearly  two  and  a 
half  billion  dollars  worth  more  of  commodities  and  ]irecioiis  metals  than  we 
have  received  in  return.  A  jiart  id'  this  lar,i.,'e  sum.  jiossilily  one  buirtli.  has 
been  ]iaid  to  ioreit^iiers  I'or  freiuhts  on  our  imported  commodities,  and  w(> 
have  also  sjient  lar;4('  sums  in  ioreii.,ni  travel.  The  chief  reason  \\  liy  we  have 
exported  more  than  we  have  imported  is,  that  wi;  have  been  borrowing  for- 
ei,t,Mi  capital  to  use  in  constructin.^'  railroads  and  factories  and  in  develo]ung 
our  farms  and  mines.  I'rior  to  ]ST(\,  we  received  !*il.nS4..'!."'.>.'.>lL'  more  than 
ue  exported  ;  we  accumulated  a  laru'c  forei,i,Mi  debt.  Since  l.S7(>.  wi;  have 
continued  to  borrow  abroad  ;  but  we  have  been  able  to  liipiidate  a  [lart  of  our 
t'oiiiier  (hdtts.  and  also  to  "xchaiigi.'  lar'.,'e  amounts  (d'  conimoditics  and  pro- 
ciciiis  metals  for  cajiital  :  for.  since  ISTd.  our  exports  have  (>xceeded  our 
imports  by  JJii.'J.rtir.OiVJ.dri.  If  our  jiresent  lari^'c  excess  (d  exjiorts  over  im- 
|iorts  continues,  we  shall  soon  bec(jiiie  a  cre(litor  nation  with  large  sums 
invested  abroad. 

The  history  of  our  foreiLrn  trade  is  highly  gratifying  to  our  national  jiride; 
our  aidiievements  have  been  signal,  widl-nigh  (.'ontinuous.  and  have  been  more 
marked  during  tin?  latter  decades  of  the  century  than  at  any  previous  time. 
I'lie  history  of  the  American  marine,  however,  presents  a  somewhat  different 
picture. 


li^: 


ik.'i.JI 


iil 


006 


TltlUMPIlS  AM)    WON U Kits  OF  THE  X/X'"  CESTUllY 


!i|,.  i    'M  1 


%  '   ■!. 


VI.     Till';    AMKUIl  A\    MAHIN'i:    1\    KOKKKiX    .AMI     KUMKSTIC    ('(IMMKKrK. 

Ill  coloiiiiil  (lavs  niai'itinic  industries  held  iiii  important  place.  The  luca- 
tinii  of  tlie  colonies  adjacent  to  tlie  ocean,  their  dependence  upon  the  inotln  : 
countryf'or  nianufacturcs  and  upon  tlu?  West  Indies  for  troi)ical  product-, 
tiieir  need  of  forei,i,'n  markets  lor  tlu'ir  timber,  tisli.  lobacco,  and  food  pru 
<lucts,  and  their  abundant  .siii)ply  of  lumber  i'or  shipbiuldiiii;.  ail  tended  tn 
make  them  a  seafaring  ](eopie.  'IMiis  fondness  for  tlu'  sea  was  especiail\ 
intense  in  New  Kiigland,  where  the  returns  of  agriculture  were  relativel\ 
meagre.  'I'lu'  long  IJevolutionarv  War  destroyed  many  ships  and  interfereil 
seriously  witli  ocean  comuierce.  but  Ihe  struggh.'  gave  the  colonists  what  wii-- 
of  nuire  value  tlian  shijis,  —  a  sjiirit  of  venture  and  hardihood.  Hundreds  ol 
shi])s  and  tiiousands  of  scanuui  t'ngaged  in  privateering,  and  when  the  w.n 
endiMi  tilt!  uiaritinu'  instincts  of  tiie  Americans  were  stronger  than  they  liail 
been  when  tlic  declaration  of  political  and  conuuercial  iu(h'pendence  wa> 
declan'd  in  1770. 

Tlio  imbecility  of  tlie  general  governnu'iit  under  the  Articles  of  (Confedera- 
tion and  the  restrictions  phiced  upon  interstate  trattic  prevented  any  oon^lli■ 
erable  maritime  progress  between  the  I'eace  of  Taris  and  the  inauguration  i>i 
u  truly  national  government  under  tiie  Constitution.  Puit  a  stal)lp  goveru- 
nu'ut.  sound  credit,  and  uniform  national  laws  for  tlu*  regulation  of  comnieivc 
gave  the  luaritime  instincts  of  the  Americans  a  chaiu!e  to  assert  themselvr>. 
ami  the  tonnage  of  our  siiips  grew  rapidly  larger.  ( hir  tonnage  registeieii 
for  the  foreign  trade  was  oidy  iL'.'i.S',),'!  tons  in  17.S".(:  by  17i)."»  it  had  grown  tn 
/)41),471  tons  :  in  ISOd  it  amounted  to  ('»()7.ln7  tons  :  during  the  lu'xt  live  \v\\\> 
it  increased  to  744.L'24  ton.s.  and  liy  INK)  it  had  reached  '.KSl.tHi)  tons.  Siieii 
u  growth  as  this  in  twenty  years,  Irom  such  small  beginnings,  was  trui\ 
remarkable. 

The  American  ships  soon  crowded  nu)st  foreign  vessels  out  of  our  coiii- 
merce.  In  17'.MI  we  carried  only  40.5  percent  of  our  imports  and  exports; 
but  by  17'.).->  we  had  secured  1)0  per  cent;  and.  with  the  exce])tion  of  a  slioit 
period  during  and  immeiiiattdy  following  the  War  of  ISlL'.  it  was  not  rill 
iifty-two  years  later  that  as  much  as  one  fourth  of  our  foreign  trade  was  cai- 
ried  umler  foreign  Hags.  M(u-eover.  we  not  oidy  carried  our  own  commcrec. 
but  we  also  entered  largely  into  the  carrying  trade  of  otiier  countries.  The 
great  European  war  crip]iied  tiu'  commercial  activities  of  Kuropean  oountiic^, 
and  made  it  easier  for  our  ships  to  gain  control  of  our  own  commerce  and  in 
secure  emi>loyment  as  carriers  for  foreign  merchants.  During  the  fifteen 
years  from  17it.'>,  the  year  of  tlie  outbreak  of  the  Euro])ean  war.  to  isos, 
when  the  blockade  of  European  ports  and  the  capture  of  .\merican  ships  ami 
seamen  led  us  to  attempt  to  prohil)it  our  sliips  tem])orarily  from  engagiiiL;  in 
foreign  trade,  our  mcrcliant  mariiu'  rose  from  a  i)Osition  of  obscurity  tii.i 
place  of  great  prominence  on  the  high  seas. 

As  long  as  ocean  commerce  was  carried  in  wooden  ve.«<sels.  the  niariliinc 
interests  of  the  United  ."states  continued  to  ]irosper.  The  War  of  1S|L'-I.\ 
the  panic  of  ]<Si;).  and  the  com])etition  of  foreign  vessels  after  the  resini  :- 
tion  of  peace  in  Europe,  gave  our  marine  a  setback,  so  that  it  was  not  unt'i 
1.S47  that  our  tonnage  in  the  foreign  trade  exceeded  the  figures  for  ISlO;  imi 
during  the  period  of  fifteen  years,  from  1840  to  18()1,  our  tonnage  incr^'a-^i 


hi.: 


THE   CESTUIiY'S   CUMMEIICIAL   PliOUUESS 


607 


."0  per  cent.  When  tlic  Civil  War,  wliicli  jiroved  so  disiistrous  to  tin-  ;«lii|i- 
;iiiig  interests  oi'  the  I'liiteil  States,  ImiUe  out  in  l.S(il,  our  tonn;ij,a'  re;,qstereii 
ni  tlie  forei^Mi  trade  e(|iiiiled  1.'.4'.m;..s<»4  tons,  —  the  hi^iiest  ]ioint  it  lias  ever 
o'aelied.  The  American  sailing,'  eliiiper  was  tor  nearly  hall'  a  century  the 
mistress  of  the  seas.  As  .1.  \\.  Soley  says:  ••  It  was  in  these  ships  that  for 
nearly  hall'  a  century  not  only  the  lari^est  freights  of  the  world  were  car- 
ried, Init  the  tinest  and  most  piotitable  as  well.  Merchants  haviiii;-  valualile 
r;ir;^'oes  to  exjjort  would  wait  for  the  sailiii;^-  (d'  a   lavorite  clipper,  and  nier- 

iliants  with  \s, is  to  inipoil  woidd  instruct   their  corresjiondents  to  wait  in 

li'ke  manner."  As  late  as  iS'iO  the  higher  grades  of  coiumodities  were  almost 
nl\va\s  shipped  in  the  stanch  and  speedy  American  clijiper  ship. 

Since  l.S(il  the  American  marine  in  the  ioicit,rn  traiic  has  played  a  rule  (d' 
<iccreasin,i,'  importance.  ThnM'  causes  account  for  this.  About  the  middle 
(if  the  century  our  commercial  rivals  lie^an  to  substitute  iron  ships  for 
wooden;  bur  we  were  ni't  ai)le  to  adopt  the  better  material  in  the  construc- 
tion of  our  shi]is  l)ecause  of  the  hif^h  cost  of  iron  in  this  country  iit  that 
time.  (Ireat  J.ritain  could  build  the  iron  ships  much  cheaper  than  we  could, 
and  she  soon  be<.jan  to  displace  us  in  the  carryin,Lj  trade  of  the  other  coun- 
tries. And  it  was  not  long  before  she  bei^an  also  to  carry  a' large  share  of 
our  own  f'(U'eign  coiuiuerce. 

Tlie  se(;ond  cause  for  our  maritime  decline  was  the  Civil  War.  Tn  ISdl 
<iur  tonnage  registered  f jr  the  foreign  trade  was  L'.."»(l().0(M»  tons;  by  ISCiC)  it 
liail  fallen  to  l.-'iSr.".")*)  tons,  a  loss  ol  over  a  million  tons.  I>uring  the  war 
period,  nearly  SOO.OdO  tons  of  our  shipping  were  sold  al)road  :  llO.dOO  tons 
were  ca])tured  by  Coid'ederate  cruisers;  and  other  casualties  occurred.  Of 
(•(Uirse  there  were  no  ships  Ituilt  for  our  merchant  marine  during  the  stormy 
years  of  the  war. 

Why.  it  may  be  asked,  did  we  not  restore  our  ships  after  the  war  and 
regain  our  former  proud  i)lace  on  the  high  seas  '.'  For  the  simple,  though 
]i()ssil)ly  unsatisfying,  reason  that  we  did  not  tind  it  profitable  to  do  so. 
Capital  is  invested  where  the  ju'ospects  for  profit  are  best,  and  the  indiice- 
inent  to  put  money  into  American  ships  for  the  foreign  trade  was  not  strong. 
It  still  cost  more  to  build  ships  in  our  country  than  it  did  in  Europe,  and  the 
expenses  of  operating  them  when  constructed  were  greater,  ^loreover,  our 
rivals  had  gotten  possession  oi  the  lion's  share  of  the  world's  carrying  trade, 
and  would  not  release  any  portion  of  their  business  without  a  keen  struggle. 
.\t  the  same  tinu'  the  American  cajiitalist  was  offered  many  opjMirtunities 
fur  the  investment  of  his  ])ropertv  in  domestic  enterprrses.  During  the  quar- 
ter of  a  century  which  followed  the  war.  we  devoted  our  energies  ami  cai)ital 
to  building  our  railroads,  opening  the  West,  exploiting  our  mineral  ami  forest 
ivsdurces,  and  building  the  nulls  and  factories  whose  prodticts  are  now  raiiidly 
entering  foreign  marktds  in  idl  ])arts  of  the  world.  America's  economic 
activities  v/ere  industrial  rather  than  conunercial. 

The  result  of  these  general  causes  has  been  the  decline  of  our  shipping  in 
the  foreign  trade  frcun  two  ami  a  half  million  tons  in  1<S(!1  to  less  than  three 
ijuarters  of  a  million  tons  in  ISDS;  but  it  seems  that  the  low-water  mark 
li;is  been  reached  and  that  the  tide  is  turning.  The  man  who  Avrites  the  his- 
iiiiv  of  our  meridiant  marine  on  the  high  seas  during  the  first  half  of  the 
I'vciitieth  century  will,  in  all  probability,  write  a  record  of  rai)id  progress. 


I 


ii 


*'  \-^\\ 


I 


t  '•  I 


Ht 


In       i;, 


li-ih 


:l:|r 


It! 


i     ! 


III 


508 


TJiJUMI'/lS   AMt    WOXDKllS   (tr  THE  XIX'"  C/iXTiHy 


Wf  li.'ivc  idrcady  made  niiicli  headway  in  ,sid)stitiitiii!4'  sti'cl  tor  woodt'U  shins. 
and  Ainciioa's  t'ort'imist  iron  iiiaiuil'acturt'r.  Mr.  .\iidn'\v  Canu'giu,  says  ilia: 
strcl  sliips  can  now  be  built  as  clieiiply  on  our  Atlaiitie  coast  as  tliey  eai; 
be  laiilt  on  the  Clyih'.  l-'iirthennore.  the  opiiort'.inities  tor  investment  in 
domestic  industries  arc  bccomiu!,'  tower  and  less  aUnriiij;,  and  there  are  <hmh'. 
reasons  t(M'  thiidiin^' American  ca|iitalists  will  be  dis|K)sed  trom  now  on  i. 
put  their  ventures  in  sliips  to  sail  foreign  seas. 

The  attituile  of  .\nu'riciin  capitalists,  liowever.  will  depend  very  largel;, 
on  the  maritinu!  policy  adopted  by  the  United  States.  That  jiolicy  should 
umpiestionaitly  be  a-;  liberal  as  the  policy  adopted  by  our  rivals  in  commerce. 
Whatever  differences  (d'  opiidon  Miay  rightly  e.xist  as  regards  spccitic,  mea- 
sures for  the  restoration  of  tiie  Anu'rieau  mariiu'  to  the  high  seas,  all  parties 
shoidd  agree  as  touching  the  justice  and  necessity  (d'  treating  our  maritime 
interests  as  generously  as  (ireat  ISritain  deals  witli  the  owners  <d'  her  miglils 
marine. 

(  Mir  domestic  marine,  being  free  fmni  foreign  competition,  has  had  a  pro- 
sperity as  great  as  the  adversity  of  our  foreign  marine.  The  present  tonimve 
of  domestic  shipping  is  nearly  I.OtMt.dtiO  tons,  our  growtli  during  the  pericMJ 
since  the  Civil  War  having  iieeii  marly  a  million  tons.  The  trattic  on  mn 
northern  lakes  now  em|)loys  .'ILTid  vessels,  canal  boats,  and  barges,  with  ;, 
total  tonnage  of  1. 1.'!". ■">(>()  tons  ;  and  two  thirds  of  this  tonnage  (consists  of 
steamships.  In  ISSS  our  lake  tonnagi'  was  only  S7-I,1(L'  tons;  tiie  gmwili 
during  a  decade  having  been  nearly  Sit  per  cent. 

it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  the  increase  or  deeri^ase  in  tlie 
ellicieiicy  (d'  a  marine  during  the  last  few  decades  is  not  measured  by  tlii' 
growth  (M' decline  in  tlic  tonnage  statistics.  The  modern  steamship,  aide,! 
by  the  many  commercial  auxiliaries  that  facilitate  it  in  receiving  and  dis- 
(diargiug  its  cargo,  is  a  mu(di  more  etllcieiit  trans)iortatiou  agent  than  uas  ii> 
smaller  predecessiu'  pidpelled  by  sails,  and  loaded  ami  unloailed  mainly  \<\ 
Jiunian  labor.  Our  present  ilomestic  marine  of  -J.OOO.OdO  tons  is  at  lea>t 
twice  as  ett'eotive  as  was  the  domestic  shipping  of  .'!,(tOO,(H>0  by  which  we 
were  served  a  generation  ago. 


VII.    AMi:i!irAV  siiii'iM  n,i)i\(;. 

One  great  aid  to  the  achievement  of  maritime  greatness  is  a  strong  sh 
building  industry,  and  every  nation  with  commercial  aspirations  eiideavi 
to  establish  the  business  upon  a  sure  foundation.  I'or  some  countries,  as 
the  ease  (tf  the  I'nited  Kingdom,  that  is  mmdi  easier  than  for  others;  a 
that  is  one  reas(tn  why  (ireat  llritain  lias  so  easily  succeeiled  in  maintaini 
her  place  as  mistress  oi  the  seas. 

The  business  of  building  ships  in  the  Cnitcd  States,  to  lie  used  in  foici 
ti'iide,  has  passed  through  a  golden  age  of  triumphs,  followed  liy  a  perioil 
decline  ;iiid  discounigement,  ;;nd  it  is  now  entering  upon  an  epoch  of  reviv 
The  golden  age  came  in  the  days  of  wooden  vessels,  it  began  in  early  ce 
iiial  times  and  lasted  until  the  middle  of  this  century,  when  tiie  world  bej 
to  buy  iron  snips  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Tin;  magnitude  of  our  shiplmi 
ing  industry  at  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  indicated  by  tiie  I. 
that  during  the  decade  beginning  with  \Hn()  the  tonnage  built  in  our  yai 
(■(pialed  .'{.9SS..'>7-  tons,  an  annual  average  of  nearly  4(K>.0(I0  tons.  Diiii 
the  three  ye;irs  18.">4-r»(J  we  constructed  over  a  million  and  a  half  tons. 


M'S 
ill 
ll'i 

iri- 


tj 


Kyrriiy 

IV  wooden  slii|is 
nit'gie,  aavs  din 

Diist   us   llu'V  CM  I 

ir  iiivt'stiiii'iit   in 

It  I  till' re  ;ue  j,'oo. : 

tioiu  now  on  ti 

Mid  very  liii'nel 
lilt  ]ioliey  slioul.; 
Ills  ill  coninieicr. 
•(Is  specitie  hum 
I  sens,  iill  |i;irtii  . 
iiLf  our  niiiritiiiir 
IS  ol'  her  iui,L;iii '. 

II,  luis  had  11  |>i'(>' 
]iresent  tonuii:;!' 
iriiit,'  the  iierimi 
he  ti'iitli(^  oil  (iiii 
1  l)ai\nes.  with  ;, 
uatj;e  (Mtiisists  ni 
oils  ;  the  jfrowl  n 

decrease  in  tin- 
measured  hy  tin' 
steuniship.  ;ii(lril 
eeiviuj^  and  di^- 
;eiit  than  vvas  ii> 
)aded  mainly  iiy 
tons  is  at  h'a>t 
00  1)V  whieli  \\>' 


is  a  stroiitf  ship- 

itions   eiiile;iviH  ■< 

countries,  iis  in 

for  others ;  an'i 

in  niaintaininu 

used  in  i'oiciv;!! 

I  iiy  a  period  ■■!' 
i']ioeh  ol  ievi\  i!. 
an  in  early  coi^i- 
the  world  he'j  .n 
li  our  shiiiliiii:'!- 
•ate<l  hy  the  1;:  i 
lilt  in  our  yai  '- 
0  tons.     Duii' 

lalf  tons. 


*^ 
o 

H 

C 


A. 
9. 


m 


<n 


\m 


.-I-- 


■V '      I 


na. 


(I 


^Ai-  ' 


>:i!. 


010 


TlilUMPIlS  AX/>    WO.XDKns   OF  Tllh:  XIX'"  I'llM'UUY 


Tlic  (Iccliiie  ill  AiiK'riciiii  ,slii|il)iiil(liiif,'  set  in  slcirply  nt'tci'  tlio  Civil  Wai 
and,  in  spitu  of  tin-  continiifd  ^M-owth  of  our  iloiiifsti(^  ni:ii'in<',  tin-  tonnux' 
ronstiiictiMJ  by  Aninican  builders  steadily  dfcliiii'd  until  IHS«».  when  onh 
{>.*),  I. ■>.')  tons  were  hiiilt.  'I'lic  causes  of  this  decline  have  lieeii  stated  in  \vh;ii 
has  been  said  rei,'ardiiij,'  the  substitution  of  iron  and  steel  vessels  for  wooden 
The  period  of  decline  seems  now  to  be  sulely  passed,  for  we  are  aniuialU 
liuildini,'  over  L'Od.OOd  toiLs  on  an  ;ivera;<e.  and  every  indication  points  to  rapiil 
progress  in  the  near  future. 

What  is  more  indicative  of  pr()j,'ress  than  the  increase  in  the  tonna<,'e  con 
stnicted  is  the  ^,'rowtli  in  the  percentaj,'e  of  steamers  and  iron  and  steel  ship- 
liuilt.  as  compared  wilii  tlie  wooden  sailing,'  ships  turned  out.  During,'  thr 
decade  iHTl'-.Sl.  we  built  SIKt.dOd  tons  of  steamers  and  L'L'l.dd(»  tons  of  in.n 
and  steel  ships;  in  the  decade  following',  we  constructed  I.'Jdd.ddIt  steiiiii 
tons  and  lsr».ddd  tons  of  iron  anil  steel  vessels;  and  from  IS'.M  to  iS'.tS  our 
yards  turned  out  7."!d,  l.'iU  tons  of  steamships  and  ."i  l.'i.S.'id  tons  of  iron  and 
stetd  vessels.  .\s  these  tis^'ures  indicate,  the  reconstruction  id'  our  merchant 
marine  is  proj^ressiiij,' with  u  lair  deyree  of  rapidity.  .\t  the  ])resent  time 
one  half  our  toniui},'e  consists  of  steann-rs  ;  but  our  percenta.m'  of  iron  and 
steid  is  still  small  as  compared  with  other  countries.  Over  seven  tenths  oi 
our  tonna,i,'e  consists  of  wooden  ships,  -whereas  our  iddef  commereial  rival 
lias  iiractieaily  no  wooden  vessels  whatever.  Only  7  ]ier  cent  ol  the  Krenili 
marine  consists  (d  wooden  shi|is.  and  in  the  case  of  (icrmaiiy  less  tiiau  Ti  jicr 
cent. 

'I'lie  outhxiU  I'of  iron  and  steel  shipbuildiii":;  is  so  promisini.^  that  a  rapid 
increase  in  iron  and  steel  toimaLre  is  certain  to  come.  Larjjidy  through  t lie 
iiitlnence  of  the  I'econst  iiict ion  (d'  our  navy,  numerous  larye  plant-;  for  liic 
construction  of  steel  ships  have  been  estalilished  at  l>ath,  I'hiladeljiliia,  Wil 
niini,'lon.  iialtiniore,  Newport  News,  San  Francisco,  and  other  seaport^. 
Cities  on  the  .Mississippi  IJiver.  and  especially  those  on  the  (Jreat  Lake-, 
are  euL-aK""'  i"  builditi'.,'  sldps  id  iron  and  steel.  There  are  sevi'rul  >li  ,  i 
plants  in  the  Lake  ports,  and  in  them  we  have  built  the  larirer  part  id'  our 
steel  toniiau'e.  ()ur  ii'oii  ships  have  been  liuilt  idiietly  in  the  si  aboard  vards. 
l)uriie^'  the  pr(>st  nt  yi'ur.  iSiHI.  the  American  yards  are  busy  const i  net iii- 
vc>s(ds  both  for  tln^  navy  and  b>r  our  merchant  fleet,  and  new  yards  are  bein.; 
established.  Ilavinn'  ben'ini  selling  crude  ami  structural  iron  and  stechind 
various  classes  (d'  ina(diiuerv  in  I'hirope,  even  in  (ireat  Uritain.  we  shall  e;r 
lonii  be  selliuii;  iron  and  steid  ships.  The  eNcellence  of  our  navy  has  brme^lii 
us  oi'ders  i'or  war  ships,  and  the  skill  and  iiiNciitioii  of  our  shiiiliuilders  will 
briu'j-  us  fnrei'ni  orders  bir  merchant  nuMi. 


VIII.    cAi  sKs   Aceor\i'i\(;   i-oi;    riii:  i  i:nii  in       < km     i.m 


i.iMi|;i:ss. 


'I'lie  commercial  ])roLrress  of  the  luiieteen 


I, 


the  salient  phase-  o 


which  have  iieoii  depicted  in  the  I'oicLjoiiii;'  pa.  ,t,>  been  the  i'        ♦  ot  tliiii> 

sets  ol  causes,  economic.  ]iolitical.  and  social. 

The  oconomic  causes  of  most  importance  arr  the  improvements  in  tian-- 
]iortatioii.  the  reorLcani/atioii  of  industry  on  a  laruc  si  de.  the  aocuniulalii>M 
id'  capital,  tosxether  with  the  .growth  of  corporations  and  credit  instil  utiun- 
whereby  the  utility  of  capital  has  been  enhanced,  and  the  discovery  (d  larv 
stores  of  gold. 


Ml 


:>  «'i 


•»'» 


KMunv 

V  Mic  Civil  Will 
•ilH',  tlu'  toiiiia;;' 

HSO.    whtMl    (.III; 

II  stiitfd  ill  u  li:i' 
iSi'is  Inr  \v(MP(ii'ii 
Wi'  arc  aiiiiii;ill\ 
II  jioiiits  to  I'lipid 

ill'  t<)!niaj,'t'  cdii 

I  and  stfcl  slii|i. 
lit.  During'  tiic 
IKHi  tons  of  iron 
I.'JOd.OOO  stciiiii 
ISUI  to  iN'.tS  our 
oiis  of  iron  iiiiil 
lit  our  iiirn-iiaiil 
ill'  prcsriit  tiiiii' 
aifc  oi'  iron  inid 
seven  tt'iitlis  ol 
oiiinici'fial  iiv;il 
It  ol  tlic  Frt'iiili 
■  less  than  a  ]ier 

ill!,'  that  a  nipiil 
,'ely  through  the 
'  plant-;  tor  \\\r 
iila(h']]>hi:i.  W  li 
otiiei'  seiqiorts. 
le  (Jreat  i,;ikr-. 
re  several  >t(  li 
I'L'er  ])iirt  of  our 
s(  alioard  \  ai  ii>. 
sy  eonstructiii!; 
yai'ils  iil'e  lieili,' 

II  anil  steel  ami 
in.  we  shall  I'le 
ivy  has  hroie^lit 
ii|iliiiil(lers  will 


\\.     II.MMlltKSS, 

alii'iit  jihase-  ot 

r>        t  ol  ihn  r 

nu'iits  in  tiau^- 
le  aoounmlatii'ii 
(lit  institution 
ieoverv  ol'  lar.' 


TlUi   CES'TUliY'S   COMMEliCIM.   I'lKKi/t i:SS 


.-ill 


"rransiKMtation  is  tlie  hainlinaiii  ot  trade.  Wliatever  enalilcs  this  haiid- 
liiid  to  do  her  work  eheaiier  and  (luieker  eiilarj;es  the  scope  iind  volilliie  ot 
lie  world's  coiniiicrcc.  When  one  considcrH  that  it  cost  nearly  IdiU'  times  as 
inch  in  l.S7r»  to  ship  wheat  Iroiii  New  \<nk  to  Liverpool  as  it  did  twenty 
cars  later,  and  tnlly  three  times  as  nineli  trom  Cliieayo  to  liiverpool,  one 
III  readily  umh'rstand  how  transportation  has  remo\e(l  hindrances  to  eont- 

niel'CC. 

Cheap  and  rapid  transportation  has  made  an  extensive  (•oniiiicrce  possilile. 
I'lit  it  lias  been  tlu?  or^'anization  (d'  industry  on  a  lai.i.,'e  scale  that  has  created 
I  lie  (dii(d'  demand  tor  eomnierce.  Industry  at  the  present  time  is,  to  a  lar.Lji? 
>  \tent,  .so  or}{ani/e(l  as  best  to  promote  the  territorial  and  international 
ilivision  (d'  lalior;  and  each  lar^'c  producer  rcj,'ar(ls  the  whole  world  as  his 
market.  'I'lie  amount  (d' commerce  reipiired  increases  with  the  (Vincent ration 
Old  s])eciali/at  ion  (d  industry,  and  with  every  widening'  ot  the  producer's 
market. 

It  has  been  the  aceuninlatioii  of  capital  and  its  iiiereased  availability  tor 
imrposes  (d'  production  that  have  made  possible  the  (uvani/ation  (d'  industry 
i>u  its  present  basis,  and  enabled  men  to  construct,  the  hi^^lily  developed 
transportation  system  by  means  (d  which  commerce  is  accomplisliL'd.  'I'Ik? 
aiaterial  proj^'icss  ot  the  past  cent  iiry  is  unprecedented.  I  ndiiNtry  has  cicited 
wealth  as  with  the  liundi  ot  a  niai;ic  wand:  and  ihis  rapidly  .i^i'owiiij,'  uialtli 
lias  been  made  available  capital  through  the  in.stiiinientality  ot  the  c(ii|inra- 
lioii  wliiidi,  by  nicaiis  (d'  sto(dis  and  bonds,  has  i,'iithere(l  into  j,daiit  oi;.,'aiii- 
/ations  the  ])roperty  ot  hundrc(|s  and  even  lliousands  of  individuals.  'J'lio 
industrial  corporations  have  been  ^'ical  ly  assisteij  in  their  work  (d'  coiiceii- 
liatiiii;'  and  applyiiiic  ca|iital,  b\  the  banks  and  other  instiliit  ions  that  have 
•■nlar,;,'e(l  credit  and  made  a  ^dveii  amount  ot  prooerty  capalile  (d'  pertnriiiiii^' 
a  much  lar^ijcr  work.  'I'he  expansion  (d'  industrial  credits.  iiirliierni(H-e.  has 
liccii  j^reatly  i'acililate(l  by  the  issue  of  L;overmiieiit  bonds  in  lai^^e  amounts 
diiriiii;-  tin;  century.  'I'liese  state  ob|i(,r;it  i(uis  eonstilule  excellent  business 
sci'iirities.  ot  wdii(di  banks,  other  coi'|ioial  ioiis.  and  individuals  nuike  exteii- 
>ive  use.  Siudi  are  some  ol  the  lact(U's  that  have  proiiioted  the  accumulation 
111  ca|iital  and  increased  the  V(dume  ot  coninicrce. 

.Money  is  not,  capital,  imt  an  adeipiale  supjily  (d  a  sound  ami  stable  niediuiii 
h|  i'X(diaiif^e  is  essential  to  iiiiiu.--t  rial  and  coiiiinercial  iim'^ress.  Twice  in  the 
history  id'  the  world  the  discovery  ot  lar;4e  Mipplies  id'  the  |U'eciniis  luelals 
lias  iiiveii  a  ,i;reat  iiniietus  to  indnstry  and  trade  :  once,  in  the  sixteeiitli  ceii- 
tury.  when  the   Spanish   i,'alleys   broic^iit    to   I'airope   rich    treasure   lidiu   the 

-ilver  mines  of  .\merica  ;  and  a;-;aiii.  in  the  middle  ol  the  niiieteenil iitiiry. 

when  the  riidi  tinds  ot  ,t,'oid  were  made  in  .Viistralia  and  < 'alit(U'iiia.  'i'he 
\ciy  rapid  increase  in  the  eonimerce  (d'  the  I'liited  States  and  of  the  world 
at  laf,u;c.  whi(di  be!,'aii  about  lS.-|(l.  was  in  no  small  ile;4rce  the  result  oi  the 
lisiiu,'  |U'ices  w  hi(di  t'(dlowed  the  discoveries  (d  Ljold.  'i'he  dosin,!,' (lecade  of 
'he  century  is  witiiessiiej;  a  similar  occurrence.  i"ur  many  years  ](rices  de- 
'  lined  rapidly:  the  demands  made  upon  the  world's  j,'old  sujiply  were  rapidly 
increased  at  a  time  when  the  annual  output  was  deidinint,'.  l'"roni  IS.Id  to 
1S7(»  the  annual  output  ot  .nohl  avera<,'e(l  over  .sl;!().(l(l(l.(l()0  ;   it  then  declined 

'  rapidly  that  it  jiinoiintpd  to  only  a  little  over  .s](M).(iO().(Mi(l  a  year,  in  ISS.". 

:;d  1S8(;.      It   was  only  -Si  IS.S  IS.THii    in    ISIMI;  but  the  i.reseiit  animal  juo- 


^^i 


")l-2 


TRIUMPHS   AM)    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


tl^ 


'I  n 


m  >% 


':)11 


mu\ 


„t     ' 


tliiction  is  nearly  -SyOl •.()()<»,( •<•(),  and  tlio  fall  in  jjricos  lias  lu'cii  checked  for  ;i 
wiiile  at  least.  The  verv  rajtid  enlai'Ljenient  in  conmierce  durinic  tiie  ]>ast 
two  years  must  have  been  facilitated  liy  tlu'  recent  increase  in  the  annual 
jiroduction  of  j^old. 

A  second  ;j;eneral  cause  accountini;-  for  ilie  world's  |iro},'ress  in  conuuercc 
is  political  —  the  coniinercial  ])olicy  followed  hy  ihe  leading  nations  of  tin 
%\t)rld.  L'p  to  tiie  nineteenth  century,  practically  every  country  strove  li 
promote  its  trade,  navigation  interests,  and  its  power  as  a  nation  hy  nu'an.s 
of  the  nu-nsiiitile  system,  —  a  .system  of  strict  and  detailed  u'gulatinn  ol 
foreign  trade  l»v  means  of  tariffs  and  navigation  laws.  Kach  country  strove 
to  determine  the  nature  of  its  international  trade,  and  endeavored  to  carry 
on  its  commerce  in  its  own  ships,  in  the  case  ol  one  country,  at  least,  the 
mercantilo  .--ystem  was  eminently  successful.  tireat  liritain  entered  tin 
great  Napoleonic  wars  with  a  jpowerful  naval  and  merchant  marine,  ann 
emergeil  Ironi  that  struggle  the  uii(|uestinne<l  mistress  (d'  the  ocean.  Ilei 
inilu--tries  also,  as  well  as  her  ships,  were  stronger  than  those  of  other  coun 
tries:  and  she  soon  concluded  that  hoth  her  loreign  tradt' and  her  shipping 
would  profit  l)y  doing  away  with  tiie  restrictions  (d'  the  mercantile  system, 
and  adopting  the  policy  of  entire  commercial  freedom,  ."^he  made  no  mistake, 
for  her  industries  ami  commerce  have  wonderfully  iiros]iered. 

Tiie  suci-ess  <d'  free  trade  and  Ireedoni  (d'  commerce  in  the  I'nited  Kiu'^- 
dom  had  much  intliieiice  upon  other  countries,  and.  during  the  third  (piartei- 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  several  could ries  hegan  to  move  cautiously  in  the 
«lirection  tiiatthe  I'liitcd  Ivingdom  had  taken.  'I'iiey  soon  found,  however, 
that  for  them  free  trade  and  shipping  meant  Ilritish  trade  and  shippiic,'. 
because  of  their  inability  to  compete  successfully  with  their  jiowerfnl  rival: 
iiiid.  during  the  last  ipiartcr  of  the  century,  the  dotninant  commercial  iuni 
maritime  policy  outside  of  the  l>ritish  T.des  has  been  one  jiroviding  fni 
tlie  regulation  o\'  trade  by  tariffs,  and  for  the  i)romotion  of  the  niercanlili' 
marine  by  postal  payments  and  bounties.  At  the  present  time,  the  two  iiiosi 
]»o'.vei'ful  commercial  rivals  (d"  the  I'nited  Kingdom  are  the  I'liited  Static 
ami  vlermany  :  and  their  trade  policy  is  one  <d'  regulation  instead  of  freedom. 
It  woidd  seem,  tlierefore,  jiulging  by  results,  that  both  the  Tinted  Kingdon; 
and  her  competitors  have  acted  wisely,  and  that  in  both  cases  the  mean^ 
adopted  were  such  as  conditions  demanded. 

The  third  cause  of  the  world's  commercial  progress  during  the  ]>ast  cei.- 
tury  has  been  colonial  ex|)ansion  (ii'rmaiiy,  France,  and  other  eouidrie-, 
influenced  by  the  great  success  of  the  I'nited  Kingdom,  have  establislini 
c(doiues  in  different  parts  of  the  w(U'ld,  and  assumed  control  <iver  nueiviii/ei| 
peoples,  until  there  are  now  IL'.T  colonies,  protectorates,  and  dependencii  - 
These  VJ'>  regions  comprise  two  fifths  of  the  land  stirface  id'  the  globe,  ai  1 
contain  uno  third  of  its  po]iulation.  'I'hese  coloides  and  profci  torates  im|»  ■ 
aninially  over  .Sl,r)(IO,(Hi(t.(t(M»  worth  of  commodities,  and  of  this  large  sn  . 
more  than  forty  per  ceid  is  iiought  from  mother  countries.  'I'lie  Inst  nati'  > 
to  adopt  the  policy  of  coloidal  expansion  is  the  I'lnted  States,  her  prineip  ' 
colony,  the  l'hilipiiint>  Islands,  having  lieen  made  a  part  cd'  her  possessii 
because  (d'  our  di'sire  to  secure  a  laiLrer  share  (d'  the  trade  of  the  Orii'ut. 


""'Sll; ,;. 


■n  clit'ckcd  lor  ;i 
iliiriiii^  tilt-  jtiisi 
I'  in  tilt'  aiiiiiiiil 

'ss  ill  coiiiiiu'rci 
I  nations  of  tin 
nntrv  strovt!  Ic 
at  ion  Itv  nu'an^ 
il  rfj,Milati(>n  ol 
coniitrv  strove 
avni't'd  to  cany 
rv.  at  least,  tlir 
tin  entered  tin 
nt  marine,  ano 
lie  ocean.  Ili  i 
I'  ol'  ot  ii-.M'  comi 
nd  lier  sliiii|iiii:,' 
•cantile  system, 
lade  no  niistakf. 

e  I'liited   Kin- 

le  tliird  (piartri 

iiilioiislv  in  the 

round.  Iiowever, 

>  anil  slii|i|iini:. 

|io\verf'iil  rival : 

■onnuercial  aii<! 

in'ovidinj,'   I'm' 

the  niercaiitilr 

the  two  nio-i 

'iiited   Sliit'^ 

id  of  freedniii. 

ited  Kiii,u;doiii 

ses  the  iiicaii> 

the  jiast  I'eii- 
ther  coiintrir-. 
VI'  (>slalilislii  li 
cr  uneivili/e.| 
(le|iendencii  - 
the  i,dolie.  ai  I 
titrates  ini|"'it 

lis  larp'  sin  I 
he  l;«st  null.  . 

her  |irinci|'  ! 
er  posscssii  I  ■ 
e  ( (rieiit. 


a 

a 


?! 

O 


a 


73 

'a. 


i»'»l 


!-H  11';.; 


'  ili 


11) 


it  1 

- 

.III! 

1 

i 

!■  ' 
1 

'11'  1! 

1 

llj 

« 

;hI| 

THE   CENTUnV'S   COMMERCIAL   I'liUGIiESS 


oi:j 


1\.     Tin;    TWKNTlKTll    CKNITUY    I'ltOSl'KIT. 

The  world  is  t'litcriii!^'  uiiini  the  iwriitictU  ctMituiy  with  tlio  nations  of  the 

itli  bound  lo  t'iicii  oliit'i'  l)y  iiiiich  closor  rt'liitions  tlian  cxisti'd  ;i  liundrt'd 

ars  ago,  and  chiri'  anions;'  the  torrcs  tlial   draw  tin-  couulrii's  ol'  thf  worhl 

•    .icther  is  coiiiinci'cc.      It  is  coninitMci',  niori'  than  anvthinjj;  idsf.  that  lias 

I   .lUj^ht  iil)out  tho  I'xistin.u;'  ori^ani/ation  (j1'  inihistn  in  which  each  nation  is 

.,  |M'n(h'nt  n|pon  cvt-rv  other. 

riic  nations  of  the  worhl  are  nmtually  dependent,  but  their  interests  are 
ii.it  identicah  In  tlie  future,  as  tiiey  have  (h)ne  in  the  past,  nations  will  eoni- 
l>,  !e  with  eaeh  other,  each  striv  in,!,'  to  secure  for  itself  ii  uiaximuni  of  economic 
a  i\anta,i?e  ;  and  this  com  pet  it  ion  will  continue  to  take  the  form  of  commercial 
rivalry.  The  .great  international  struggles  of  the  present  day  are  being  car- 
li.d  on  to  secure  traile  advantages;  and  at  no  time  in  the  past  have  those 
iciitests  been  more  earnest  than  they  now  are.  The  couHicts  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  will  bi'  connnercial  struggles,  and  they  will  be  intense. 

In  the  centuries  when  I'lnrnicia.  (ireece,  Carthage,  Kiuue.  and  Venice  were 
surcessivtdy  powerful,  the  Mediterranean  was  the  theatre;  of  commercial 
activity  and  international  rivalry.  The  navigators  and  exjilorcrs.  whose  cx- 
jiloits  closed  the  niedia'val  period  and  inaugurated  the  modern  era.  carried 
the  world's  commerce  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic  and  trans- 
ferri'd  tlie  centres  of  national  greatness  from  the  sout.hern  to  tin;  western  and 
northern  mitions  of  Kurojie.  The  great  industrial  countries  of  the  prt'sent 
are  those  of  Kuro^.e  and  .\merica  adjacent  to  the  North  Atlantic.  The.se 
cniuitries  originate  the  larger  part  of  the  world's  commerce;  and  the  main 
streams  of  international  trade  are  those  which  connect  these  countries  with 
each  other  and  with  those  regions  of  the  earth  less  highly  develojied  indus- 
trially. 

The  l.stlnnus  of  Suez,  just  north  of  tin;  Tropic  of  Cancer,  ami  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  a  short  distance  south  of  that  line,  wi.'re  the  only  barriers  which 
nature  placeil  across  an  otherwise  continucMis  water  route  around  the  earth 
ill  the  northern  liemisphere.  These  barriers  diverted  the  lines  whicli  the 
world's  largest  volumi!  of  trafiii!  tends  to  follow  far  to  the  south  around 
Africa  and  South  .\iiierica.  or  did  so  until  iSd'.t.  when  Kurope  overcame  the 
barrier  of  most  conse(pieiice  to  her  by  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
Since  the  opening  of  that  waterway  l''urope  has  enjoyed  advantages  for  inter- 
national trade  superi(M'  to  those  enjoyed  by  our  country.  Our  regions  most 
lii:^lily  developed  iiidustri;dly  are  tributary  to  the  .Vtlaiitic  and  (Julf  of 
Nb'Nico.  'I'o  the  east  <d'  ns  lies  l''.uro]ie.  a  I'e^iou  ol  great  industrial  advance- 
luent.  demanding  little  more  than  our  sui|ibis  IikmI  products  and  raw  mate- 
rials: to  the  soutli  are  the  countries  of  the  South  .\tlantic  lying  along  the 
line  iif  the  world's  secondary  c<iiiiniercial  routes;  countries,  moreover,  whose 
trade  we  can  secure  only  in  direct  conipetitinn  with  Kumpe.  which  has 
alreaily  forestalled  ns  at  many  points.  In  pushing  their  trade  westward  the 
iinlustrial  States  (d'  the  I'liited  States — and  they  are  found  in  the  eastern 
hall  of  our  country  —  find  that  the  possibilities  of  a  tiatlic  by  land  are  re- 
>tiicted  within  narrow  bnunds  by  the  heavy  costs  of  a  lung  haul  o\er  the 
elevated  Cordilleiaii  .Mountain  ranges,  while  shipnienls  by  water  have  to  take 
till'  circuitous  and  expensive  route  around  South  America.      L'ntil  an  isth- 


n 


■em  I 


514 


TlilUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


m 


I'M 


iiiian  caiiiil  is  constriufU'd  tlic  I'liiifil  States  will  he  haiidicapiu'd  in  its  com 
j)etitioii  witli  Imii'oih'  tor  the  trade  of  all  countries  bordering  the  I'aciti. 
Ocean. 

The  L'nitcd  States  lixiks  forward  to  tin;  coming  century,  confident  of  shai 
ing  largely  in  the  world's  coninicree.    With  an  enormous  and  raiiidly  grt)wiii. 
foreign  trade,  ami  with   her  indusli'ies  sending  tlieir  wares  into  all  (|uartei 
of  the  gl(ii)e.  tlie  future  id'  her  trade  is  cei'tain.     Shall  we  also  become  a  grem 
nuiritime  nation  ".'     Sliall  we  lie  as  successful  in  the  age  of  steel  sli'amshij. 
as  we  werc!  in  the  days  when  our  cli]i|ier-shi|)S.  "those  strong-winged  gidls  in 
tindier.  put  swift  girdles  around  the  earth  V"      Tnciuestionalily.  yes  I     'I'ii.' 
commercial  advaniages  which  our  rivals  have  jiossessed  foi'  half  a  centur\ 
have  nearly  all  disa|i|ieared.    <Mir  maritime  instincts  are  not  dead;  and  win  n 
we  again  turn  our  attention  in  earnest   to  the  work  of  international  navi-M 
tion.  we  shall  •'  win  anew  the  wide-reaching  seas  our  sires  loved  and  occujiicil 
so  well.'' 

K.MOUV  J{.  Joiixsox. 


Ifttil 


m 


'Mi' 


ii 


^ 


EDUCATION   DURING  THE  CENTURY 


Till-;  iiiiu'tcciith  cnitury  lias  bcru  cliMiiictiTi/cd  In  :i  ilccii  and  aliiding 
iiiti'icst  ■•!  ]Mi]mlar  cdiieatiuii.  ( hie  liundicd  years  ai,'ii  there  were  iiiany 
1  lose  ()l).-ervei's  who  slroii^dy  diniosed  all  atteiaiits  tn  |inivicle  scIkmiIs  I'or 
the  inasst's,  lest  they  sliouhl  he  educated  al"i\'e  iheir  stathm  in  Hie.  'I'his 
Iceliii^' was  purtieularly  stroll};  in  conservative  countries  like  Kie^land.  it 
led  the  Duke  ol  W'tdliiiLjton  to  remark  to  one  who  was  e\|ilainin;4  to  him 
ihe  woik  (d  Joseph  I^aiieaster.  '"Take  care  what  you  are  about;  lor  unless 
\nn  base  all  this  on  r(dijj;ioii,  you  are  only  makiiii;  so  many  idever  devils.'' 
Sii  careful  a  critic  as  .Vlc.xis  de  'l"oci|ueville,  alter  his  visit  to  thi'  I'nited 
Slates  in  IS.'il,  wrote  to  .lared  Sjiarks  :  -Are  the  ellects  of  education  niii- 
t'liiiily  t^ood  '.'  Docs  not  a  man  who  obtains  an  education  aliove  bis  social 
condition  become  an  umiuiet  citizen  V  "'  'i'lic  iirst  triumiih  ol  the  nineteeiitli 
(■mtury  was  the  con(|uest  of  this  iear;  and  there  is  to-day  a  ^I'licral  belief 
that  it  is  the  duty  ol  eacdi  community  to  provide  a  well-dev(do|ied  sidiool 
system,  that  eatdi  (diild  may  have  an  oiiiportunity  for  making  the  best  and 
liii,diest  use  of  his  powers  and  capabilities. 

I'crliaps  no  single  (dement  has  contributed  more  to  this  (diange  in  tlu! 
popular  attitude  towards  s(diools  than  the  writings  of  the  great  group  of 
tliinkers  who.  with  lofty  ideals  and  keen  acumen,  have  devoted  tlienisclvos 
In  the  study  and  discussion  of  educational  ([uestions.  (iermany  has  been 
Inrcmost  in  its  contributions  to  educational  liteiature.  l''orcinost  in  time 
as  in  intliieiice  is  .lolin  i[cnry  I'estalozzi  ( 174<»-1SL'7).  .Mthough  endowed 
with  an  "unrivaled  incapacity  for  govcrnnieiit,"  I'estalozzi  has  yet  become 
;in  ins]iiratioii  to  luoderii  pedagogy,  because  (d'  his  love  i'or  teaching  and 
llic  tender  syiniiatliy  (d'  his  nature,  .\fter  various  educational  experiments, 
he  opened,  in  ISO"*,  a  scdicxd  at  Vvcnbin,  on  the  I,ake  ci  Neuf(diat(d.  whiidi 
soon  won  for  him  a  Kuropean  reputation,  and  becanii  a  centre  of  interest 
to  educators  from  all  Kurope.  The  Kiuperor  of  iiussia  gave  him  a  jicrsonal 
proid'  (d'  his  favor,  and  I'Mcdite,  tlic  great  (ierman  philosopher,  dcidared  that 
lie  saw  in  I'estalozzi  ami  his  labors  the  dawning  of  a  new  era  for  humanity. 
Ill  his  writings  and  in  his  teacdiiiig  I'estalozzi  emiihasized  the  importance  (d' 
I  lie  home  in  education;  Ik;  asserted  the  truth  that  all  instriu-tioii  is  basctl 
nil  observation:  "X<dtlier  books  nor  any  proiluct  oi'  human  skill,  but  lil'e 
iisclf.  yields  the  basis  i'or  all  education:"  and  in  a  'general  way  he  aimed  to 
dividop  tlio  idiild  tlirougli  his  own  jiersonal  activity,  nitlier  than  to  furnish 
iiiiii  with  nscd'ul  facts. 

riic  most  eniinent  of  I'estalozzi's  disciples  was  Kriedricdi  Froidxd  (ITML'- 
iN.'Cl,  the  founder  id"  tlie  kimlergarteii.  .\iter  a  varied  career  as  a  forester. 
-Indent  at  .leiia.  etc..  i-'rocbid  went  to  Vverdiiii  in  ISOS.  and  i'or  two  years 
w;iN  a  co-laborer  with  I'estalozzi.  The  impulse  wliicdi  he  here  received  never 
lost  its  force.     It  brought  liim  to  consider  the  jiroblems  of  eleineiitary  educu- 


^.ISil 


D 


»  !      I 


ill  lltli 

111!         '  I 


l^ni. 


!■! 


uKi  TUIU.MI'IIS   AM)    WoSDEItS   <>F   THE   \J.\"'   CESTriiY 

tidii.  iiinl  liiially  Icil.  in  l.s.'i7.  ti>  liis  i'sliil)li>liiin'nl  nl  tlic  lirsi  kiiMlcri^'urti'ii  m 
l'>!;iiik('iil)iii',L,'  ill  'I'liiiriii^ia.     1 1  i>  iilc;i  iiiiiv  lie  well  i'\|pr('s>cil  in  liis  n\\  ii  wdnl- 
—  ••  I  (Mil  cdiiv  crt  ciiilili-cii'^  ;ic't  i\  it  ii's.  riii'iLiii's.  ;i  111  I  iM' incuts.  (ic('ii|i;il  idiis.  ;ii 
tliiit  '^ni's  l>y  llic  iiiini'    (p|  [iliiv.  iiiln  i list  riinn 'lit s  lor  iiiv  |iiii'1misc.  mnl  lluMvlnir 
t  liin-l'cirni    |pl;iy   inln   wmk.     'I'lii^  wmli  will   he  (•(jiicut  ion   in   lln-  true  M'n>' 
(if  t  lie  term."      Ills  v;if;il  ilicdiy  \\;is  iilc:il  isl  ic  —  he  liclicvcd  in  t  he   nn;1y  c 
till'  liiiivcisi'.  in  tlic  cs^i'iitiiil    lijiriiiniiy  dl'  tlir  wdiid.      It  \v;is  tiic  duty  til  tli 
Iciiclicr  Id  lit   the  child  Idr  his   phicc  in   hiiniaii  sdcicty.     This  ciiiild   he  In  -■ 
ddiic  ir  the  child  \\as  taken  at  a   scry  caily  a'^c  and   |ire|iai'ed   inr  liic  in  ,i 
ordinary  scIkkiI.     The  kiiidci',icarlcii.  or  cliilii-L;'ardcii.  is  thus  a  school  where 
cliild  learns  social  lil'c.  wiici't'  liis  play  is  >yslcniat  i/ed  and  his  ad  ivitics  ai 
direcled.     The  avcra'^e  coins"  dl'  study  takes  hold  of  the  child  u  iieii  lie  i 
six  \cars  of  a'4c;  the  kiiider,L;;Hleii  iisnally  liils  in  tin;  two  |irecedin,;^- _\  ear- 
As  an  cdiicatidiial    institiiiion.  the  kiiider.i^artcn   lias  met  with   little   imiili. 
siipiidit    ill    i'aiid|ic,   altlidii^;h    in    i'aris   there  are   a   nniiilier  df   "  maternal 
sciiddls."  wliiidi  cdrres|iond  ehise.ly  to  l^'meliel's  plan.      In  the  United  Stale-, 
.Miss  l']li/.alietli  I'ealiody  hecame  tin'  lirst  apostle  of  the  movement.     'I'lie  idi  . 
of  earini.;'  for  the  (diihlrcn   lielow  the   re,i;iilar  school-aL;e  won  iii>taiit,  favoi, 
and   in  a  iiiiiiiiier  oj'  larut'  cities  kiiideri^artt'iis  were  opened   under  private 
an  .pices.     .\s  their  success  hecame  clearer  and  more  positive,  tliey  were  take  n 
under  the  control  (d'  the  piililic.     In  lS'.l()-;(7.  the  report;  of  the  I'liited  Stall  > 
Commissioiier  of  Kdncalioii  shows  that  there  were  1(»77  kindergartens  in  the 
rnitetl    States   connected    with    the    piiiilic-s(diool    systems   of  cities   liavin- 
more  than   lOOO  population,  with  an  enrollment  of  M.'-Mf)  |iiipils.     The  liilei- 
natioiial  Kinderj^aricn  I'liion.  fornied  for  the  piirjiose  of  ••  i;allieriiijf  and  di>- 
semiiiatiiij^  kiiowledj^e  of  the  kindergarten  iiioveiiient  throii,t,dioiit.  tiic  world." 
lias  aided  |.,q'eatly  in  stiiiiiilat  iiii,'  an  int(dli,e-enl  interest  in  j'^roeiicrs  ideals  in 
America. 

None  of  the  ,!,M'eat  (Jernian  philosophers  lias  iieeii  lionored  with  a  iiieic 
loyal  cult  tliaii  .lohaiin  l''rie(lrieli  llerhart  (177.">-1SH  ),  who  directed  ,i,'enei.il 
attention  to  the  necessity  (d'  stiidyiiiL,'  the  principles  id'  education.  In  lii^ 
\vritiii;.,'s  and  lectures  while  professor  at  tiie  I'niversity  of  <  iiittiii'^en.  Ilci- 
bait  siarteil  an  impiiry  into  the  theoretical  liasis  (d'  instruction,  lie  foimd 
the  tinal  aim  (d'  all  education  to  centre  in  the  loriuation  of  moral  tdiaractcr, 
while  the  keystone  of  instruction  is  interest.  '•The  linal  aim  of  instruction 
is  niiirality.  l!iit  the  nearer  aim  whiidi  iiistruetioti  in  particular  must  sec 
l)(d'ore  itsidf  in  order  to  reatdi  the  tinal  one.  is  many-si(le(lness  of  intcre-i  " 
llerhart's  intliieiiee  in  arousin|..j  and  direct  in;,'  tliou,i;lit  lias  Iteen  most  fell  :ii 
(iermaiiy.  Init  in  .\iiierica  his  name  has  heen  taken  liy  one  of  the  most  ac'iM' 
educational  assoeiat ions,  ••  The  National  llerhait  Society." 

Next  to  (leiniaiiy  in  its  li<|  of  i^reat  educational  thinkers  must  come  l.n.:- 
land.  A'  the  lie!.;inniii,v'  of  this  century  there  were  no  ••  |iaiiiic  xdiooi- "  m 
Kntiland.  in  the  American  sense  of  the  term.  The  L;reat  preparatory  seiioc!s, 
—  I'.toii,  llie^liy.  Marrow.  Wimdiester.  etc..  —  alllioii,i;h  called  "]inl)lic"  li\ 
the  |''.unlisli.  were  in  reality  endowed  iMiardiii'^-sehools.  where  as  ;i  rule  imi!v 
the  (diihlrcn  of  the  ri(di  could  he  fou'id.  (ieiieral  education  was  ear(>d  Ihi  i'V 
the  village  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  viear(d'  the  parish,  and  u-n. i!ly 
pre-ided  o\"r  liy  iddeily  dames  with  vaiieil  de;.irees  of  attainmenl-.  .\l  I'c 
end  of  the  ei'diteeiitli  eeiituiv.  the  work  of  .\ndrew   l!idl  and  .loscpli    l...;i- 


t 


;.V77  /.■) 

I    1|1>  U\\  11    WDlll- 

(icciiliiiliiiii-i.  :i; 
sc.iiiul  llifivtm. 
1   till'   trui'  M'li>' 

in  tli<'  unity  i. 
s  the  ilnty  i>r  ill 
is   l-nlllil    !»■    1" 
■cd   Inr  lili'  ill  •' 
a  si'liodl  wiun 

liis  artivilii'S  ai 

chilli  \\li»'ii  '"■  ' 
(  iiri'i'ciliiiL;'  \ <"ii 
kvith  litlU-  l»il'ii 
„.!•  nf   ••  uiutcniai 
hi'  i:iiit*Ml  Sliiti". 
•(Miii'iit.    Til"'  i'l'  ' 
,,,11  iii>laiil   t';iv(.i, 
i,.(l   iinilfr  I'nviil'' 
»'.  UifV  \v«'rt'  l;iK'  11 
tilt'  riiitfil  Stall- 
iidtTiiarli'iis  ill  till' 
^   of  fitit's  havin- 
.upils.     Thi-  I  lit.  I 
<4iit,lu'riiiK  ^^i"'  ''•"' 
i.^lidiit  tlic  \vi)i-M.'" 
Knu'lu'l's  idt'iil-  in 

loivtl  with  a  iiKif' 


EDUCATios  iiritisa  Till-:  cicsrunY 


>i; 


(Urfcti'il  ii't'iu 


rai 


|,Mliicatioii.      Ill  lu- 
ll' Ciittiu'-,'''!!-  ••'■'■■ 
lie  fiiuiiil 


•Ui'lloll. 


i|    iiinval  fliararti 


aim  <• 


f  iiisti'urt  mil 


liar 


ticiilar  iinist 


lirSS    II 

lltM'll     till 


f    ilitriv~l 


i>t    Irlt    Ml 


,f  ihi-  iiiiist  ai'U. 


■  v-  iiiii>l  I'liiiir 


aiilir  >flii>i 


lirjia 

lall.'i 

lifif 


vatiirv  SIMM 
ni\)li(' ' 


iiii 


I  "1 
as  a  i'uli'  <iii'> 


was  cavoi 
,h.  ami  <'. 


1  Inr 


lari 
aiiiini'iit-- 


Ai 


<tt'i'  l(ri,Mii  to  arouse  siiiiii-  inlnr^t.      WmUiii--  iiiili'|iriiiliMilly.  tlir  mn'   in 

liia  ami  thu  oilier  in  l.oiiilnn,  liolli  ilevelnjieil  tlie  same  ini'thoil  of  |iroviilim{ 

Mi-ral  instnietioii  at  a  iiiinimiim  of  cost,  liy  usiuj;  tin;  uiuie  advaiieeil  iiii|iils 

instriiet  tlie  liei^iniiers.     ••  I'.v  the  aid  of  monitoi's."  said   lianea^ler,  ••  ouo 


ami 


ii>eiiii 


n>iM,o/./.r. 
(Thu  I'lTiy  I'ictures.     C'ii|iynnlit,  18ii8,  liy  K.  A.  IVny,  Maliliii,  Mas^.i 

iiKistor  can  toaoli  a    tliousaiid   hoys.''      In    ITltS.   T.aiieaster  o|ieiied  the  first 
Ki'u'lish  school  of  this  kind  in  Sonthwark.  London.  |ilaein'.i  this  inseiiiitiun 

nvtr  tliP  door:  "All  that  will  may  send  their  eliildieii  and  have  tliei Iii- 

lati'il  freely,  and  those  that  do  not  wish  to  have  eduiMtioii  for  iinthiie^  may 
I'liN  for  it.  if  they  pleaM'."     In  ISttS.  the  io.yal  Lancastirian  Soeiely  was  oinan- 


1  li.i 


lili 


">■  ^ 


■  -v; 


I) 


518         TltlUMI'llS  AM)    WOXDKUS  OF  THE  XI X'"  CKXTiL'V 


-IP'  J- 


iii 


iHl; 


li^t- 


Ml 


it*f 


\.»  H 


i/i'il,  to  iii,'itatt'  I'nr  iiuirc  sclionls  ;  mid  iilMi(iiiL,'li  itsnanif  was  cliiiip^cil.  in  \S\  |, 
to  Jiiitisli  and  l'"on'i;jii  School   Society,  its  woiU   lias  continued  down  l,o  tlh 
jiri'sciit  time.     In  ISlS.  Lancaster  came  to  America,  and  was  at  once  ]ilaced  in 
general  cliai'^je  oi' tiie  jiulilic  sciiools  of  l'liiiadel|iliia.     lie  was  made  ]irinci]ia 
oi'  a  model  school  I'oi'  ti'aiviiij;  tcaidiers,  which  is  lielii^ved  to  ha\e  been  tic 
first   attempt   at   a  normal   s(dio(d   in  America.      .Alter  extensive  ai^itation   ii 
Mew  ^'o^k.  ill  Canada,  where  in   lSL",t  he  received  an  a|i|ii-o|iiiatioii   irom  tin 
Ici^islature  to  eiiahle  liini  to  start   his  monitorial  sidiools.  and  even  in  South 
America.  Lancaster's  work  was  done. 

rroliaiilv   the   .[.greatest  teacher   of  the   ceiiturv    in    l-'iii^land   was   Tlioma 
Arnold,  whose  character  will  loii,:^'  live  in   literature  throiit^h  the  lovin;.;  [mi 
trailuie  (d'  his  impils.     While  contrihiitiii;,'  little  ol'  iiii|)ortance  to  the  sciem  ■ 
(d'  |ieda,y;ojj;v.  he  was  yet  alile  to  work  a  revolution  in  the  ,!.;eiieriil  conceiitio' 
ol'  teacdier  and  pupil,  and  tlieir  ndatioiis  to  eaidi  other,      lie  insisted  that  hi 
teaidiers  must   continue  their  studies  alter  they  had  secured   po>itions.  arv; 
so  raised  pr(d'e^sional  ideals.     •• 'I'he  pupil."  said  he.  ••  mii>t  drink  IVomtli 
runiiiu'4   lountain.  and    not    Iroiii  the   >ta;4naiit  jiool."      His  sym|(athy  ,i^a\<' 
liim   rare  power  to  mould  the  character  ol   lioys.      lie  trusted  his  hoys  and 
tliey  liecame  wortli\  ot  it.     '•  it  is  a  >liame  to  ttdl  .\riiold  a  lie  I     llealwav- 
lieliexcs  one."  —  was  the  common  sayin;j:.     As  a  (jonseciuenee.  there  went  on; 
Irom  l!u:4hy  S(diool  Ircini  ISL'7  to  JSJL'.  the  years  ol'  .Xrmdd's  !ieadmasterslii|  . 
a  urdupol'  (dean,  healthy,  wliole-souled  hoys,  well  titted  to  hcconie  leaders  in 
Kn,i,disii  life. 

^Maiiy  i-oiitrihntions  have  been  ma<le  to  the  literature  of  pf'da.-,'n,i,'y  duiin,: 
the  century,  hut  theie  is  noiie  tluit  lias  attracted  more  attention  or  stimnlaii  .1 
more  earnest  discussion  than  Herbert  Spencer's '•  Kihication."  In  the  lii  i 
(dia|iler  (d'  liis  hook.  Spencer  asks  the  ipiestion  wliiidi  aroused  llie  edic  1 
tioiial  world.  —  '"What  knowled'.;c  is  of  most  worth  '.' "  It  at  once  direct-i 
iiiipiiiy  into  t]ie  very  hep*  ■<[  educational  theory.  The  course  of  study,  im 
order  in  whiidi  subjects  should  be  considered,  the  time  to  be  Cn  to  im.  ii. 
—  all   these   prolilems  were  vitally  I'oiieerned  with  the  answer  lo  this  <ph - 


tloli 


Ml 


r.  S|iencer's  solution  won   instant   favor:   "How  to  live,''  s; 


ml 


"that  is  the  essential  Ipiestion   for  ns \nd  this,  beiiiL,' the  e;roat,  tlnnu' 

needful   for  ns  to  learn,  is.  by  cons'-inience.  the  <j;reat  thin.ij  whiidi  edncalh  ii 
lias  to  teach.     To  ]irepare  ns  for  iitnijiliti-  liviiii,'  is  the  function  w  hiidi  ('dih,i- 
tiiiii  has  to  disidiar^e."     This  point   of   view  h-d  to  tlie  acceiitin.y;  of  um  i;;! 
and   prai'tical   .siilijects.     The  human  body  should  he  studied.  —  this  is  iiei  i - 
sary  to  fullill  the  first  law  (d'  nature,  stdl'-preservafion.     The  natural  stdeiir.  > 
slmuld  be  all  es>ential  ])art   of  education  :    this  is  necessary  bu'  our  acipm    ' 
aiii'e  with  the  world  in  wliiidi  we  must    live  and  work.     History  and  si'  ,;ii 
science  should  be  studi(>d  :   that  caidi  one  may  become  full\  in  toindi  witli  i!i.' 
society  in  which   he  buins  a  unit.      Naturally,  little  time  would   be  lep    •  ■ 
liramdies  tliat    were  icsthetic  or  cultural,  anil  so  Spencer  would  have  the    1  . 
dent  ■.,nve  liut  his  surplus  time  to  these.     Itiit  the  imiportaiit  thiiii,'  was  lli      i 
should  know  himsidf.  his  world,  and  his  society,  so  that  he  woiihl  bp  fitti     ! 
do  his  work  in  the  most  complete  way.     Jlis  ]iractical  influence  upon  eihun- 
tion  is  best  seen  in  the  u'reat  increase  of  appreciation  for  the  natural  scic|ll•.■^ 
which  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  nature  observation  and  .stiuh ,  evin  :ii 
the  most  (dementarv  scdiools. 


i:i)i  (Alios  1)Ii;l<<;  the  cESTrnv 


511) 


lucil  (It'Wii  to  til' 
.,t  nluM'  plllf'il  11 

•as  ui;><l."  i.riucil>;i 

t,.  h:ivf  l'«'»'>'  <1" 

,„sivc  iiiiitiitinii   ii 

,p,i;itinii  I'v'Ui  111' 

.(,,,1  ..veil  ill  ^"1''' 

•  lana  w:is  Tl.ciu;. 
iinh  tli.'loviii-  1"" 
tinxT  to  tlu-  scii'U' 
jr,Micrii\  I'omM'i.U" 
Uf  iusisti'il  »liii<  1" 
.,,,.,.,1  ,,n>itious.  iiiv; 
ini^tanuU  from  til' 

His  svmV'it^iy  '^'"^' 
nistf.i  liis  I'oys  aiH 
.li,  li.-!     ll<'iilwii>^ 
i.Mico.  tlM'iv  w.Mitou; 

.UVs  IxMiliii;'^*''''^^"' • 
t.)  \htoui.-  l.'ii'li'i'^  in 

,.  „f.  pca:i,^o<,'y  tluiiii- 
lt,.iitionorstimuliil.a 

u-ation."     lii^l'^-t"  ' 

h   iivousf.l  Ih.-  »'tlii'  '; 

It  iit  ouct'  (\iiv.-i-i 

,.  ,,„UVSC  of    Stiulv.  II"' 

,1,.  to  l.«'  ■■•■>'  <""■■"■'• 
,  answiT  lo  this  ^i"'  - 
low  to  Vuv.'*  si.i.l  li-. 

\„.iu-4  ll«<>  ^"•^"^'  ^^""■^' 

ti,i„o-  which  .HhuMii" 

luiu-lion  whi'-li  v^W  '• 

„.  iu><ruti\i;4  •>'   "-'  '  ' 
uai.Ml.-tlnsisi.''- 

Thl'  lUltlinil  SCI.'.:.— 

ssiivv  for  oHV  atMiiKi  ;'• 
U  ilislovv  ana  ^"  I 
c'llU  intourl.  NvitlMli.' 
,i,u,'>  wouia  ix'  I'l'  '  ' 
1,.,,,  wnuia  l.av  tl'-'  '  ■■ 
,,,.,,„t  thin- was  ll.''  1' 
.„  i„.  wouia  iK't.tt.  ' 
\  innuonc'  upon  <MPi   > 

for  til.' natural  srin - 

ti,,ll   iUul  stUilN,  >'^'       ■ 


III  Aiiifrira  llicic  have  licni  iiii|M)rlaiit  cniii  riliiiti(iii>  to  nhiratioiial  thcoiy 
.lU'iiij^  thf  ci'iiliiry.  'IMu-re  lias  l>ccii  a  pcrtufl  tlood  of  caural  ioiial  hooks, 
.;iiii|ililt'ls.  aiul   jifi'loaicals.  whose  lucril   is  so  <^rrat.  as  to  t-xtort  fvi'ii  rclin'- 


KUOK.Ul'.I,.    KOIMHat    OK    Kl  NUia;"- Mill- Ns 
(Till'  I'.Tiv  I'iclnns.     ('..pyiiiilil,  ISlis,  l,v  K.    \.  I'liiv,  MaMcii.  M.i-><.1 

; ml  aaiiiiratioii  from  forcii;-!!  critics.  While  tliciv  has  Imtii  iiiiich  iiiicvcii- 
1.'--  ill  i|iialitv.  yi't  Aiiiriicaii>  have  no  reason  to  feel  a^haiiiea  of  their  eoii- 
iiihiitioii  to  ])e(la;4o;4ical  liteialiire.  The  iiesl  work  has  liceii  done  in  the 
iliseiissioii  of  siiecilitt   iiiie^liiiis.    rather  than   in   an    elalioratioii  of    ;^eiieral 


'%\ 


l|-< 


!B   .• 


i.  I 


it    i 


il'i  '< 

i:  -i.: 

;!         ,' 
1 '       ' 

li'vji 

l|i   silii 

lllf 

\'-^'' 

h  {■ 

.vjo      TiiirMi'ns  AM)  iroA7)/;/.'N  or  tiih  xix'"  cnxTuny 

iilciils.     Adiiiiiiisti'Jiliuii,  w  itii  its  niiiiiitolil  iirolilcms.  Ims  apiTiilcd  stniii(,'lv  In 
I  lie  Aiiirricaii  i^i'iiiiis ;  miuI  ciiiisciniciillv  tlic  i^it'iilcsl  nniiirs  ol  tlu' iTiitiir\  aii' 
tliusf  III'  iiifM  will)  liiiM'  ilrvdtfil  tliciiisi'lvt's  til  sniiii'  |iriii-l iciil  wui'k,  till'  iiiriils 
ami  ilclails  III'  wliicli  llirv   liiivi'  llinrniiu^lily  iiiasli'iril,  ami  sn  liavr  Irll  riiiliii' 
iiii,'  iiioimnu'iil.s  of  tln'ir  livi-s'  work. 

'I'll!'  I'rrat   ai'liii'vcniriit  nt'  llif  rnitiirv   in   tin-  I'liitril  Slairs  lias  licni  tin- 


vn.  THOMAS  AiiNoi.n.  op  Ri'nuY.  knolank. 
(('oiirti'sy  iif  Tilt'  Scliool  .liiiiriial,  New  York.) 

pstablishnicnt  of  a  systom  of  free  ami  imlilic  sriiools.  Liki'  most,  of  iln 
nation's  inti'llot'tiial  ini]mls(>s.  lliis  spirit  si'i-nis  In  liav.-  conn'  from  Ni'w  V.u:: 
land.  'riiiTc.  till'  dcnioiTatir  ideals  of  (lii-  pooiili'  led  to  an  i-arly  appiri'i.i 
tion  of  tlio  ni'i'i'ssity  for  universal  I'diication.  Tlii'ir  ran  lie  littli'  douiit  tli;,: 
it  was  from  the  I'uritan  st'ttlcmt'nts  in  Massaclmst'tts  that  the  oriirinal  in. 
jiulse  toward  nnivcrsal  ('duration  cami'.  Thus,  in  Id  17.  the  Colonial  Assm; 
l)ly  roipured  that  eaeli  town  eontainini,'  one  liMuilred  tauiilies  slioidd  estahli  :i 


III 


ill 


Ktr<iii>:;ly  In 

I'ciiliirv  air 

.  llic  iiicals 

It'll  t'liiliir 

IS  Ix-rii  (111- 


HhrcATios  huiiixd  nil':  chstiuy  .vji 

I   1,'iiiiiiiiiar  scliodl   In    |>r('|(;iiv    vmillis   Inr   iIh'  iiiiivnsil  \ .       I^lll•ill^,'  culuiiial 

imrs  iiiiiic  anil  imni'  m'Iioc.Is  wen-  stcatlilv  t',slalili>lici|.      jint.  tlii>  muvi'iiiriil, 

.'Inch  was  /.fali.iisly  sii|p|i.iilr(l  m  New    i'lii-laiid  and  iiii'iMiia;,'ri|   in  tlir   .Mid- 

lit"  Stiiti's.  rs|M'cially  l>\  I  he  i'liciids,  iihI  with  n|i|Kisiliiiii  in  Ilii>  Sinil.ji.  wlirri' 

liiralinii  was  ctnisidrird  a  laiiiil,\  duly,  and  not.  wiliiin  llir  |iniviiin- «d   IIm- 


M;ilr.      W  lialcvcr,  I  lim  lui 


«',  was  ari'iiiii|>li>lii'd    in  an   )'diiralii>nal   line  pritir 

fiilnniiN  ;  I'liii- 


idtlli-    K'fVullllinli    (|r|priidrd   i||iii|i   l|ic^|ii|ll    id    I  lie  mdis  idnal 
r(|uciilly,    llii-n'    was    tin-    widest     |mssilp|f    ducinmrr    ill    ilic    |i(i|icii',    and 
iiicllinds  id'  dillcicnl  IniMJil  ii's. 

i'liil   as  soon  as  llir   llrvniul  inn    had   licrn  arr(ini)dishi'd.  and  indi'|ii'iidi'iiri> 

had  liccmiir  ji  larl..  a    iriicwfd  inlcrrsl  m  >^ .|al  I'liiicaliun  was  cvidinl.      Il 

I.  I'XcrcdinKly  inlrrcsliiij,'  In  walrh  Ihf  dr\idi)|iiiii'nl  nl  lln'  |iniiil  nj  vifw 
I  hat  livr  srhnnls  \\v\v  a  iiri-i'ssity  lur  thi'  fMslciicc  nj  tlir  ic|.iil.li''.  ;iiid 
hnu'c  iiiiist,  lu"  csliildisiicil    hy   thi'  Stal.f.     'I'hc  rarlv    lathcis  ul    the   nalmn 


1 

111 


■l! 


AN    ol.li    l.nK    sriMinl  MnrsK, 


ucrt'  not  slow  to  i'('co;,'iiiz<'  this.  In  the  w(ird->  id'  Franklin.  "  .\  l.ilih'  and 
ni'Wsiiapcr  in  every  Imiise,  a  f^ood  selmnl  in  every  dist.riet.  —  all  studied  and 
a|i|U'eeiat,ed  as  tliey  merit.  —  are  the  |irinei|.al  sii|i|inrl  nl'  virtue,  iimrality.  and 
tivil  liherty."  "In  |irn]inrlinii  as  the  si  riielnre  nl'  a  ;,'nverniueiit  '^dves  I'nree 
tn  |Mil)lie  ()|iiiii<)n."  said  Washinj^tnn,  •'it.  is  necessary  tliat  |>iililic  n|>iiiinii 
shiiiild  he  eiili,t,dil('iied."'      A  nd  .lidTersnii.  with  his  hioad   |ihilnsn|ihiiMi  a|i|iie- 


■latiuii  (if  deinneraev.  started  the  hall 


e  air. I  ;i 


1st  the  ideas  (d  (inveriinr  I'xike 


Icy.  (d' Virj^iiiia,  when,  in  ITT'.t.  he  intrnducrd  intn  the  (ieneral  Asseiuhly  nl 
\  ii;,'inia  a  liill  providin^^  I'lU'  l  he  cstahlishiiicnt,  nl' sidinnls  ••  Inr  the  Tree  traiii- 
uc,' nl' all  Tree  (diihlreii.  male  and  lemah'." 

The  hair  cciitiiry  from  17'.M»  to  ISIO  is  the  iir-rinij  nl  the  battle  Inr  I'rec  puli- 
lic  schools.  It  was  a  liani  li^dit.  enmiiliealed  in  many  Stales  hy  local  i|iiest  i(»ns 
and  coiulitions  that,  rendered  success  aliimst  hn|ieiess.  Sniiie  opposed  Irom 
tlic  old  point  (d'  view  that  cdni'ation  was  an  iiiilividnal  matter.  —  eaidi  sic  mid 
u''  tor  iiimseir  just  so  much  as  was  possible.  Others  raised  the  rd)jectinii  id' 
'■''1.  —  if  taxation  was  proposed,  _wa.-  ii  rii,dit  to  iikc  nmney  frnin  one  '.'imip 
'  '  educate  the  ehihlrt'ii  id'  another'.'      l^*(diyioll-^  disputes  hindered  luot^nss, 


(s,  ■  i  \ 


1 


til 


III 


H 


1 11 

•tiii 


IMt 


If 


m 


ii     !• 


V   i 


1 «        I' 

^1 


Pi 


H 


iH 


(     ..{ 


<    '■<.'     ''!|t 


(' 


TIUCMI'H.S    .l.\7>    \\(}.\l)i:iiS    OF  Till-:   A/.V"   CHSrUliY 

—  iiiiiiiy  <•!'  ilii'  iliMiiiiiiiiialidiis  liiiil  liiiiiidi'il  si'ctiiriiiii  sdiools.  iiml  \\t>n<  im- 
willing;  tit  sec  tlu'iii  ii'|il;u!i'tl  liy  |iiililii'  srlimils,  wlinc  nn  cit'i'd  woulil  !)!• 
tiiiii,'lil.  lv>|itM'iiill,\ .  Ill  siiiiic  Stutrs,  ;is  111  ri'iiii.-iylv;iMiii.  wliciT  Swcdi-,  (It-r- 
lu;iii.  Snitcli,  Irish,  ami  I'lip^disli  lived  siilit  l»_v  sidr,  did  tin-  rat'c  proltlciu  ciitt'i 
!is  a  pcriilcxiii',' (dfuifiil.  Slioidd  aiiv  laii.i,'iiiij,'i' otlicr  lliaii  Kii;,di>li  lie  laii^'lit'.' 
What.  n'.s|M'('t  should  in-  j,'ivi'ii  to  the  traditions  and  ni-.toiiis  of  caidi  raci'- 
:4:roii|t '.'  MoiciiviT,  when  the  foiisrivatisiu  lifj,'aii  to  \  idd  to  |iro;,'n'ss.  ii 
<'oiii|ii'oiiiiscd  with  .1,'i'i'al  itduclaiirc.  At.  liist,  provisinM  was  iiiadf  u  lirichy 
till'  (diildi't'ii  id'  till-  |ioor  hhoiild  have  thi-ir  sidiool  t<'fs  paid  ii,v  thr  Slalr 
Thru  piililie  M'hoois  wrir  starti'd  rxrliisisi'ly  lor  tin-  pour,  wliifh  wi-rr  hraiidnl 
with  till'  stii^'iiia  id'  ••  paiipiT  sidioojs."  lint  ihrM' dilliriiltii's  only  sriv^d  to 
iiirrrasi'  tin'  ardor  of  ihi-  pulilir-srhool  advoi-atrs,  and  al  It'iigtli  tlii'ir  sni'i-i's^ 
was  I'oinplcti'. 

Soini'  rpisodi's  of  thr  st nij,',i;li'  drsi'i'Vf  spi'i'ial  ini'iition.  Iloiai'i'  Mann 
(IT'.NI-lS.V.I)  has  lit'i'ii  callrd  thi'  St.  I'anl  id  rdm-ation  in  Aincrira.  In  IN.'ST. 
ll.i'Stati'  lioai'd  of  Kdnration  was  rri'atrd  in  Massarhnsi'tts.  and  llorari'  Mann 
was  appointrd  its  first  sri'ictary.  l''oi'  twrlvc  years  he  labored  with  nnila'4 
j,'iiit,'  eiier},'y  to  Imild  ii|i  the  pnlilie  interest  in  ediieation.  I»y  speeeh  iind  hs 
]u'ii,  he  iuvakeiii'd  in  Ins  State  an  appreeiatioii  ol  the  value  id  the  public 
si'hool  system  that  has  never  siiiee  deeayeil.  lie  estahlislieil  on  an  emjuriii;; 
liasis  the  linsiiiess  side  of  ediieation  in  the  State,  hy  syst,i'niati/iii;,'  the  sehool 
I'linds.  'riie  personal  saeriliee  was  eiiornioiis.  lie  addressed  piii)lic  meetiii'^s 
all  over  the  eountry.  When  he  round  that  no  arraiii-iements  liad  lieeii  inade 
at  I'ittslielil  to  prepare  the  sehoolhouse  lor  his  nleelin!,^  lloraee  IMaiiii  ami 
(lovernor  r>ri,t,'f;s  theniselves  swept  out  the  hnildiiii,'  and  set  it  in  order,  (hif 
1)1'  his  lirst  interests  was  the  provision  oi'  L;ood  teaehers.  In  order  to  spur 
the  .\sseiiil(ly  to  its  duty,  he  lte^';,'ed  from  his  Iriends  the  sum  of  Jil! H ».< » m, 
whieli,  with  an  eipial  sum  appropriated  I'lom  the  state  treasury,  was  used  in 
the  establishment  of  the  .Massaehiisetts  normal  sehoids  at  ]ie\in;j;ton  and 
l>arre  (iSo'.l).  Outside  of  his  administrative  work,  his  ranie  must  rest  upon 
his  staneh  advocaey  id  the  priiieiple  id'  "  tho  obligation  of  a  State,  on  the 
great  principles  of  natural  law  and  natural  einiity.  to  maintain  Tree  schools 
for  the  universal  education  of  its  people." 

In  reiiiisylvania.  the  hero  ol  the  battle  lor  free  schools  was  'riiaddeiis 
Stevens.  In  IS."!!,  a  law  was  pas.sed  by  the  legislature  t  stabiisliing  a,  slat.' 
.system,  and  abolishing  the  distinction  between  rich  and  po  ir  which  had  been 
noticed  in  the  old  pauper  schools.  'i"wo  years  later,  a  deti  rmined  effort  was 
made  by  the  combined  loi'ees  of  ignorance,  prejudice,  aiid  caste,  to  repeal  tin' 
act  of  1S;!I.  Nothing  but  the  stanchiios  of  (lovernor  Wolf  and  the  pouii 
exerted  by  the  eloipieiiee  of  the  '•(•id  Coniinoner""  saved  free  schools  for  lli>' 
Keystone  State,  and  so  established  the  system  which  to-day  receives  iiiuir 
direct  aid  from  the  state  treasury  than  in  any  other  State  of  the  rnion. 

West  of  the  .Mleghaiiies,  the  interest  in  popular  ediieation  iias  ahva\^ 
been  deep  and  thiH'oiigh.  Settled  in  large  measure  by  the  .steady  sons  ni 
New  Englaml,  eduoation  foiiml  tliere  a  most  fertile  soil.  jMorcovcM",  by  ili'' 
wise  foresight  of  Congress.  |irovi>ion  was  made  for  sdiool  funds  in  a  iii"  i 


satisfactory   wav.      The  Ordinani 


17iS7,  which   organized   the   terril' 


north  of  the  Ohio  Kiver.  contained  a  provision  that  oiio  section  of  land  m 
each  townshiii  should  be  devoted  to  public  eilueatiun.     If  this  grant,  win.  Ii 


icitucATKts  nrnisa  nil-:  cEMriiY 


Wiis  ni'i^'iiially  NU"j;i;t'st('il  hv  .KiriViMoii,  liml  Imimi  ciiirlullv  wiitcluMl.  it  would 
liiivt'  Ih'i'Ii  siiHicifiit,  l(»  ciiiluw  tlif  |nil)li('  ^>»•ll(><lls  ul  maiiv  W'c.^li'iii  S(;ilt'M, 
I'lif  iiiitioiial  ^nivcriiiiM'iil  ^Mvt'  to  f(l\i(Mtiuii  in  I  lie  first  liiiiiilrcil  v<'iirs  ol'  its 
liistDiy  lu'iiily  t'ij,'lity  iiiillinti  jicrrs  nf  |iiilitic  iuiiils,  l)iil  tiirsf  ^'rants  wrrc  not 
ai\vii\s  consrrvi'd  witii  sulliciiMil  imic  In  l.S'.M>-;i7  llic  total  ii'Vfniir  o|  t  he 
sciiool  systems  ill  tlic  Initnl  Stati's  was  .'5lNX.<)l  I.L' l.">.  ot  wliiiii  li>s  than 
live  |irr  rent  was  troiii  stale  sriiool  iiiiids  or  iciil  ol  scliool  iaiiiis,  wliiir  over 
ci^jiity-six  piT  cent  was  derived  Ironi  slate  and  local  taxation. 

Some  little  conee|itioii  oi  the  iinnieiisily  ol  t he  eoninion-school  system  in 
the  liiiled  States  may  lie  oliiained  Iroiii  liie  jollowiiiLj  slalislics,  taken  Irom 
the  Ikciiort  (d' the  ('oiiiiiiissioiier  (d  Kdiieation  lor  IS'.MJ-'.IT. 

(•(iMMu.N  sriKidj,  ST.M'ISIK  S  (»[■    lljl,  I  Mil.!)  SlAIKS 
(SOT  IS(l,i:i>IN<i  I'KIVAli;  srllnnl.s,  (  (tl.l.Liihs,  (iK  I M  Vl.l.'sn  IKSi. 


I.     -  (ii'Ilrnil  Slii|j«li(-, 

'Iciliil  |ici|iiilaliiiii 

Niiiiilii  r  (i|  |iiiMiii>  ,"i  (11  M  year- (if  iiyr. 

Nniiilii  r  (if  iIiHi'I'i'IiI  |iii|iiU  imkiIIciI  nii  llic  ^i  IkhiI  ri'i;i>l('r> 

I'd-  (ciil  iif  Idliil  |i(i|iiiliili(iii  ciirdllcil 

.\miii>;c  (liiilv  iitlciiilaMcc.    .  .  

Am  rii;;c  liiinlli  "f  'cIkhiI  tiiiii  (iImv»)      

Male  Icaclicr- ' 

I cMiali'  Icaclicr^ 


|S7(I  71 

jM'.lll  !I7 

Ait 

■inlliiuli' 

:iii,:ii  III, .'Hill 

71 

::7I,IIJ 

IJ.;io;,,iiim 

•Jl 

IIS  J,  17  J 

7,."illl.."iH-.' 

II 

liiJ.-lii-' 

I'.i.ll 

■_'ii.ri:| 

I,.'l'irll7 

|li,lix!i,ii:>ll 

i:iL>.l 

Uii.l 

!Mi,'.".i;t 

|:il..;Mii 

|-J!I.!II2 

L'7l,!il7 

:'Jii.  •_'•_'.■> 

liM.:i:i:l 

II.O 

;i-.MI 

Whnlc  IMIIIlliil'  (if  li'iK  llcl> 

I'll- 1  ciil  (if  mall'  Iriiclici-  

Amiiii;!'  iniiiillil.v  \vat;i's  iif  Iraclici*  : 

Male-  (iiMiiim'il  friiiu  I  he  >lali-lii-  (■!  4^1  Stale-) -  ll.iiJ 

IVinalc- (averaged  friiiii  III!' slali-lic- 111   l-i  M.ili'«i S.;^.;!^ 

Niiinliildf  -il IIkiii-cs |:LMI!I  -.'Ili.ML'H 

Value  of  mIkidI  iiidpeily .*l4:i.«ls.7ii:i    >4il!i.iMi'.i.iiHii 


II.       riiiaiieial  Sl.'ili-lie-. 
I!eii.i|,l-; 

Illeiillle  fi'dlll    |iel'lliall('lll   fllllil- 

1  idiii  stale  taxis 

I- ruin  Imal  ta.\es 

III. Ill  all  dtller  .siilllees 


'I'dtal  recei|il> 

I'.\|ieli(lililie«; 

l'(ir -ile«,  Imililiiii:-,  fii|-|iiliire,  lilirarie-,  ami  iiiiiiar.-itiii 

I  nr  salaries  (if  teaeliei's  and  >n|ii'i'inleii(lenl~    .  . 

I'di-  .'ill  dtlier  jini'i > 


.Ml'..')SII..S.'i.| 


.<>i7,84il,ti4S 

;i.'i,(iii'.',.'i:;;i 

U'7.!iiill,7(;l 
17,77l,:)ll| 

lHS,i;41,'Jl;t 

.r^:il.!iii.'!.-J4.'> 

111i.:iii-1,."iIl' 

;;ii,  ii;),Hi;. 


Ti.tal  i'X|ioii(liliires .r^iiil,  lll7,i'il-2     .«'lH7,:Wi.liiiJ 

r.\|ii'ni|itni'c  per  cajiila  of  p(>|iiilali(iii 1."'"'  --'l'- 

'I'dlal  cxpcndilnru  I'd' pi'l  il 


l."i.2ii 


1S..-17 


MP.S 


'I'll  tlies(>  yrand  totals  must   lie  addiil  the  million  and  mine  in  attendance  at 
|irivati!  schools  tliroii,i,diont  the  i  oiintry,  and   the  rapidly  ineieasini,'  niiitilier 


(iiow  L'I".7('»."!)  of  tliose  who  reinnve  hidher  inst nuttioii.   in  universities  am 


]irolessiiii 


lal  and  iiotinal  schools,     'i'his  makes  lor  the  L'liited  States  a  j^M'.im 


ital  111  Ki.L'.Vi.O'.C!  iiupils  and  sliideiits  (if  all  ,;;rades  in  imlilie  and  private 
.schools.  The  d't'owth  during  the  last  Lreiieration  has  lieeii  most  iiiaiked. 
The    statistical   table   ^dves   an    opportunity    lor    eomparison  with  the  year 


li'« 


{■'•'. 


C'jt       TiuuMi'its  AM)  \\(K\i)i:us  OF  THE  XIX'"  c/-:\T(i;y 

1S70-7I.  —  tlic  sii;iM  of  ;i  irfiH'ratimi.  —  anil  it  lias  lifcu  csiiiiiatt'd  tliat 
witliiii  this  pi'iioil  tlic  axcrauc  total  aiiiouiif,  oi'  schiKiiiiijj;  lias  iiicri-asrd  linni 
I'.'.M    years  to    I.L'S  vi'ais.      in  oilier  words,  the  aiiioimt  of  education  whicii 


I    ' 


.  r 


m 


SI  IIOOMIOl'^K,    xl.iaoi'V    IIOM.oW,    N.    Y. 
(Courlt'sy  (if  Tin  Siliodl  .Idurnal,  Niw  York.) 

each  one  felt  aide  to  aff^fd  has  increased  almost  one  half.  Siich  is  the  ma'.:- 
nilicent  result  which  lias  "^rown  out  of  the  isolateil  villa,L,'e  s(dio(ds  (d'  our 
New  Knj^land  ancestors,  fostered  hy  the  democrat ic  dt'sire  for  intcdliiieiice 
fonnil  all  over  the  coiintrv. 

K(|ually  1,'reat  has  been  the  cliani,'e  in  the  spirit  <d'  the  sclioid.  In  the 
early  days  tiie  sehot'  .ere  vei'v  crude.  I'oimlatiiui  was  scattered,  and  since 
till'  (diildreu  could  r.ot  j^o  as  la/  to  schocd  as  their  elders  did  to  church,  the 
numlier  (d  sidioolliouses  was  very  threat.  They  wei'i'  usually  put  up  l>v  the 
people  (d'  the  nei,i;liliorhood  with  little  px'tense  at  adoiiiment.  'I'he  avera;uc 
scdioidhoiise  was  located  either  at  a  i'oik  in  the  roads  or  on  an  idevation. 
where  it  shared,  with  tin  ciiurcli.  the  Ihmku'  id  coiispicuoiisncss.  A\'e  i,'i\i' 
a  ]iicture  of  ( »ld  Sleepy  Hollow  Schoolhouse.  made  fanioii-  liy  Washin.u'ton 
lrvinj;'s  elahorate  description  of  Iclialfd  Crane,  its  ruler  ii'.  .he  colonial 
days.  r>ut  a  structure  of  this  kind  is  luxurious  compared  with  the  hard 
ships  of  more  sp.irsely  settlei!  rcLjions.  I''roni  W'ickersliam's  "History  nt 
Kducation  in  Pennsylvania"  the  foUowint,'  descriiition  is  culled:  "The  pin 
neer  schoolhouse  was  Imilt  of  lot^s.  sixteen  liy  twenty  feet,  seven  feet  li- 
the ceiliiii,'.  daniied  with  innd  inside  and  out.  a  mini  and  stick  (diimney  in  iIm 
north  end.  and  in  the  west  a  lo;^  was  lelt  out.  and  the  opeiiiiii,'  covered  willi 
oiled  paper  to  admit  lii;hl  ;  holes  were  hoied  in  the  lo.u's  and  pins  driven 
in,  (Ui  whicli  to  nail  a  hun,'  hoard  for  a  wiit  in,i;-talile.  and  slalis  with  Ic.: 
answered    for  seats.     'I'he   earlv  scl llioiises  were  neiierallv  situated  ihm; 


■sliiiiiitfd  tliiil 
incrt'iisi'd  tn'iu 
huMtioii  wliicli 


i:i>i('.\ri()X  ni/;i.\(,  the  ckx/ihv 


62fi 


('  roiidsiilc  iir  crnss-roinls.  iiciii'^'  willnmt    iil;ivi,M(>iiiiil.  >li:iil('-triM'>.  or  aipjci- 


ili 


latu.- 


llt'i't'  tile  inastci'  Ui'|i|   his  I'liiiiiirv   M'lmol  li.ra  term  nf  Irnni  >i'. 
\\i'i'U>.      Ill    llif    wiiitiT  time  till'   |iu|iils  wciT  almcist    Ini/rn.   and    t 
(itliiT  dair^iTs   wliiidi  tlic   liaidv  lad  nl    thoM-  davs  iiad  In  iMiciMiiiti 
lliclcss.  I'lidf.  iiiicniiilnrtalili'.  and    iiiad('i|iiat('  as   tlii'\    \\(  ic.  it    \\a' 


iiir   inrrlat lii'i's   (ilitaincd    iIkmi'  s('aiit\    .sclinnliip^. 


The   llinv    i; 


Kitiii".  and  'liitliiiirl  ic.    Iiuiik'iI   tiu'   liasis  nl    llir  (■(Hir.sc  ol    stud\ 


cry  siiiiiilc.      MikIi  id    llii'  raiiy  in>tniit 


Kill  was  ri-ii'4iiMis  II 


WlTl'   V 

and   tilt'  i-liilii  \va>  cxiii'clrd   in  ii>f    I k>  wliidi  wmilil   trai-li    iimr; 

(liiindi  ImhiIvs.  ciiiitaiiiiii'j:  rrrcds  and   li\iiin>  and  catt'cliisins,  iiii;4 


in  tin'  s- 


•lliml    I'lif  >tnd\.       'riii'li  tl 


iTi'   Well'    I  hi' 


|i|'illicrs  nr  liiinUs  t 


\   !'.('.     'I'lii' raiiH'iis  ••  New   lai'^laini   I'riiin  r  "  w  as  |iiililislii'd  in  tlir 
lit'  tilt'  si'Vciiti't'iitii  <'i'iitiiv\ .      I.ali  T  edit  imis  ciiiitaiiii'd  rliviniii'^  imi 


•li   Ictti'f  ci'  ' 'ii'   al 


ili  in.'t.  illustrated  with   sin-ji   iiiia'^erv  as   ll 


ailiiw.      A   |ia;^i'  liointhe   "('liild's   ( Jiiide.'"  jnililislied    in    Ijindmi 
shiiwn  on  |>a;,'(' ."iL'T.     Its  verses  were  easilv  iiieiiinii/ed.  and  soineii 
lia>is  inia  s]i('irnr,'  lesson.     'I'lieii'  were  no  L^raded  readers  until  lli 
W'l'itiii'j;  ill  some  iiei'^lilrniiiMids  was  taii^lit  oiilv  to  liovs.  on  t 


:roiitid  tiiat   it  was  an  iiiiiieee>sarv  ai 


eomiilishnii'iit    lor  t  he  sex  w 


eii'j:a;4('d  ill  Imsiiiess.      JnU  wa- 


home-made  Imm  hriiised   nnt'^all 


itlle  with  water  and  riistv  nails.     The  writiii'.,'  was  dmie  witli  a 


lie  (d'  tlic  rofcmost    duties  of  the  olddashioiiei'    peda'^^dniie 


ainl  o 


anil  nieinl  wns. 


\v 


to  twelve 
lere    were 

r.  Never- 
here   that 

'.    loadiii". 

.Methods 

I  its  I  rend, 
al  lessons. 
lit  lie  used 
I  te;|eh   the 

latter  |iarl, 

Illl'tS    U|ll)l| 

art  would  • 
ill  17C>'_'.  is 
mes  e;a\  ('  ;i 
is  eeiitiirv. 
he  e;elieral 
llieh  never 
placed  ill  :i 

ipiill    ]IC1I, 

as  to  make 


K 


mdi  is  tlii>  iii:i','- 
diools  of  our 
or  itit('lli;,;ciice 

•hool.  li»  the 
Hercd.  and  since 
t(,  cliurch.  the 
jillt  uji  liy  the 
it.  The  avera'^e 
111  an   elevation. 


■iliess. 


^^ 


e   ^Mvc 


liv  WashiiiLrton 
ii',  .lie  colonial 
with  the  hard- 
's ••  Mistofv   ot 


d:   '-The  1 


no 


t.  seven   feet   t' 
chininev  ill  tin 


n;j;  coverci 


1  will 


ind  pins  dr 
dahs  with 


IVfll 


Iv  situated  neai 


IN'liailol:    ol'    ^1  llooi  i;iio\l      -I  I  ll'\     llol.l.ow.    N      V 
iri.iirli'^v  iif  'riif  Si  liiHil  .limiiial,  N  ■«•  V"iU.) 


The  innstcr  set    the  C'ipies    li\    writ  in.;  a    lessnil    wllirll    wa- 


to   1 


le  II 


lie    |iini| 


ils.     Tiieie   was  I 


1 

ililc   hand  which   in   t 


iiiilated  liy 

111    -el     slvif.   liut     llMialiV     the    Irai-lier    wrole    a    Imld, 

of    success. 


line   was    acijuiri'il 


Willi    a    lair  (le.;i'i 


mM 


//.'//  Mi'ns  AM)  u  i).\i>i:iis  oi    nil':  a/A'"  (■i:\iii;) 


ill 


1 


^  i 


1 


O: 


A  nt  Iniii'l  ii'    Wii''    (.(ii<;lil    willioul    Icxl  Imnlvs,      Sum*   wcic    ".ncii    mil    li\    |||c 

IIKI'^tiT    ,|llil    \\<>|Ki'il    Kill     I'll     |>.l|il'l    cili     llii'     ili'lv  NkIIiIII".    lull     till'    lll"|i      null 

IIU'lll.llN      |M  llirl|i|r'-     w  .1  .     I.|ll';lll.     illiil      llli'     lll';liri      li|  aiulir  .     ol      :iii;('li|;|     ;iiii| 
^I'.ilinllV     Will'     llllKlliiW  II     III     lilt'     plll'llr       1  iiiinl  .    "\     llil.     Illlli'         S|irillll';    w  ,|  . 

I'    llii'    .ii'|ii'    \i<\    ihr   liii'lin'l  \  .  ;lliil    |i|i>\lili.| 


llll'   «l|     1  111'     1 .1  \  HI  1 


li'  sl  inilcs        1 1 


;ni  .-I'l' 


ii  I  iiiiil  \    liM  one  (i|    I  liii->i'   piiMic  r \ IiiIhI  ii'u  .  Ill  w  llll  li    \  iih'i  n  in 


.ih\  .i\  •  ili'li';liliil 


N I II '  II 1 1 1  ■:   I'll 


till'     liiinU 


W 


ii  Ki  I    li;im.  ■   w  ,1  .  I iiii" 111 


i>\    .it  liMII|i1  ni<'.   Ik   li'.hl    llll'    {<ll{  <l  I    Ik   iM\  k    I  hi'   ll.inii'  ■   kI        v  1 1  llijr  .    Jllil    W  HI  i| 
llilUmi!;     till'     li'lli'l-    kI     wlllrll     llll'N     .111'     1  Klll|iK  .I'll.  rill      III 

kI    ikiiiImii.iI  IKII  ■ 
Uuiil  kI     \  \\\  nil'   ;ll 


I     Ii'       kII    IKII   .1   .1  I' 

it    :i    WKiil    Willi    Kill'    KI     111. 'IK  iKlr. KII. llll  ..  .1 1  I  :iii':i  il     k   ||i;i| 


1  111'  111 Kiiinii'i.il  IKII,  M--  .( 


/'.  ./'. 


«/■.  I'll 


IH'IIIII"     111 


llu"   llKiik    "   1  KII. 1-1  I'll    III    ll.lllllll",    llll'    ii'tti'l  .    kI     Wk|i|.    |i|KI|ii||liriil    |k|    |||;iI    pill 
)iiis|i.        I'liil    llll'  I  lili'l    lil  {ii\  lui'lll    k|      .pi'lllli",   i';lllli'    IlKin    llll'   I'M   I.I    lllKlli'il   I  nil 

tl     -Is.       K\ 


-pi' I  hi 


.^Kliicl  mil  ■;     ll      wil'i     Ik    (Iisi'kM'I     IIik    Iii'    I       pel 


ll'l 


<t     llll'    lil-^lllrl.     :l''.ini.     Kill'    ill    till  I     lllli'.lll     111-     pllti'il    i|i;;lin-t     iltlKllii'l  Tli 


spi'llri'.  UKiilil    111'    ai  I  :ll|i;i'il    ui    Iwk  ikw 


riiK  III  .1 


W  Kill     W  KII  I 


11'   I'  I  \  III  I . 


Ill 


In  -I    sjH'lli'l    KII     Kill'      llll'.    till'    lli'\l     Ik    111.     Iiv.ll.    llll'    llillil     111   III;  rKIIM.iil 


.nil 


Kill'      llll' 


.1    v\  KI  ll.    III'    at     Kliri      1 1  ikK     Ii 


al  .    pii  ';i'lil  1\    I  I 


Mill'  -I    w  KII  ,il  li.mKVN   1  Ikw  11  Ik  .1   ll  w  ,  until  a  I    l.i  -I   all  w  milil  \\.\\i-  nn  .  .nl 


Kill',    iinl   III'  Ki 


^lii'  I 


irr.iiiii'  I  111'  I'liaiiipiKii    -pi'lli'i 


riii<  ir.ii'lii'i ->  kI    till'   Iniii'  iKinii'ii  a  i^rKiiji  k|   \ani'ii  atlaiiiiiii'iil';.  ami  kjIih 
liiui  -    with    liltli'    piiili' - -iKiial    I'litliii-.ia -III.       Trai  hill!;    Iia  ;    alwa\!    siiHi'iiii 
1 1  Kill  I  hi'  l.ii  I   I  h.it   .1  ■;ri'at   niinilirr  kI    \  Kiiir;  mi'ii  I'liln   upKH  it  •.  pi  ail  ire,  w  lii' 
II-.1'  It   iiii'ii'lv   ,i  -   a     •ti'ppiii';  -iKiii'  111  sKiiii'  I'lhi'i'  ainl    iimii'  allrar<'>i'  |  i;i-.iiil 
llll'  iiimil>i  T  kI    iIik'-kwIik    h.ivi'    t.iii';lil    a    Irw    I  ii  in -.  ill  miliT  In      ■.       iikih  \ 
(i>r   a   i'k11i'';i'.    I;iw.    ki    iiii'iliral    rmii';!'    is    Icimku,   aiiil    llii-;    lart    h..  iil    tin 

{hkIi'ssikii  <i|iiMi   to  till'  ii'pii). nil   that    kiiIv   I  Iik   niianilnl  imi  •   ami    tin'  iiiiali  M 


iKJl 


K\\    It    pcriiiam'iit  l\ 


111    ll 


II'    railv     ilav-;    111     Kiir    i'Kiiiilr\    .    inslinx,    lln 


stii;iiia  wis  iiili'iisilii'il  ii\  ihi'  numlii'i  nl  "  il  ini'r.inl  .rhiiiiliiia'.tri  ."  m 
w  liK  w  .iiiiii'iril  liKin  pi. Ill'  Ik  pl.iri',  I  I'aihim;  .i  I  I'lni  in  kIH'  »  1 1  l.i",i'  ami  I  li 
liiKViii';  til  till'  iii'Nl,  "mill  111  llll' -^;,  ciTi'iil  111'  ill  iii.iiiiii'r-..  .1  ml  Kllrnlini 
iiiti'inpi'i.iti."  riii'ir  »\  KI  Iv  w  .IS  siiii|i|i'  111  ll  •,  nat  nil' ;  llii'\  w  iic  In  Kirp  mil 
ami  Ik  ti'.ii'li  till'  niiiinii  iits  I'ln'ir  imlliKil';  in  tin'  lallri  lia\r  aln  .nis'  In 
iiMi'i'ii'd  Ik;  Ikt  tin'  iKiiin'r.  tlii'\  rrlii'ii,  alnin-l  iiiii\  ri  sail  \  .  ii|iiiii  lln-  nn  .|i. 
Ill;;  use  of  I  III'  tKil. 


i'hi"   w  isiIkiii   kI    t  111'   |iiat't  icf  nl    ll 


Ki'i'im.'    ll 


IS    nlil\    lii'i'li  i|i|i'..|  iKlii'il    III    1 1 


latter  |>;trt  kI  t  Ins  i  kiiI  iir\ ,  In  thr  lailx  ila\  s  il  was  I  Iik  mii'  ii'rii!;ni/i'il  pm 

tslmii  lit,  t'\  I'll    lor   stiiili'iits  w  hiisi'   inaliii'ilv    iiinl   ;il  laiiiim'iils    wniiM   sn",",i 

ail  .ij'jM'al  til  icasKii.      With  lln--  iiik'Ii'  k|    |iiiiiislnniiil  was  a.ssnciatrd  a  mm 

KV    li'SS     ili.;iMlli>llS     srriii.s    k|  ilr\  ici'S,  sucll    as    lilt'    tilllirt'  liloi'K.   I  III'    ludls'  r.i| 

«'ti'.,  all   I'.ili'iilali'ii   (i>  liriiii;  tin'  nlTiMiilcr  iiiti)  i  iiliriilc.  Imt    iillcrly  dcsl  nn  I  r 
ol    tli.it    !;i'Kil    tVi'liMi;   lii'lwt'i'ii   li'arlirr  ami   |iii|iil,  iipnii  wiiii'li  sn  ininli  ^.l  n 
IS  I, llll   Ik  il.i\  . 


Ill    till'   cmirsi'  ol'  till'   ci'iiliirN    tin-   ohi  lasliioiicil    scliool    li.i';  cilln 


iw  .i\   or  I'Isi 


Ills  I 


x'i'ii  Mioililii'il    iiiati'i'ialU 


I'll  il.iy  It   i,s  111  I 


rr   Iia:;  i 


ii<  imiml    111  KM 


•I, 


s|iaisi',\   si'tth'il  ilisi  1 1  Is.  w  lull'   in  I  lie  I'llirs  ami    in  t  he  imiri'  ml  In  ml  m 
iiiuliKoils  one   limis  I  .iri't'ulh    plaiiiii"(|    svslciiis  nl    nlmaliiMi    tiial    slinw   ll 


Innts  ot    the  slml\    ,mil   iliriitioii  ol    somr  ol    ll 


11'    Ivi'i'iii'sl    iiiimls    thai    K   I 


ootiiitn  ha.i  in'otltu't'd.     \Vliil<'  it  is  mnuissilili'  in  tlir  spare  ol 


SlII'Mi'  til 


f^.^i.j 


y^H 


II  li) 


n    ,inl    1>\    111' 
\\r   ni"ii    null 
I     :il|,M'l'iii    ;n\il 
Sprlliii",   ";r- 
,  jiiil  I'l.n  nil  .1 
iiii'i  I'  .ni  ;  lii^  '■ 

1.    ■    w  A  ■  t:MI".lH 

.n\il  w  I'l  il  ;  I'v 
.  ,  ,,iii  I  I'll  I  1 1  '1 
,,1. •,,■.!    .>  lliiil  .1 

"  S|M   lllll',    I'll 

,1    \<>\    lli:il    I'll! 

I  I.I    liiMlii'il   mil 
1,,'    1>.-    I      .|"'li''l 

;|l|i>lll«'l  I'll' 

III. I     It    ".IVi'H   I- 

1,1   \\\  .  ci'llll.lil' 

|i|i  '•'■III  l\     I  I" 

;|\  ,'    llir.  .I'll      ..IV  ' 

((•111    •.    .Hill    "ll'll 

;il\\;i\-i    sillIrK" 
il  s  |ii:li'l  ii'i'.  V^ '"' 

II  i.irt  -v  !•  I  i;r  .ml 

.|    III        I  lllllK   \ 

|,ii  I    I,..         I'l   '!"• 
Ill    I  III'   iiiiiil'  1  ' 

,     liisl"l\.     Il" 
-llii;i  .III    ."    "I'  " 
,11.,,.,.  jiiil  111.  " 

.nnl    nlliiilnii' 

|.    |,l    Ixll'p  ('111'    ' 

\  ,'  iilir.liiy   1"  '  " 
|i,>ii  lln'  nil    I'  " 

r.tlnlM'il  III  II' 
ici'ii;.;;lll/i'tl  I'lm 
wmilil  .'■^iii;;.'.'  ' 
iss.iciiili'tl  :i  II'"" 
U.  III!'  U»^^'  <  M 
|,.,lv  ilrsliii'  1'^' 

I   Sll   lllll'  Il   'I  "      ~ 

■\^  citlicr    I'ii'  ' '' 

lir  liiiiuii    111  "'I  ' 

,.  lulliirrii  ll'i'l' 

I    lli;il    sli"\v    II"' 

iiiiliils    lliiil    "'" 

,ii    ;i  sini^li'  '111'' 


1 1.      (;■  l^lll. 

W..    11,111.1  i.ll 


I   111        /.  llllM.I. 

I  l,\    1  il.    I.,  nil  11.1 


I  I  r   (    J'  1I..1I1  |.l  IV. 
\  ml    illi  I  ..l.i\ 


I  lir     /<        .l.ll,    l.ll.' 
\      I  1,1.  I    111     \l,'.lll 

I 
\ii    /  .;     ■, '.   Illi-.lll 
I     ..111  i.(  •.l.'lil 

1 

I  111    Ml.    /.,..', 

I  .  w  lil|.|   .,1   Srl,.i.il. 


\      lllll     till     (./,(.., 
M  II.    ,  I  ill-  iImiIi  |...« 

II 
M,    I!. ...I,   :i.,.l  //..;, 
'■lull   lirvi'l   |iilll. 

I 

/,  K/l   <ll'l    llv, 

I'm  lliri'  :ili'l  I. 

I. 
/i'(»r       I'hii/ri       llir 

(. I. 

N"  III. HI  '.I  IiI'mmI. 

W 
W'liiilf^  111  111''  '■"';! 
( lull'-,  villi  I    iilicy. 


X,  I  \.\  tin  •  iK';!!  'Iiil  'II' 
Ami  Ml  IMII--I  y"ii  ii'i'l  ' 


u 


fff. 

r    iii'. 


^^i 


111..  /i,..»  Im.IiI. 

I  111'  /,l»//..l..>ll  lllllll 

M, 

I  111-  Mr.'ll  l-ivi'l 

I  U'lil. 
Ill  lllll.   ..|  \i|.|il. 

•| 

\  /  ■  h/in  ;.!■'■  .   '"11% 
III  llllli    .t|    '.|i|iii.'. 

I  11.     |■..^  il   .  ',//•   i.iir 
I. III,.  .Ii.|     i>.'. 

I  I. nil  ImI;iI     ti. il.'*  .if 
IMiil  M.n.  . 
I- 

/',/..   .Il  111..  ; 

III      I  "I.I.    111. I    1  llr». 

(  '//.',  II     I    f'l'  I     I  illlio 
111    r..\,ll    '.I:ll''. 

I  •.      ...HI       III.        j.  as 
li.iiii  .Il  mil  I  II... 
I  ■ 

/,'.),  Il-  !  1I..1I1  111.111111 

I  ..i   11.  I   I.I  .1  I... III. 

\,llllll:   I    JlllllIlK 

\\  ImiIII  I  I. ..I  il|.|.M|ll|H. 


I  linr  I  llK    .|m»11    nil, 
h.illi  iM'.il  ;iii.l   .mill. 

I ; 

f  '1  till''  1  III  .Illlr'illS 

Wil., 

M.l.lr   iMvliI   '."  U    III" 
I  ll'  . 

y. 

\    iif/i't  liilwni'l  'lips 
I  >.  .illi  siiMiirsI  lil|is. 

/. 
/./. .  >!■  n  .  Ill' 
I  ii.l  I  liMil.  Ill'     I  rcc, 
I  lis   I  .lll'l  l.>  s('C. 


•  I 


h 


ill 


lllllll-   '.lllll 

if, .nil,    .,  ..(  ./.    Il,nn:.l    ir..  I  I  I'li.im.i 


.1 


Imi 


r>i»«       TiuuMi'iis  ASH  \\oM)i:iis  or  the  a/.v"  cestuuy 

Icr  to  rt'lVr  to  nil  thv  cliiiiii^cs,  vrl   Sdiiic  ol    llic  most    iiiiiiort;iiiL  will  lie  con- 
.siilcit'd. 

l'"orciiiost  in  mmI  iiii|iort;iiin' coiin'  tlic  cliaii.Lji's  in  t  lie  romsc  ol'  stndv  —  in 
till'  list  ol' sniijt'cls  wliicii  llic  \\i'll-c(lu''iit('il  vounj;  man  niav  lir  t'XiM'clcd  \<< 
iiavf  mastdi'il.  (  Mic  iiumlri'd  umis  a.yn  tiic  avciiP^r  cinld  wmild  liavi;  j;onr 
to  the  villa.Ljf  sdiool  loillic  tlircc  ••It's"'  willi.  mavlir.  a  lilllr  tiainini,'  in 
j;fOL;iai>liv  and  |lal■^in,^,^  It  a  I'ollci,'!'  carcrf  was  o|irn  to  Idm.  hr  would  tlicn 
go  to  an  aradcmv,  nsual'v  a    |>ii\ati'   institution,  lor  Ins  iiitiodnftioii  to  tin- 


(dassics.  Latin  and   ( iicck,  and   to  al'^i'oia. 


\\1 


iilr  iiist  I'liclKni  was  ''ucn   ii 


otlii'f  hi'anclics.  \ct  tlicsc  jornii'd  tlic  liacklionr  ot  tin' couisf.  'I'lic  a\fia;^i 
a,i,'t'  <d  adnnssion  to  colirm'  was  coiisidi'i'alilv  Icssllian  it  is  at  incsml.  iii 
tlic  ordinai'V  folli'!j;t'  tlicit'  was  a  iTi|niifd  coiiisf  (d'  study,  in  wliiidi  Latin. 
(Ircck.and  Idi^InT  matlu-iiiatics  |ilavfd  the  most  ('ons|iicnons  |iart.  'I'lic  sci 
ciditic  stndit's  wcic  conntcd  less  cduratiM',  ami  wnc  usually  latlii'f  |mi(ii1\ 
tiU.i^lit,  Lilfiatuic.  liistoiT.  and  pliilosopliy  wcir  sonn'timcs  imdudt'd  in  tin' 
follfgo  curriculum,  ami  in  many  wa\s  tin'  course  of  simly  was  modiicil  t'> 
.suit  the  prclcicncrs  and  aliilit  ics  cd  tlic  ilirt'crciit  tcaclicrs.  Nowadays  this  i.s 
all  cliau'-cd.      In  llic  Initcd  States  a  i,qadcd  sdiool  system  has  been  created. 


that   is.  a  complete  comse   of  study    has    I 


leeli    wol 


Ued  out.  wherchy  cert 


tin 


.studies  are  speciiied  as  suited  I'm'  each  year  of  the  sclioid  lile.  'I'liis  is  nm 
the  same  for  all  parts  of  the  country,  for  the  .\mcricaii  school  sxstciii.  niil;i.r 
that  III  (icrmany  and  Kraiice.  is  not  national  in  its  organi/ation.  'I'ln'  aiilliMi 
ity  over  the  schools  i^  yestcd  in  the  imliyidual  States,  ami  as  a  coiiscipicih . 
<'acli  State  sliows  peculiarities  in  course  cd  study,  in  laws,  and  in  iiiethoil- 
tliat  iiiaUe  the  whole  seem  chaotic.  'I'liere  is.  howeyer,  iiioic  similarity  than 
would  ajipear  at  iirst  si,t;ht.  ami  while  what  is  asserted  in  ;^'eiierai  ma\  net 
lie  tiiieid'  each  iiarticular  locality,  yd  certain  lines  ot  deyelopmeiit  may  li 
(dearly  seen. 

Till'  schools  (d'  the  country  may  he  di\  ided  into  tlire 
.secondary, and  hii^dicr.  'I'lie  elementary  schools  are  in 
the  kimlergarteu  ;   they  ai'c  oruiiiarily  supjiosiil   to  oi 


'-T 

oil 

ps. 

ilt 

in 

sol 

CU] 

•y 

th.' 

—  elemental  \ . 
lie  ]ilaces  iipcii 
■   Iirst  ci'j-ht-  m 


nine  years  of  the  clild's  sdioollile.  and  are  classified  as  jirimary  and  yram 
marsdioids.  l»uriii;.,Mliat  period  tlu' pujnl  studies  a  great  \  aricty  of  luamdn  . 
—  language  studies,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  ami  grammar:  arithimtie.  ge... 
grapliy.  I'liited  Static  history,  ciyil  goyeriimeiit.  nature  >tiidy.  physiology  auii 
liygieiie.  physical  culture,  vocal  music,  diawim^  and  manual  training  in  lio\-' 
schools,  or  sewing  and  cooking  in  girls"  schools.  Several  id'  these  sulijecl^ 
have  lieeii  introduced  only  williin  the  last  few  years.  'I'lie  tendency  towaid 
eiiricliing  the  ciiiiiculiim  is  c|iiite  manifest  to-d;iy  ;  it  is  liaM'd  upon  the  \:\<\ 
that  liy  tar  the  larger  part  of  the  pupils  iiexer  enter  the  higher  schools,  .^iiiii 
their  educat  ion  is  ended  with  the  elementary  schools,  then  fore  it  is  thoicdil 
desiiaiili'  to  luiiig  some  of  the  higlier  >iilijectN  into  ilie  grammar  school 

With  the  coiiipldioii  of  this  elementary  course  the  |iupil  passes  intn  tip 
secondary  school.  I'^arlier  in  the  century  this  was  onlimirily  a  priyate  ac;i.l 
emy.  either  conducted   for  jirolil  or  hy  ,i   ieli'_,dous  society.     In  exceptioinl 


eases  t  hi'M'  schools  w 


ere  plllilic  ;    lull   as  I  he  i  leiielit  S  of    hi'^lier  edllcal  ioll   \\>  \' 


reco'4ni/ed   more  completely,  the  populariiyof  these  schools   increased 


en. 


iiioiisl\-, 


i'lll.lic    hi  •!:    sell 


odis   were  iipenrii.    umi  success    leii 


to    til 


eir  la; 


multiplication,  unti!    to-day    they   loriii   one  of  the   most    useful  element- 


bflHi 


!(■  ^it 


i:hi;<  •.  I  Tiox  in  nisa  m/c  <  nx  ri  n  r 


r»'i9 


..iir  system,  sondiiii,'  lnrtli  ycjir  liy  yt'iir  IimiIcis  of  tliinii^Mit  mid  iiioiildcrs  ol' 

liiiiioii.     Tlicir  (•(•iiisc  n|   >iiidy  liiis  1h;cii  tin-  siilijcct   nl   nun'li  ••out  lovrrsy. 

lilt' (lid  ;ic;idt'iiiy  |in'|Kin'd  lor  tin- (•ollf'^'c ;  tlir  new  lii;^li  sclKtoi  |iici);irt's  tor 

•Ic;  <M>iisci|ii('iit,ly  tlit'ii'   fiisiicd  ii  liic;icli   Ix'twcrii   tin'   lii;4li   scliool  wild   tlic 

illi':^*'  wliicii  iiiily  MOW  is   liciii;^  closcij.     Tlit'  (udiiiiiry  lii;^di  sciin<d  coiirx'  is 

Miiir  years,  and   iiicliidt's  lair^uai^os,    l,atiii.   I'"iciicli.  ( icriiiaii.  and  sniin'iiiiii's 

'  iicck  anil  Spanisli ;  niallicinalics,  al^'t'lira,  m'oMict  ry.  trij^'unonictry.  ami  siinic- 

■  UK'S  analytiral  i^cninctry  and  even  asti'(ini)iiiy  ;  liisl(irv.  lilcratuic  jiliysical 

•  •iij^rapliy.  pliysii-s,  chcniisiry.  l)inlni,'y,  ;j;t'iilii.^'y,  diawinj,'.  and  ofcasinnally 

I'lilitical  t'cunnniy,  ethics,  and  civics,     it   will  l)e  nuticcd  that.  snl>jects  iur- 

iiici'ly  tan.i,dil   only  in   the  i'ollc^;e.s  have  hecn  iirnie^iit    into  the  liij,di-scho(d 

.■.iriicidiini.     'I'liis  attain  is  due  to  the  ••enrichin.i,'  procM'ss,"  and  is  illiisli'ative 

ul  the  fact  that  lor  so  many  id'  its  students  the  hii;li  school  is  the  crown  of 

!  heir  ciliicatioii.     The  stress  laid  n]ion  nature  study  and  the  jiliysical  sciences, 

:iud  the  introduction  oi'  modern  iaiii,Mia;4es.  are  anionic:  the  nmst.  sit^nilicant 

(  liaii^es  oi'  tlie  centni'V.  as   indicative  ol    the  doire  to  hriii};  the  scliools  in 

iMiich  with  the  conditions  (d'  ]iractical  lite. 

I'"i()ni  the  hi'^h  school  or  academy,  the  student  passes  to  thi'  colli-;;*'  or  nni- 
MTsity.  Within  the  last,  decade  an  attcni|it  has  liecn  made  to  ,tj;i\e  a  dclinite 
|i>ila,L;oifical  contPiit  to  each  ol'  thes(>  lerins.  A  i'ii//ii/r  is  an  institution  wlnre 
till'  lilicral  arts  are  studied  I'or  |iiiriioses  of  i^encnil  culture.  .\  niiirn-slfi/.  on 
I  111' other  hand,  iirepares  a  man  tor  one  dclinite  line  of  work,  eithci'  proles- 
siuiial  or  teeliiucal.  I'loth  cont'er  dej^rces  n|ion  those  wlm  have  .siicccsstnlly 
iMni|ileled  their  courses,  but  those  ol'  the  university  (I'll.  D.,  .\.  .M.,  .M.  D.. 
i|r.)  are  of  a  hiLjlier  type  than  those  of  the  colleij;c  (.\.  It..  I'll.  IL).  There 
were  twenty  four  eolle;4:es  ill  the  riiited  States  in  IMMI.  Tlie  six  oldest  wei-e  : 
ll.ir  ard.  cstalilished  in  IC.'m:  William  and  .Mai\ .  IC'.t;; ;  ^'alc  I  7ii|  :  I'rini'c- 
1..II.  17t<>;    ruiversity  ol  I'eiinsylvaiiia.  I7-1'.>:  ( 'oliiniliia.  ITol. 

Ill  I.^'.m;  there  were  I7'_'  ciillei;es  and  uni\  cisil  ies  in  the  rnited  States, 
represent  in;.;  iimsl  of  the  Slates  and  Trniloiies  in  the  I'liion.  Many  of 
tlicse  are  entirely  piihlie.  Iitini;  siip|iorti'd  \>\  State  appropriations;  soiiit! 
iii'i'ivc  State  aid  :  others  were  ori'^inally  foumled  liy  ]irivate  endow  iiieiit.  Imt 

h.ive  1) uue  public   in   their  mana,L,'emeiil  ;  some  are  entirely  private  in  both 

c!idowiiient  and  colli  rol.  Most  are  non-seciarian.  but  many  reipiire  worslii|i 
111  accordance  with  the  s,-r'. ices  of  smiuc  denomination.  In  .L;cneral.  all  recoe;- 
lu/c  their  hd'ty  I'liiiel  ion  in  society  .nd  are  anxious  to  disi-liar','e  it  properly. 
<  Mi'^riiially  aristocratic  in  many  \\a\s.  —  ]irior  to  the  Itcvuliiiiou  sonic  col- 
li".,'is  classiiyiii;^  their  stuilents  in  the  caialo^;iie  accordiiiL;  to  the  social  rank 
of  their  families.  -  they  have  become  am.  iiu  the  most  popular  iii-titut  ions  in 
till'  cilucatioiial  world.  laiLjelv   because  oi  the  hi'^li  worth  n|  their  L^r.iduates. 

riiivcisities.  in  the  scieiititie  seiis<'  of  the  term,  did  not  exist  priiu-  to  |SU((, 
I'M'i'jit  in  the  few  medical  and  law  schools  and  thi'olo'_,r|cal  seminaries,  'i'lie 
.Viiii'iican  eoiiccptioii  of  llie  miiv'isitv  has  been  \er\  largely  moulded  iiy  the 
c\|ii'iience  of  (ii'rmany.  'I"he  ciille_'e  does  not  exist  as  a  de;;ree-eoiiferriu(; 
iii-iitiition  in  (lermany.  but  its  place  is  taken  vei'y  lariidy  by  the  (1  iiiininsiinii. 
Tlie  (ici'nian  system  comprises  tlircc  ;^radcs  of  schools:  I.  VnlLsrlnilrii  ipri- 
i!i  uy  schools),  wliei-e  the  ell  iiciitary  instruction  is  '.^iveii.  1'.  i  •  iinnnisia  and 
l!"il-Srliiil,  II  (seeiiielary  schools),  which  provide  a  nine  years"  course  bir  the 
papil.  usually  (Covering  the  period  fmm  ten  to  nineteen  vi'ars.  The  aim  ol 
:;4 


.:il. 


w 


n 


(   ' 


m 


fmif 


111"'    tii'-t    I-    l'«    pic|>;ni'    liir   Ilii<   imiM'i  ^il  \ .  w  lull    {]„■    /,',,,/  Si  /m/rn    lit    (litn 
^lii.l«'Ul'<  l.u   I  li.'  iiiiliii;n  \    liiisiiii --•<  r:illni':-.  Ill   li|r       ;;     |    in\  crsil  irs,  in  \\  Iik  I 
III''    ■liliili'^  :ilr    .iM.ili-ccI    Ml    I. 'Ill    l.ii'iillh   .:    I  lii'ii|iiii\  .   \.{\\  ,   nii'il  HI  lir.  iniil   |.|i 
l"-"|'''.^  '  '"     :lii"lllll     <'l      lllr     I  I|.>|,i||.;|mi1'     .     i<{      lllr     (inlllllll     1 1  Mi'll  III".    111,11  r 

AllHMr.iu     -til.liul.     li,|\,'     ",>||i'     t.>    (ii'llii;M|\      |ii|     IllrH'    liniV«'|.||\    riiin^f.  \ 

f-llli  I  ir  c'llm  I     li.r.   In'i'li    liiiiili'    III     \  nii'l  li  ;|    III  i|i'\  i'|ii|i  llllix  I'l '.ll  ii"i    Mfcnlihlf    |. 
ill'     <i'nn.lll    run,  .'|i|.    W  nil     U   ;    il<'l.llli'i|      .ImU    nl     |<;Mlli'i||.n    |,i|.|r>;    liiisi'ij    nil 
1  llii|.MI';ll     'MMIinl     1. lllr, It  lull,        Jnlill       Ilii|i|vin.    I    IIIMT.lt\.    I'lil  1 1  lllinl  i'.   1 1|  ir  1 1,  ' 
111    ISJi.    Il.ls   ilmir    lliii-l    .lliili;    llic.i'   lllii". 

I'liiiir;    tlic    ii'iilin\    .1    ill  In  iiiiln  <l    .iml      iircr  .  .1  iil    illnrl    Ii:in    lin  ii  ni;iili'  t' 
ImimK     linwii     t  lie  nlil    |;i  .hiiMi,.,i    n.lli'.'c    rin  I  h'lllllln.    V\  ll  ll     ll       iili.iilnl.     :iiii|    in 

vinxnii;    n  i{iiiii  nil  III  '    hmii    rviiv    -.|  inlcni .      Il;ii\;nii    I    immi    iI  \  .  iimlii    ih 

l'':l'i''l;-liM'    "•     "■     I'hUmiiI     r\ri  lit  I\i' ..      riiiilii.i;     ||||1     ;nii|     i  -.i  ,rrl;i  1 1  \     r||:iil. 
^^       l.ili'l.     Il.l-     Iril     llii'     \\;l\     |i\       |i|i<V  lillli';     ;|       illr,    ii|     clcrlivi'    inm   c        ||,., 

"  Im  ll    111''    ^liiili'iii    nil-Ill     .ill'. I    ii     .iilli.irnl    iininlii'i   In    iii;ilvi'    up    Inmli' 

Thl^     llll--    '^IM'li      .i(i|i('    In    ll M'lil,.'    n|     ;|     I t|nni    nj     ilmiii'    llijl    li  ,  .    |„,     , 

llinl    W  llnli'-.nnii'     III     1 1  ■-    rlliil,    l|| Imlli    llir     .rlnilill    .llnl    \i'l   .||\  ||     |i 

1'  'I    I"   IIk'   II'":I«'i  1     III     llli'    jini'l    inlllsi',   ,ilii|    111  llic  t'llinlicn^i'mi'lll    n|     ll 

«'ii«'  ■ :   Jiiiil  1 1   111     |irninn(i'il  iinliv  iiin,ilii  \   in  I  lir  iliririrnl  •.!  nilnil  .  Inn  miii  In  .I 

;iii'.         Tin'    -^IM'i'i".-    nl     Ihi'    i'li'ill\t>    :\  '.Icni.   illnl    llii'    ili'M   ln|i||ii   III     n|     |  .n    I 

U'lMiln.llr  inin    1  ■-    III    I  111'  lllilX  I'l     ll  \  .  (.iK.'ii     ininlil linn    Willi    llli'\('r\    mh,'! 

llll<'lrl    111    .ill    llir    lill.l    r-    nl     li|i;inr    (>iilli':|l  lull,  t'nllsl  ll  III  i>   |  Im>    r||li>r    lllH'^    i| 

;ni\  mil  i'  iliinii';  I  lu'  ci'iil  iir\ , 

ll    I  •  <'\  lililil.   llirll.   I  ll.ll    I  111'  si  inlcilt     nl     lni|;i\    ll.is  :l    I  n>|||i>lii|iil|s   :ii|  \  ;iiil   i  -. 
n\rr  111  >  Irllnw  nl  niir  liiin<|ii'i|  \  (Ml  ;  ;i;.;n  in  I  Im  siil i|i'|.| -,  w  lijcli  Im  ni.'iv      I  ini 
Till'  rnlll'^<"i    li.lM'   ln'i  n   rill  irlli'ij,    1  ll -I  I  lli'l  li  Hi    Il.l-   liri'li    s\    -I  I'liKll  l/cil.   lii'W       ill' 
)<'i'ls.    Iiinli'    ilnsilv     iilliril    Willi     |in|il|l:ir    n h.     Ii.ivr    licrli    i  |i'\  I'lnj  ii'<|         |',iil     , 

•4;iiii    w  liiili    I  liiti -ri'inls    III    iiii|iiirl:iiiri'    rvni    llir-.i'    ;i  lln  nl  mn  ;    m    iIh'   nnii 

I'llinill.    1'.   lliat    wlili  ll    li;is  inlnc  llnnll';li    llii'   li'iii'iii'i  . 

W  <>    ll:l\i'     -I'l'li    lli;il     llli'    ii'ili'liiT  nl    mn    liir.'l;il  lii'i-;   w  ;r;    ;i    niilli  nl   ilniili|inl 
llll.iliiliirliN  Mini  uiiiiil.iin  rii;ir:icli'|-.  ;iiii|   wlilln   llii'ir  wi'ii'  i^inlilcii  ('\i'i'|i|  mil 

In  ,in\  -I'lnial  rnliiT^iii.  vi'i   it  isii(>\nin|i| .Imniliai   as  a  I'lass  t  lii.  trjili,  i 

sliiliwa--    III')   wi'll   I'-li'.'iii.'iI.      As  a    mil",    llnic    wa.    im   slalilr   ,salar\.-~  lln' 
tcarlicis  ••  linaiili'il  a  I  nil  I II  i  "  a  I  till'  III  Hill's  nl  I  lieu   I  111  I  "lis  nr  rcci'iM'd  |ia\  nil  III 
in   l>rniillCi'   linlil   I  111'   lai  linrs.        \l    I  In'  silinnl    lirwas    |ailltnr  as   well  as  nln.    I 
tni.      ( >nl-iili'  nl    Ni'w    rii;l,iii.l.  I  lii'ii'  w  a  .   Ill  I  Ir  inti  lliijciit  sii|H'r\  isnni  nl   In 

('llnlls.  ..inl,    nil     tin'    W  linlr.    \i'i\     lilllc    rlJi'i'tiM'    limi |i<'l'at  li  Ml.       Wlllmi 

till'  »'riitnr\.  linwi'Vii.  lliiii'  lias  Ilth  a  mailvnl  iinrrasi'  m  llm  I'-triin  m 
wliirli  llli'  ll  ai  liiT  is  lii'lil,  ami  in  tin'  |in|inl.ir  a]i|iii'riatinii  nl  In.  wmK 
Mnri'nv  I  I.  In  iLi\ .  1  ln'  trai  lii'i  lii'lti'i  lii'si'i  \  I's  I'  .1  CI '111  ami  r('s|i('ct,  W  liilr  i  l.i' 
IMnlcs^inii  st  ill  ,  nil  1.1  III-  a  \  ,1  .1  llnat  IIil;  ili'ini'lil  w  lin  IniiK  tiiiwai-t|  In  a  Inl  m. 
Ill  ntliri  lull's  nl  wnik.  \  el  nii  tlii>  wlinln  lis  im'llllicrs  |iiissi'ss  a  |<c«'l|  intrn  I 
III  I  lii'ii  w  nl  k  ami  a  iji'sii,'  Im  |iinri'ssiniial  iiii|irn\  I'lin'iil.  \  innst  imwia'il 
iiH'aiis  tnw.iiil  tins  I'liil  li.is  lii'i'ii  Iniiinl  in  lln'  \ariniis  ti>ai'li<  rs'  nr!,'aiii/al  imi 
Till'  Iiistitniii.  wit  ll    lis   atiiinal    assmililv  nl    all    ti'arhi'is  w  it  liiii    .a    'Mviii    i" 

till  t.  w  !in  Inl    I  w  n  nr  |  iir |:|\  s  ihsriiss   si'linni  iilli-sl  ii>lis  ami    llsli'li    In  Irrl  ii" 


ll|inli    t'.illrat  miial    tn]iii'S.   lias  lirnii   ml  rinillt'(>(|    I  ll|nu;;ll<illt     till' 


W'liiiji iiiii  I V 


ill 


W  It  ll   uH'.it    siiri'i'-s. 


ill.'  I 


r.lrlirrs  m   t  ||i<   \  ,||  inn- 


Sl.iti's   ll 


IVt'  nriJ-aill/ril  .■>! 


assini.ii  mils,  ami   tlnii'  an'  iinini 


nciiiilc  \iilmilar\  ni|^aiii/ii(inii;;,  wlmsi-  im 


1 


i:\  1 1  I!) 

S,  l,iil>  II  lit  tli<  p 
Tsilifs.  ill  w  liii  I 
I'lliniii'.  iiiul  I'll' 

I  tiMrlmi".  mill' 

■  1   ;l|  \    cnni     I'.  ^ 

lie-;  iiitoiiImI'  I 
nlil("<  li:isrii  nli 
'.;ill  lllinic.   npilii  . 

l;).,  llCi  11  iiriiii'  '■ 
nil  .oliili     :ni<l    HI 

<  I  il\  .  iilnli'i  I  I' 
,)M'ii;ill\     riciil' 

I  V  !■      Illlll    .('   •      III" 

iKc    II I  >    III  .   I"   I'  ' 

M.   r     lllill     ill  .    I"   •     ' 
liiv  rl     H  \  ll    'i 

llli'lll    "I     1 1 ' 

clrlll'i  III  il  lllilll>'  ■! 

r|.i|inn'iil    III    I'll  I 

II  ll   I  ill'  \  i'i\   '-;i'  ■'' 

llir    rllirl     llll'        '   ' 
H'llilnlls   ;|il\  .llll.i  ■■ 

licli  In-  iii;i\     lii'l^ 

lll!lll/l''l.   1"'^^       "' 
level. ipC'l        I'll'     ' 
iulH     III    I  111'    '■'"  '  ' 

IICIII   111    lliilll'l  '  "I 
nlileli  eseepl  i"" 
I  i'l;e.';  I  in'  li'ii'l"  I 
llile    s;il:ll\.  ''" 

lei'i'lV  I'll    |i;l\  III'  "I 
;l  ,    W  ell   IIS  eiilH    1 
U|ier\  l^lnll  "I    III 
elilllMli.       Will"" 
III     llie    eslei  III    m 

imi    nt    III-    vM'il>. 

^jieel  W  lull-   'I"' 

■  iw.iril  111  :i   III'  ""' 

ss   11   Ui'i'll   llil'i'    ' 

\    1IH'''I    |HiU>  I  'll 

I  is"  iir;_:;iiii<':ili"ii 
lllill   II   i^'iviii   III 
1  listen  t"  li'ilii" 
llie  w  Imlc   ei'iiiiii^ 
ve  (ir|4;ilii.'i''l  ^1  ■'' 
I  imis.  wlinsf  III' '  ' 


l.hl  r  \  I  l,l\     hll!l\<,      llll:     I   l\ll   in 


VII 


■">ifl*#it«".'''  :..:■•  am  ■  >jfvnm^ 


'lUH   f,'ivi'   e;|ell    leJIiliel    ;|  ll   1 1|  <|ii  .|  I  mill  \     |m|    |  |i;|I    I  i  i  e  i  i  iIiI   e  I    W  llll   mI  l|i   I       nl   lim 
tv  II  k  mil    t  I  III  I    i  :   SI  I   lielpl  II I    :i||i|      n    .ir'ne  ;t  |  M' 

riie  iili|i-:t    ii|l|i;il    llll  1 1      I       I  'i|;lt  lull    Ml     \  li|e|  ii;i.    Inn  \  I  le     ||i     t  lie    W  i  nlij,    I  .    I  lie 
\  mil  le.'lll     lll^lllllle     III      I  II    I  niel  lull.    1 1|  "  ;l  1 1 1 /i  1 1      III     IS.'ill  Muillli;     ll:     liejiU 

I  \elll\  Ni'lll  :  III  llie  ll  lii  liieii  i  i  I  m  |i||;il|ii|i  In  llinii  :iiii|  nj  le,ie|ie|q. 
i  1      1 1 ;  I  .     1 1 1    I  W  1 1      1 1   :       '  1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1  I      I   1 1 1 1  1 1  \ 

i  .llll    llie     \i'\\     l'',l|i',lillli|     SI  ;ile  .    lllill 

Ill  I  \      1 1  iilii    <  ':ili:iihi.    Iiill     ll  :     in 

leiellee        I  ;       W  |i|e  :|i|e:|i|  \||||II;|  I 

I'leet  ilie      In  \  .•    I n    lelil     leii|||:|  |  |  \ 

\  liliill!;      ll   :     |e:ii|i||"         |.||  ll     .     ||.     ||:i 

i.iimlieii  i|     Mill  men  ,i     \\ .  |'',.  Sin  I 

lllill.    !■  r:|lie|  :    \\  ;i\  l:ini|.    I  |e|||  \     \\.\\ 
11.11  ll.    ele.       'llll     III     I  lie    slieee     1    <i| 
I  lie    \  III  liill'J     Slille    :i       nel  ll  lull  ■,   illiil 
|ii   I  ll:l|iS    Slieee  ;ti  i|    li\     I  ||e    ||eee       |l  \ 
lei     lllnle    eeliel  :il     ;|el  lull,    e  I  e  \     I  |ii' 
\,ll  liiiul      I'Mni  ;ll  inllll       \       III   I  ll  II  III. 
ji'lllnlell      111      |S."li'.      ^\   ll  ll      I  III'     llli|iil 
III    I   le\  ;ile     I  lie     eli;|  I   ie|i   i       ilnl      el 
v    Hill'    llie    Mil  et  e    I    ii|     I  ||e    |i|  iile  >;lii|| 
lij   le,|ijill|i;  :illil   111  |iliilnii|e  I  he  i:iii    e 

I'l    {iiijiiiliir  eilne  ll  Hill  in  I  lie   I    mh  ij 

SI. lies."       ll    ;    III      I    |.le     nil   III    U  ;l   ;   /;|| 

iiiiiii    It'  nil. I  III  '.    ;i  ml    li  i  '     nieei-     m 

|i;l\  e  ween  I  '|e  |ii|  eliin  .1  eilin  ,il  m  , 
III  I  lie  enlllll  I  \  .  I  lie  I  m  I  Ml"  . I. line  .  ]', 
\\  nkerslllllll,      I'.lliel     nil      1.       Willie, 

W  iHniiii  T.   Il.iiii  :.   \llieii  <i     1,11111  . 
N  ll  liiiLi  ;   M  III  i;i\    r.illli  I .  <    liii  I  |i    ;   I.' 
nL  lllliel',   eh  It.     liiemlii  I     li  i  |i    |i;i  . 

"liiw  II  llMlll  SH  III    jS.'.i"  III   1(1.1  i.i  I   (  IS'.IS).  .Mill    1 1    li;i.   I II  esliiiinleil  ||i:||    -..nin    nf 

It   •   ei'llV  eiit  lull  i    ll.lVi'    Imni  "111     l\Veiil\    t|\e   t  In  ills, I  m  I    |ie(i|i|e    |||    llie||-   t|;illi  III 

|illlt  It  IS  t  lin|iil|i;|il\  nil  lull, ll.  meillin;  in  eve|\  eelinii  i,|  llie  eininli'.  in 
Illlll.  II  liel|iMI'.;  til  |i|ii|l|iile  nilllnl  mil  \  in  elinnl  |i|e;i  ,,  \stl|e  \  niiilinii 
"l"\\  Ijiii.er,  ;illil  ll  .  Willi,  lieiMiiie  limie  ei  i|ii  |il  |e;il  ei|.  lis  1 1|  i.;.Ml  1 /.I  t  |i  ill  Ihi  Hue 
lli\  111  V  I  ll.  I'l  I  i|;i  \  1 1  II  III  '  I  .  Ill  .e\  1  iilei  11  i|i  |i;||  I  Ml'lil  '.  e;|i'li  ii|  W  li|e|i  i|i 
Miles  it  ell  III  mie  |i||.i  ,e  ii|  i  1 1  l|i  .1 1  |i  ill .  I|  .1I.|||\  le|iii|tMr/  ;il  llie  .ililili.il  meet. 
111". 

Sllne     IS'.H'    llie     \;i||iin,ll     I',!  I  in  ,i  I  |i  H  I.I  I      \       iiei.iMiili    (\.    I',      \..   ;is    ll     H     |i'i|ill 
llll\      e;|||eih     ll;|-^    il  1 1|  "  i|  1 1 1  i   i  I      llllei'     ei  i|  n  ll  I  1  I  t  i  e   .     In     lll\e     In;. lie     ,,|iee|,||      |l||e.     (it 
Hiillv    III    -e|i;ilille   i|e|i,i|  I  nielil       ii|    llie      i   Inml       Vsleln.        'llie   (   1 1|  ||  II 1 1 1  I  ei  ■   dl    'I'ell. 
"  llll--!'  eli;ililii.MI.   < 'Imile      \\       I, In. I.    U  :i       the    ili-tilrMil    jieil     I'tesiiient    nl     Ihn 
v.llil    I     lli\er-,lt\.       nlilllllliil    .1    mil    I     11,1    llll    |i'|iii|l     III     |S'.l."iiill    ,Seeiilill.M\     .■>e||i,(il 
>'il'iii'S.        Ill     |,S',»."i    I  lie   (    iiiiimille.      Ill      r  lllii   ll.   Ill    wlinll     .^ll|ie|  Milemjelil     Win. 

II  M,l\  W  ell  w  ;i  ,  eli.ii  I  III  111.  I  lull  111  I'.  1 1  .i  li,  I  \  1 1  I  ill  I  I  in  i  ■  i  ■  l|(  ise  ||  1 1 1  1  le  I  ||i  •  t  M  -,t, 
Sil|ieflli|e||i|elll  nl  .Se  In  ii  i|  ^  1 1|  ■  (i|e,ile|  New  \ii|k,"  lii,n|e  ;i  \i|ln;ili|e  |e|i(i|t, 
nil  I  |e|lie||l,||\  e(|lle;il  Hill.  ilie|m|im_;  |e|iiilt  ii|  il  1 1  i  i  illl  In  ll  I  ee-.  i.u  I  iie  T  |  ,i  1 1|. 
llie  111   'I'eaeliei     ,  Ti  ui  e|;il  nui    nl     .Studies.   ;iiii|    I  lie  (  »l 'Mlli/llt  I  nil    n|    (    it  \    .Sejinnl 


In:     I  II  \  II II  ~^    u  1  M  I  '  M    Illlll 

I'll!      I|i|    -I     n|.     M  M;\    \  llll    I    M  >.  I   |;-l  I  V. 
I  mill.'    V  ..f    llll,  .Si  I I  .li.lillnil.    \.,u    v.. ill. I 


i.  '1 


li 


If  ni  .'" 


.i   !l| 


I   iri 


i  '1"  '' 


*^-:^vfe-*.i. 


,t 


ml 


m 


^V--<'''t'  I't     1^''.     iMlllr     111,      \,y,<\\     ,'|    III,'    r.'liilinll !       IvmIv,'    ,.|i    llntll 

Srli,i,il  .  Siipi'inil,!!.!,  Ill  lliiiM  Sil'iii.  ,.1  |,,v\  I.  ;i  ;  ,li;miii:ni  I  li,' :r  ,|,,.  n 
""'"'■  lilV  !>'  <  n  ,  I',',  ll  in  ilillli;  .  lli.M  liMi'  :li  i'ininil;l|,>,|  ;|  nil  ;  :  n|  liii  I 
V^"il'iv     nil.Min  ll  \.Mi  .    ili,'\     |i,i\,.    |,i,.,'iii,  ,|    ,,|,nn,,n    ii|„,|i    n     u  i,|,.     v.nirM     ,.| 

'"I"'     •    ■""'     '''•'"     nilln.  Ill','    \i|i,'ii    ill iii'iiil    '.\   :|i'iii,ili    :il  lull    ,,|     lli,-    ■■,  ||,„,l 

sy-l'  "I     111-     l'ri'l\     .11,11  111,111  ;  riii'li      :l,|,|lt  l,,|i:il     \;ilii,'     ||,.-     m     |||,.     |  ,,.|     (I,,, 

llll'N      ll.lVi'     in'l    11      Hlr|i;|l,',i      |,\      llMilli'l    :    \(  III,     lll,,t,,l|..|||\      lll|,|,.|.t|,„„|      III,      |,,|,,, 
W  lui  ll    Wi'ir   111  111"    ,  i-ii    iili  ti'il.   .111,1    III,  .^     1,  I,  ,.    I  III  in    ji,  ,|    1,1  .■,|||,.;||,,|-:   iirlii'iilh 
'I'''     >"ll    .11    11  .    ,-l     jil, lie       lull  ll    iipininU     wlllill     111;     liri'll    .;n    li:ii||v      |H<ri|)<i|     u, 
VllH'lli'.l 

I"    '''I       v\,'lK     ,<l     ,|  lllici  ilii;    .iliil    ill  ;  :i'|iiil|;||  iliii     i  11 1'l  n  111  1 1  j,  m .   '|     ||t,,'.(     |„,|,.|ii 

r"l       111  111   111      |>ll\ll|      llV      ill.'      ll:||l.in;||      KiMl'l  lllll.'lll  I    III.      Illllll    ihi'll        i,|      ll,. 

'  '""     I  ll  111  1,MI      Irll      r,lll,   ;||l,i||      ;|.;     ,'|      S|||,'      lll|,'|,       I.      I.,     1„,      vv,,||>,.,|     mi||      |,\       |.,,|, 

i'i'Iiiiiumiwim'iiIi     i  •    il    ■iliKiiM    'liuiK    L-   I  I  lui,'    I,  i,|     1 1  v\  n   i   |„.,.,|    ,   ..,iii'iil 

lii'-lir  .lllli'll".  li'Mi  lliT-^  lii|  I'lllr  li:|l  inli.il  I'l.'iiii  ill, ill.  iii  1  ;il  li  |  :|||,'|  ||,, 
''^'1  ^^  I'-  < 'nil,;!',' ...;  t"il:|lill  .lii'il  :|  i  |i'|i;|  l  I  liniit .  ;|ii,|  ||,,.|i  |,|,.,  ninlr  I  I'.iiirii, 
''I      I'.iurllli'M     111    ill.'     l»,'|i.llll||.'Ml    nl      llli'    lllliiini  In     |S(i,      ||,,|,      ||,.,,n     \\,. 

II  I', i      W.I  ;l|'pillllll',|       ill.'       Ill       I        1       ml,, I       S|;||,.;      (      ,. Illllll  I,  111. 'I       ,,|        I, III,      lit,  .11  \ 

^^  I  ■'   I     .lli'li''    riMllil     11,. I     lll'.r    ll,',   11     |||:li|,'  l»l       r.;ll  1111,1':    ,11.. 'I     in     .'.III,    ill.i'i 

ri'X.'i',  .1    I'.'nuil    I  imn    IS.iO.    u  Inn   li.'   w  .1;   :!  ppi  mil  1  1 1   Sn  \,  \  \\\    nl     I  |i,'    ISiinl  ,.| 
S.li,i,'l    r.iiniiii','.i,in,'i  ,    in    (  .  .iiin,  1 1.  nl .  .Iin\  n    I,.   111.'    imini        |!.'\iiinl    .|iii' 
lii'ii.  Ill  ■    'll' :il<"'l     "I'lK    III.    III.  n    llii'  I'll'  im     ilinnul    I  lir    \  il  mniil    |!iii  I'lin  .1 
l"  I  III  Ml  lini.    W  lili  ll    t.'  ,i.i\     1  .   .1     I'.l   Mill     .'.111.    ll  Illllll    .   Ir  II  III..   Imn  :■'.   'Minllliii    Im  il, 

III  I-  I'V.iIl.'liI  l.'|iin|.  Ill  :ii  I'.iiiiil  ,.|  i.li'i.  Hill  Willi,  III  i"|.  ll  Sliili'  III  ll. 
<'lll''l    ■  ll   •    lll';ll    .'(lii   lrlli'\     ll;l  .    ln'ill    illli'.    III     I    l:l|,;i'    llirl     llli'.   In    lllr    .'Irlln  I.   . 

.'I  II  ■  1111111111-  iinii'i  .  Ili'iiiv  I'.iinniil.  Illllll  jstl,  1.1  l.s.il,  .l.ilin  I'lilmi  |s,(i 
l.s.'Mi.  Niiliimi'lll  1;  Piu  nil,  iSSi;  IS.S'i,  Williini  r  II  nil  .  Issitt.i  .1  ,1. 
Tin-  I'll. .'Ill  inrmnl'.nl  li.i  .  li.nl  llm  il  1  I  irl  mn  nl  iln'  |.  m  iw  li.,|..,  ihii  I,, 
)in--ll  mil   h.l-    li.'i'ii    iiinnviil    liiiii    lli.'    li.l     nl     piili     111    1  |i|  n  .1  nl  imnl  :         !'.  \    I.. 

I  i.'l  llli  I'liiili  111  .'  ,111, 1  .;.  imin.'  ..'Illllll  lii|i.  I  »i  I  I  n  1  I  :  li  1  :  limn.'.  Ill  In  ..ll.  . 
mil'  Inn.  ll  Willi  i'\i'i\  •nnil  .  ,1  n,'.i  I  mii.i  I  w..i|,  l..i  i  i|i'i':ii|i'.  mnl  In  in  nl,  I" 
"  iiiii'    I      \n,in\iii   l,n    ..'iiijl    wi,,|,ini  ( In  ,iii".lii  ml    llm  w  lml mnln 

Mm    t.Mi  liri     li.i  .    Iii'i'ii    :|ii|i'i|    111    In.    wmK     li\    In:    {i|nlr     :|nnil     I     ;. II  III 

II  1-.  iimr.'iM  .'I .  liiii'  lli:tl  l.iil,i\  till'  ll  1,  Ini  .'iilm;  n{.iin  In;  wml.  lull.. 
"'||ini'l"'il     Im      111.     illllll  rim     lininiill      I  Imnl       .\      l.'lii     lii  :|i|i':nl     n\.|      ll.. 

\\  lml.'  .'nniii  I  \  .  ,111.1    I  \  I'l  \     \ .'  11    I  linn  .;inil  .  i.|    v  niiii"   m.  n    nnl   w  niii.'ii  m .'     .  ..i 

li>llll      Willi      :l       )ir.'|i.ll.ll  inn      lll.ll       ||||\        \|.:l|,      ;|.'n     W  ;|   ;      ||n|       .'Vi'll      illiillm.l         I 

^iiii ''    lln'    l.'.l.'liii     ln'lli'i     ili'.i'ivi  .     I. '.11. 'I'l     III'     111;    ininimiiiil.'il    ll     111..    III... 

KM'llIv  (  i  l.liln.lll  V      till'     li.ii  li.n  1  111  .     nl       ill.'        ilmnll  Illllll      ||;|\.      ill      i|i|ir,ii.    1 

.\''    ill.'    ■-V  llinal  ll\     Willi    i'iini;lllnli  inrl.'.i    ml.    Ilir    lmr.';,|l\     l.n     i'M'i';';|M'    |I. 

i^ni!;     |>|vs,  li    ;iw,l\  TnillV     ihrii'  |.    ;l    Uliln    \;||1.'|\     in    n|  Mil  lull    .'l-;    In    tin      .Mi 

i'lni.'x     nl     till-,    iiiml.     nl     1 1 1  .1  1 1 'I  iim        III    mil'    Still',     N.'w     .l.m;.'\.    ,ni|....  ,1 
|Mliii-^lini.'iil    ill    '.ilmnj.    I,    Im  liiilili'ii    |,\     l.iw.    I.iil     in    nin;!    i  iT  I  lir  i  .1  Ini  .    il    , 
]»rnilllt('ii    111   •-|>i'i'l.ll    .',1'-.' -     .1  .    ;i    "I'll.  Ill     |i:iil    III     llm    I  ..,i,'||..|  '  ;    |iii\\.'i    \\]„u 
!,>,••>  I, n  I'l  litis.       I'll.'  t. 'Jill.  1    r.  iiiMV    I'.iil   .1    i.'';nl.n     .:il:ii\,  Inil    iiii  Im  I  iin.il .  1       ' 
is  llic   l.'W."-l    |i,iiil    111   .iii\    |irn|i"..,|nn    Im    wlinli    Imin.il 
In    IS'.Ki   '.»,■    t 


ll  •  |.;l  I  :ll  mil    I-;    1 1 


11'    ;i\  i'l;ii_;.'    nimit  111  \    w 


'I     ll  .li'lmi  ;    w  ;i 


mIc;.   .•<  I  I  I 


.-iiiil  Im  ii'iu.il.'s.  s;!s.;;s      j 


n   (  nin|i;ll  I'-i 


III   W  ll  ll    I  Im    .|;ll|i|;l|i|    III    lllc   I  ll 


tl 


ic  .'nun 


ll\.  111 


i>  IS    |ni.ir   ii,i\.      Sn|ii'i  inli'inli'iit    \     ('    .Si'lijiUci .  ..I    I' 


m,x 


y^ 


HI 


IvmU  !■   Mil   Km  il 
HI  I  ll''  ■«•    il".  n 

I     III  I  ■■  ■     "I      tint 
w  lilc     \    11  III  \      .1 

Mil       mI        I  III'       '1    llMi     ' 

ill     llir     I   111     III  I' 
I   ;|mmi1     I  111'   li'l'i' 
lli'ill  Ml  ■:   •M'lii'l   ill  \ 

IvnlU    iii'i  ili'il    II' 


ri<l  I  ■  {  I  lo\     hi  l;i  \<.     nil'    >  I   \  I  I  l;\ 


.■im:» 


ilill,    III    :l    li'i  I'lll      lliliM  1 1     1 1  |.Mi  I        I   il<        I  II  il         Mill        II I II   I  111!  1  mil  III      I  Mil  III  I    I  lull 

nil  1'   M  I'l  1     1 1'  II  III  I       III    II  I      I  Miiiil  \    I  <    11  liliiM    I  Ml     I  Mil  I     .ImII  1 1  I,  1 ,11     \  I    1 1    I  liiill 

I  M    I     I  III'   1  Mil  III  \     Mil    :in    :i\  n   iMi.    I  M    K  ,  i  |.    mim      p  iiipi  i  I  III  i    I  i    ;lll    r  >  •  i'|i 

•  Mil  1 1   I'l  :i'.    lull    1 1    1 1  111    I  I   ill''    I  lir   I'l  III  I   1 1    I  I  111  II 

I  lili'    I'Mli    11  jin  111  !■    mI     IIii'    I. i'l     |.|\     III       liiiii    Im     hi  I'lll     :i  I  iiiiji  111' \     mIiii'Ii    I' 

I       I  I 'Mil  l\    ill!;      I'lllH'll    IMII       I   I   Mill      I    111         III       mI        I   ||M      I         |>l   m||  IMII'I  III      W    I  I  11     I  I      III"     II       U    ll  I 

ii'i,;i^i'.      I'mm   l''^itt    I  I   I'l   I'i'M'i   'I,   I  111'  |ii  n  I  III  |MM  III  ni:ili<  |i  :ii'|ii>i 'i  ijci  1 1   i  i  i| 


I  : 


HI,      'I        IIIM       I         )im|  I'lll 
I  IIMll     ll  I'  '11         m|       I  \\ 
ll.ril     Mill      |.\      .'  1.    I- 
\  ■;     liii'll     I     I'l'lli'l    I  ' 

:il    ll    I      iMi'i     ll' 

I  I    111  nil      I    r.lllr  I" 

IImii  lli'iin  I'll' 
mI  I'llin  ll  iMii  \ 
1 1 1'i'i    111    iilin   ll  I' '  ' 

\       mI       llll'      I'.Mllll     ■     I 

II  I'li'VMinl    i|iii 

,:|l  iMiiil     I'.llli '111    •    I 
HI   ;•',    ■  llnllll",    Imi  I  '' 

i':|i  ll    Sliili'    111    ll' 
r.   Ill    I  111-    I'Irll    I'l' 
[jiilin    I':iImii     I'-i" 


n  ;,  iss't  111  ll  ,1. 

lUi.il'i      lllill      In 

I  lllilll    :  l'.\      I" 
l.lMlli.lll      111         "M"   ' 

ml  III      III  111'    ' 
mil  I  \ 

II  ll      I      ;mi   III  i"ii 

III  ;     «MlK      I'l'H'  1 
|il  i':|i|     ii\  1  I      t  I" 

I  W  Mllli'll  ill  1'  1  "' 
\  I'll  ill  I'illlli  'I  "I 
lilril      ll      llll       III"" 

I  \  I     ill    1 1 1 1 11  1 1 '  ■  I 

III)     I'M'I'      'IM       ll" 
Mil    :n    111    111'     •  'I' 
li'l   ;i'\  .     I'Ml  I"  '  'I 
.1    ll llll'       ''    ' 

|1M',\   ll       ^\    111     11 

I    mi  llll  I  mi:il  I  I  \    ll 

II  iMii    I  ;    |i'i|iMi      I 

.1    111. ill'  .  :<ll  I  ■, 

III      llll'     lIllMll"!"    "I 

I'll. 'I,  111   I'l  III-  \l 


l\  IM   M  M      I        II  \  III'I' 

(llll   I'lin   i'i'ttii'",  I  ..|iiiii'lii.  I'"'"'    111  I.    A    I'll".     M.'il'lni,  Mill-..) 

iii'iii  II  0  In  .'I"  (l  ;  i"i|ii'i'i:ill\  i'l  llii-;  Inn  in  llii'  mI'Iii  .'-^IiiIi";  'I'lii',  i  :  in 
llll  llll',  ciillt  IM'il  W  ll  ll  mil'  llll  1 11 1 II 'I  I  ',  i':il  ;  ;i!'ii,  '.V  lull.  '•  -i  r  |  il.  Ill  ililillil  ■  '  ll'iiij', 
I'  ii'lii'i'i  wi'li'  ;iliiiii  I  mii  vi'l  'llll  V  111  llll'  im;i|i'  '.i'V.  A  v;iiii'lv  'il  cm  <"■.  iii.iv 
111"  l\  I'll  I'l  If  I  lii  ;  I'luni'i'  'Mil'  I  1 1  1  III  II  nil  I  III  111  :  "I  ',s  lllill  II  I'll  (Mill  1 1 11 ''  I  111' 
iliil'l  iliiiiii';  ri'ihiiii  ;i:',i'  !■■  ill  I',  nil'.'.  li'il"iil  '\!;;iiii.  Mh'  iImIimi-  'il  I  li'  I'lil 
.'III'!    llll'    nil  I'liiliii'l  mil   111    M    li:iji|rt    '  ',  111  I'iil  ll '.    llll. Mill    li'inlii'i    ,iiii|    |iii|iil   iii'/i' 

ll'  I  |i'  ll    I  III'    li'll'li'lll'S 

I'lill    III    ^ill   I  111'    1 1  III  I";    wiiji  ll    li.i'.  1     1  mil  I  lllilll  il    In   I  III      r  1 1. in  I'l',  li'iM''    li.l  .   Ii'i'll 


n 


^  m 


:     1      1 

.1 


w: 


n: 


r     f ' 


i; 


I 


I'  III 


■'''III 

III 
III 

III 


^h    .  I! 


/'.i  n 


mi, 

111 
i  i 


r  .*■ 


i 


111  "I 


li-   ff 


iimijllj 


i 
I 

SX'ClHli'  i  . 


1  life 


f*34         TIUIMJ'llS   AM>    »'(M7>/i,7.'.s    O/'  77/A;   A/.V"  CliM'UliY 

iiKii't'  pntfiit  tlmii  till-  'jirciit  iinTciisf  of  (»|i|inrtiiiiiti('s  lor  flic  liiv'liiT  t'tliUMlidii 

III     Wolllfli.       At     till'    Itl'nillllillj,'  nl    till'   rrlltlllV    t  lir    rilitt'd   Stilli'S   \\il>   Hut     lie 

liiiiil   l'!iii'ii|M'iiii   Il:l1il•ll^  ill   its  |ii'civi.>i(iii  lur  tli liirat  imi  ul    \<iiiii^'  winiiiii 

Nil  niii'  tli(iiii;lit  111  iii;ikiir4:  iiiivtliin.;  liki'  llir  miiih'  |prnvi>ii>ii  Inr  Imlli  ^M'M•^ 
W'ullirll  Ui'li'  nlusi'il  ;iilini.s>liili  tu  till'  riilll'.L;r>.  mill  Wrli'  nlili^'ril  ti'  rnlllrn: 
tlii'iii.si'hi's  with  ail  rli'iiu'iitiii'V  riliiratiuii  nr  rl>i'  iin-i't  tlu'  rxjii'tisi'  nl'  |ii'i\ati 
tutiiia,!^-!'.  (Iiailiiallv,  in  |»inli'st  a.Lj.iiiist,  iliis  >iati'  nl  tiiiht;s.  i^'irls"  st'iiiiiiarii 
wi'ii'  i)|n'iii'il  ami  },'iris"  lii.i:,'li  srlinnl.-,  wni'  rstaiilislii'il  in  llm  lai^r  rilirs.  'I'ln' 
iili'a  III'  a  si'iiiiiiai'V.  ■•  wliirli  sliuiilil  lir  In  vmiii!,'  wmiii'ii  wliat  tin-  collr^'i'  i>  tn 
^ntiiii,' iiicii."  was  lirst.  i^'ivt'ii  ilrtiiiilr  ^iiaju' by  Mai'V  I-ynii.  u  Im  rnlli'rti'ii  liiiiil> 
liir  tiiat  |iuriinsi'.  ami  in  I.S.'IT.  Iwn  liiimliiil  vrafs  altrr  llaivanl.  .Mmiut  llul 
yoki'  l-'i'inalc  Scniiiiaiv  was  opi'Mi'il.      Its  siiri'i-ss  was  rniiijili'ti' :    it  nlli'i'i'il  tlir 


il)i:.\i.  sriioni.norsi.;   and  i.kuinds. 
(("'iiiiicsy  (if  Afiririilnniil  Dipiirlim'iit,  Conii'll  I'liiviTsilv.) 


rf'<,'iiliir  Kiii,'lisli  ami  I'lassiral  cniirsi'.  ami  its  <,'i'ailuati's  nitiTi'il  ni-nrfally  intn 
tlir  ti'ai.'liiii;4  ]ii'ori'ssiiiii.  I'rrsi'iitly.  riilli'L,'i's  Inr  wnmrii  wi'ir  inrnriinralcd. 
of  which  tn-ila\  the  licst  known  arc  Vassal'.  Wcllcslcy.  Sniitli.  aiiii  llrvii 
Mawr.  As  the  ilcniaml  lor  the  hii^hcr  eilncatinii  nl  wnnien  incieaseil.  ini'- 
sontly  it  was  i|iiorieil.  wliy  may  nnt  the  two  sexes  he  tfaiiied  in  the  same  m- 
stitntion '.'  is  thcfc  any  real  necessity  Inr  a  ilii|ilii'atinn  of  jilants  with  iln' 
i'nnsei|iiLMit  wrakeiiiii.y:  of  resources'.'  'I'he  West  has  ailvaneeii  I'ar  lii'Miinl 
the  Kast  towanl  co-eiliicatinii.  <  )herlin  ('olle<,'e.  roiimleil  in  IS.'!."!,  opened  is 
iloors  to  hotli  sexes  IVom  the  lirst.aml  most  nl'  the  inst  itut  inns  that  ilcinc 
tlieii'  spirit  Ifnni  the  West  have  Inlhiweil  the  same  plan.  .\s  a  result,  sumi' 
nl'  the  city  systems  are  trying'  cn-eiliieatimi  in  their  hi;,'li  sehnnls  ami  >  li- 
mentarv  i^railes.  ami  thus  far.  while  there  are  many  nppnneiits.  the  j^'cni  i  il 
\erilict  is  t'avnral)li'. 

I>iit  the  wnnien  were  imt  content  wiili  a  'general  cnllcifiate  trainiiii,'  "i  .1 
iinrnial  coiir.se  that  litteil  mily  lor  tiaehiny-.  Within  recent  years  the\  Imm' 
filtered  into  the  othei'  prol'essioiis  with  a  keen  enthnsiasm.     'IMiey  are  allo\'  ■  I. 


11 


run  Y 

llii'V  t'ducatiini 
's  was  iitti  1)1' 
yniiiij;  wtniH'ii 

inl  lltitll  M'Nt'> 
^n'd   tn  ('(illlt'lii 

•  use  111  jiriviiti 
rls"  sciiiiiiarii- 
-4f  citii'S.  'I'll!' 
lu'  collc^'i'  is  ttl 
•nllciMnl  lilllils 
r.l.  Mniiiil   lli'l 

•  it    olliTi'il  tlir 


i:i)ii\Tit>s  hiiusd  Tin-:  cESirny 


630 


il  i^ciioi'iilly  itit" 
■(■  iiic(ir|nn'iiti'il. 
uitli.  :iiiil  l''i\n 
iiicn'iis('(l.  |iii'- 
iii  tlic  siiiiK'  111- 
|iliUits  witli  llii' 
ceil  t';if  Im'mmhI 
"IS.'i.'i.  (i|M'liri|    ils 


111) 


IS  tlillt  ili'li 
ult 


a  n'sult.  -I'lui' 
cliiiiils  ami  '  i'- 
il>.  till'   l,'i'1iim;i1 


trainnr-r  "i  ■' 
•ars  llii'N  !i  iw 
■V  aiv  all"\\'  ■!• 


II  a  few  iiistitiilioiis.  In  taki'  1  ln'Hln);ical  roiiiso  littiii,'  lur  the  iiiiiiistry.  The 
.ir>t  woman  iiliv^iriaii  was  ^Mailiiatcil  in  |,S|<)  trmu  tiic  sclinul  at  (ifiicva.  N. 
\  . ;  sinci"  tliat  linir  s|i(M'ial  niiilical  sclidols  I'nr  women  liavu  lici-n  opi'nnl  and 

(lUii'  colli't^cs  iiavc  dfcidrd  l.o  admit  uoiiim  nn  tin-  sanir  li'iins  as  tlir  otlu'r 

,x.      In   most   law  schonls,  \vo- 


iM'h    may    In-    adndltt'd.   and    in 

rMial  Stall's  1  licit'  art'  wonii'ii 

rai'tiriiiK  at.  tin-  liar.    W'liik!  tlif 

iitiiii'iift'   <d'   tradition   lias  licfn 

iii'ii.i,'.  yt't  llitTt'  is  to-day  no 
iiMMiii  why  an  Anii'iii-an  unman 

licpiild  not,  rt'fi'ivi'  a-,  lull  an  I'dii- 
ration  and  as  i'om|)lt'tr  a  traiiiin:^ 
,i>  liiT  l>i-otlii'r. 

In  fonsiili'iiii;,'  tlif  flian^fs  in 
si'liool-lil't',  tilt'  im|>i'ovi'mt'nl  in 
liuililiii,i;s  ami  i'i|iiii>nii'Mt  must 
not  lie  ovt'rlooki'd.  With  tlir  a|i- 
pi'i'i-iation  of  till'  valni'  tit'  I'diica- 
linii,  ihi'i'i'  has  I'oiiii'  an  atti'ntiini 
In  thr  t'liviionmriit  of  till'  jnipil  ^,.,.,i,.;s',it)N  koh  i-i.antim;  \  st  iiitoi..iitorM. 
that   lliallili'sts   ilsi-H    in   the    pio-  ^Cm.l•t...y  „f  Anii.  „llurall».|MrlMni,t  fcmrll 

vi>ion   III    lt'Xt-l)onk>.   in  llir  rrrr-  l'iiivirMl\  .1 

lion  III    lar,\M'r  and   lifttiT  vi'iiti- 

lalt'd  liiiiltliiij,'s,  and  in  tin'  aitoinmi'iit  nl'  srlmol  i;iiimid>.  Srlmul  an-lii- 
Iri'tiirt",  t'sju'cially  wIumi'  |io|iidalions  ai'f  iIimim'.  lia>  ln'coiiir  an  iin|ioi'tant 
scii'iii'i',  in\o|viii,n-  |iinlili'nis  nl  li^lit,  IhmI.  vnitilation.  t'tr.,  lo^i'thiT  with 
i|iu'>tions  id'  riirnitiiii'.  liir-|ii-otil  roust iiicl ion  and  iilayi^^jroiimls.  'I'Ih'Ii-  was 
a  tiiiit' wht'ii  till'  most  intci'i'st  was  aroii.M'd  li\  tin  i-xti'imr.  that  thr  school 
iiii'^ht  1)1'  an  adornnirnt  to  its  iii'ii,diliorliiMid.  Tn-day  thf  iiii|iortant  |(ioli- 
li'iiis  of  arian,i,M'mi'iit  ii'i-fivr  thf  most  attriitinii.  and  dcMTvi'dly  sn.  Wf 
i;ivt^  two  sniji;;t'>tivt'  |pii'tiirrs  td'  modiTii  st'liipollinusr>.  I'ruli'.ssnr  Lilit'rly  II. 
r.aili'y  ol  Cornt'U  I'liivfrsity.  in  a  |paiii|ilili't  wliirli  has  hri'ii  fxti'iisivcly  cir- 
ciiiati'd.  has  advofati'd  a  judirions  aii'aii'.;('iiit'nt  nl'  shriililiiTy  ainiind  a  M-limil- 
liiiiiM',  as  spari-  oiTiiiitti'd.  wiili  a  view  to  thf  I'liiniiiat  inn  nl'  all  hari'  and 
(liiM'rli'ss  rcat-iiri's  Irnnithi'  landsi'api'.  'I'his  is  f.s|ii'ciall\  adapted  Incniintry 
ilisli'ii'ts.  .\s  a  i'niii|iaiison.  till'  ni'W  Ccnlial  lli.uh  .Srlmnl  nl  I'liiladfljihia 
is  ;;ivt'n  as  nno  id'  thf  llfst  l\|"'S  nl'  a  fnlil|plflf  r\\\  SchnnllinllSf,  It.  Iia.s 
hffii  fiffti'd  at  a  total  frst  nl'  ovit  nnc  niillinii  dnllars. 

Till'  I'lirnishiiii;  (d' a  sclmnl  has  iiiidi'rt;niif  (•haiaitcri>tin  di'Vflnpmt'iit.  The 
hard  ht'iirli,  npon  whii-h  onr  ror('ratlii'i>  sat.  has  in  a  lariat'  nii'asnrt'  disap- 
liiart'd.  anil  in  its  plai'f  has  t'oim'  a  \aiic'ty  ol  desks  patli'riicd  with  rhair.s 
litti'd  to  rai'li  t'lirvi'  ol'  till'  iiark.  rtr.  I ilarkhnai'ils  caiiii'  iiitn  LTi'iii'ial  nsi' 
aliniit  till'  midilli'  id'  tlu'  ri'iitnry.  In  I'i'rtain  studii-^.  maps,  rharl^.  iimdi'ls, 
I'll'.,  st't'in  intlispfiisahlt'.  and  tln'  iimdi'in  sflinnlrnnin  i'niitaiii>  all  tliosi'. 
Moreover,  as  soon  as  science  teachiie,'  had  wni,  a  place  in  the  eiirricnliim.  the 
ny  went  up  lor  lalmratni  ies.  that  a  hii^her  i;rade  n|'  wmk  mii;lit  In  dmie  with 
the  more  advanei'd  pupil.  It  is  rather  a  siie^ular  I'act  that  in  many  places 
llic  public  hii^h  sidiool  led  in  this  tlemand.  rather  than  the  more  conserx  at  i\i' 


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TlllUMPlia   Ai\D    WOXDLUS    OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


culli'gt'.  Tu-d;iy  no  high  scliool  woiihl  count  it.-clf  ;ibh'  lo  do  its  work  w  illiout 
oiu'  or  more  hil)oriitoric.s  where  each  [uiiiil  might  work  for  liiniscH'.  In  tlic 
new  high  school  of  IMiihulfljihia  there  are  ]iliysicah  cheniicaL  and  bioh)gie;il 
hd)oratories,  as  well  as  a  c()iiii)letely  e(Hiiiiiied  a.stronomieal  observatory. 

Text-books  were  just  coniiug  into  use  at  the  ehise  of  the  eighteenth  een- 
lury.  The  •>  Chihrs  (iuide"'  was  being  sii])erseded  by  such  works  us  Noah 
Webster's  Spelling  Hook,  (iranunar,  and  Jveader  (17'.>1.').  Within  a  few  years 
came  Lindley  .Murray's  ••  Knglish  (iramniar."  the  work  of  a  (^>naker  merchinit 
wlio  wrote  his  famous  le.\t-book  primarily  for  a  young  ladies'  scliool  in  hi^ 
immediate  neighborhood.  The  instant  success  of  these  liooks  denionstr;iti'il 
what  a  need  tlit;re  was  for  such  a  chiss  of  literature.  The  writing  and  jiubli- 
cation  of  text-b(Joks  has  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  industries  of  tin- 
country.  On  account  of  hard  usagi'.  a  text-book  does  not  last  more  than  ;i 
few  years,  and  this  gives  continual  tqijiortunity  for  a  new  book  more  nearly 
up  to  date  than  its  predece.-sor. 

Within  recent  years,  less  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  text-book,  and  its  intlu- 
ence  is  being  minimized.  In  the  elementary  schools  the  teacher  explains 
the  lesson,  and  in  the  higher  schools  the  professor  lectures  upon  his  subject. 
(.'onse<iuently,  the  text-book  is  relatively  less  imjiortant.  This  does  not  meiin 
that  less  reading  is  being  done,  lint  it  does  mean  that  the  reading  covers  a 
wider  ground.  rarticularly  is  this  true  where  libraries  liave  been  estab- 
lished. The  public  library  system  is  a  nu)st  valuable  auxiUary  to  the  schoul 
system,  and  is  i'ast  becoming  imlis]iensable.  This  is  one  of  the  great  advan- 
tages which  city  pupils  have  over  those  whose  home  is  in  the  country,  and  ii 
will  lead  in  the  end  to  district  libraries.  In  some  States,  as  in  >«'ew  York,  a 
successful  effort  has  been  nuuh'  to  inaugurate  a  system  of  traveling  librarie>. 
whereby  a  case  of  fifty  ov  one  hundred  volumes,  relating  to  a  particular  topic. 
will  be  lent  for  a  time  to  any  circle  of  readers.  Massachusetts  has  best 
developed  a  library  system,  since  there  are  but  inue  towns  in  the  State  that 
have  not  fret;  libraries.  The  growth  of  the  universities  has  led  to  the  accu 
mulation  of  great  collections  for  special  research  and  study.  In  ISOO  there 
were  but  eleven  college  libraries  in  America  worth  mentioning ;  to-day  there 
are  almost  five  hundred,  of  which  the  largest.  Harvard,  contains  a  half  mil 
lion  volumes.  T.ibraries  are  of  use.  not  only  for  iiujiils,  but  also  for  adult > 
as  well.  They  have  aided  materially  in  solving  the  great  question  of  adult 
education. 

In  the  New  England  towns  of  the  middle  part  of  the  century,  th(>  lyceum 
lecture  was  exceedingly  poi)ular.  University  extension  has  recently  com' 
to  the  front  as  the  latest  form  of  the  lyceum  system.  The  idea  of  hi  - 
tiires  to  the  people  by  university  teachers  came  from  England,  where  ii 
Avas  suggested  ju.st  after  an  extension  of  the  suffrage  had  attached  a  new 
value  to  the  education  of  adults.  Societies  for  the  extension  of  univer- 
sity teaching  have  been  formed  in  Oxford.  C'and)ridge,  and  London.  Their 
methods  are  on  the  whole  identical,  —  university  men  are  sent  to  town 
or  village  centres  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  upon  some  general  tojiu  , 
after  each  lecture  a  voluntary  class  is  held  where  questions  may  be  ask.  ; 
and  answered;  at  the  comdusion  of  the  course  an  examination  based  \\\"  ■■ 
the  course  and  collateral  reading  is  gi.en  to  those  who  care  to  take  it;  ai 
sometimes  a  certificate  or  testimonial  may  be  given.     The  method  has  be  ; 


CENTURY 

0  its  work  witlidiit. 
V  himscll'.  Ill  the 
ical.  iuid  bioloyiciil 

1  oliscrviitoiy. 

,lic  ci^iitcriitli  ccii- 
icli  works  as  ^«()all 
Within  a  few  years 
a  (i>iiakcr  iiit'icliiint 
adics"  scluidl  in  lii> 
)(i()ks  (Icnumstralcd 
'  writiiii;-  and  ]iiitili- 
i;4  industries  d'  tin- 
it  last  more  than  a 
\\  book  more  nearly 

:-liook.  and  its  intiu- 

le  teacher  exidaiiis 

es  upon  his  sul)jee1. 

This  does  not  mean 

he  reailin.n  covers  a 

■s  have   been  esta'.i- 

■ciliary  to  tlie  schodl 

oi'  tlie  ,i;reat  ailvan- 

I  the  coiintrv,  and  ii 

;,  as  in  >.'e\v  York,  a 

[  traveling  libraries. 

I  particular  toiiic 

saihnsetts  has  be>t 

s  In  the  State  that 

as  led  to  the  accii 

y.     In  ISOO  then 

dug  ;  to-day  theiv 

ntains  a  hall'  mil 

but  also  for  adult- 

piestion  of  adiili 


it  ( 


•entury,  the  lycciin; 
las  recently  coni' 
The  idea  of  lei  ■ 
England,  where  ii 
id  attached  a  nc 
tension   of  univi  i 
nd  London.     Th<  ; 
lire   sent   to   tow ; 
)mt;  general  to|i;i  . 
ions  may  be  ask>  : 
illation  based  u]" 
are  to  take  it ;  ai 
lu  method  has  be^ 


.hj  ■.^te»^.  I'frf".; 
f;3  :?^  IR'    S  :K 

A-  ^  I     J      >  '        .,  :i. 

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TIUIMI'IIS   AM)    \VoM>I':RS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CliXTURY 


tniiisjiliuited  til  Ainciicii  iiiid  yciun'ully  iuloplcd  hv  the  uiiiviTsitics.  witli 
givatcst  siicci'ss.  ]ii'rli:ij),s.  in  the  Middle  StiiU's.  when*  tlic  AiiK'rican  Society 
for  the  Extension  oT  rniversity  Teueiiiiig  liiis  oryaiiized  tlie  field.  Diiriii!::; 
the  period  1S'.)0-U'.).  SdL'  coni'ses  of  lectures  were  oiveii  under  tlie  iuispices 

of  the  Aniericun  Society  lo  audi- 
ences iiygregiitin;j,'  ".)oL'.0(kS.  An- 
otiier  niovenient  ot  eiiual  iuijiort- 
iin(!e  is  that  done  by  tlu;  {'hatau([ua 
Literary  and  Seientilic  Circle,  whicii 
pi'ejiarcs  lists  ol  books  for  home 
readin,n',  with  a  view  to  encoura.i^in^- 
system  in  one's  use  of  s[)are  time. 
i*i'rhni)s  the  most  interesting^  })uli- 
lic.  work  for  adults  is  being  done  in 
>«'ew  York  city,  where  a  lecture  de- 
]iartnient  has  been  (jrgani/cd  liy  the 
F>oard  of  ICducation.  by  which  free 
lectures  are  gi\-cn  in  sehoolhouses 
to  the  jieople.  In  ISilS.  KSCfJ  lec- 
tures wi're  given  to  ()'.)<S,i;(K)  neoplc. 
aii<i  the  president  of  New  York's 
School  Itoard  has  declared  that 
"these  lectures  have  contributed 
more  than  any  other  agency  to  the 
distribtition  of  general  intelligence 
among  the  nuisses."  'I'hese  forces 
Dii.   wM.   II.   M.wwia.i..  sii'KuiNTKxnKNT       luivc   suppleuuMited    very    well    tin- 

'•KHKATKli    NKW    VoliK  "    S<  IIOOI.S.  .^^.,,,,1.  \\^^x  \^  \m\v^  doUC  bv  tllC  pul>- 

(Cuurtpsv  iif 'Piif  ScliiMii  ,i(.iirii;il.  New  YorU.)        lie  night  scliools,  wliicli  are  estali- 

lished  in  most  large  cities,  with  a 
view  to  providing  eli'meiita,ry.  and  sonu'times  technical,  instruction  to  those 
adults  wh((  cart'  foi'  it. 

No  i'(bicational  ((uestion  has  aroused  more  interest  in  business  circles  tiiaii 
the  ]M'ol)li'm  how  to  train  best  those  who  will  devote  themselves  to  a  com 
mercial  life  This  has  becomi'  a  live  (piestion  recently  to  the  Anuu'ican  pen- 
]ile.  W  ith  im|)roved  processes  in  manufacture,  the  power  of  ])roduetioii  lia> 
grown  far  beyoiul  th(^  consumption  of  our  own  people.  Consetpuuitly  Amcr 
ica  is  competing  with  the  great  industrial  nations  of  Europe  for  a  contrijl  el 
the  markets  of  the  world.  .\s  .soon  as  this  competition  beeanu>  evident,  tli'' 
iieiMJ  for  a.  better  trained  class  of  commercial  leaders  was  felt.  The  e.xamplr 
of  (itermany  has  had  a  gre.it  influence  upon  other  countrit's.  There  is  a  gen- 
eral conviction  that  the  leading  ]iositioii  among  commercial  nations  wiiici: 
(Jermany  has  won  for  itself  is  due  in  large  nu'asure  to  the  technical  edui:i 
tion  given  to  (Jcrman  artisans  and  tlw  commercial  education  ])rovi(ied  \<\ 
bu.siness  men.  Kor  illustration,  the  (iiMauan  government  has  I'ecently  estai' 
lislied  in  lierlin  a  school  where  young  men,  prei)aring  for  busim^ss  careers  in 
Asia,  can  learn  ("hiiu'sr,  .)a])anese,  .Vrabic,  aiul  Turkish,  (ierm.iu  youtl- 
have  been  sup]>lantiiig  English  voting  men,  to  an  ajipreeiable  degree,  in  tl 
great  commercial  liouses  i)f  Eondon.     As  a  consequence,  there  h  is  been 


i  •'  if 


iXTUIiV 

iiivcrsitii's.  with 
autM'ifau  Society 
,('  ticld.  I)uriii;j; 
ilcr  tlic  iiusitiecs 
Siicicty   to  audi- 

)t'  tMiual  iuiiiort- 
ly  tlin  ClKitainnia 
tiiicCii't'li'.  whicli 
books  for  home 
\v  to  ("iicom"ii,'iii;4 
sc  of  span'  tiiuf. 
;  iutci't'stiiig  puli- 
s  is  bi'iiig  doiu'  in 
hcic  a  IfCturc  dc- 

I  (H'gaui/.fd  l>y  the 
on.  liy  whit'h  fico 

II  ill  sclioolliousi'S 
11  1S<»S.  1S(U>  Icc- 
to  (>'.)S,-'(K>  people, 
it  of  Nl'W  Voik"s 
iis    declared    that 

have  contributed 
ther  agency  to  the 
eueral  intelligence 


EDUCATION  nuiiiya  the  cEsrrny 


539 


These    forces 


ced  very  well  tlie 
g  done  by  the  pub- 
,,  which  are  estab- 
irge  cities,  with  a 
istruction  to  those 

siiiess  circles  than 
■iiisolves  to  a  com 
the  American  pen- 
of  ])r()duction  ha> 
jiiseipiently  Anier 
,jie  for  a  control  ul 
liccaine  evident,  the 
iolt.     The  exaniiil'' 
.     There  is  a  gen 
ial  nations  wluti; 
lie  technical  edura 
|ation  ])rovided  ba 
lias  recently  estab 
Dusiness  careers  la 
(ierni.'ii    youl li- 
able degiee.  in  11  • 
there  h  is  been 


strong  demand  in  America  for  tiie  establishment  of  commercial  liigh  sclioois, 
—  public  iiistitutit)iis  in  which  (ierman,  French,  and  Sj)anish  will  be  tauglit. 
together  with  economics,  industrial  history,  commercial  geography,  public 
hnaiice,  social  .science,  etc.  These  institutions  differ  entirely  from  the  busi- 
ness colleges,  of  which  there  were  .">4L*  in  the  I'nited  States  in  IS'.tT.  in  tliat 
they  are  broader  in  .scope  and  content.  'I'lie  iattei-  (pialily  a  man  to  lie  a 
good  clerk  by  teaching  him  stenograpiiy,  typewriting,  bnokkeeping,  etc.,  Iml 
TJie  former  aim  to  give  liiiii  a  broad,  liberal  education.  enabUiig  him  to  have 
an  inti'lligeiit  (U)mprelieiision  of  all  matters  wliicli  interest  liiin  in  active  liiisi- 
ness.  This  niovenieiit  is  too  recent  to  have  borne  nnieii  fruit,  but  in  many 
of  the  larger  cities  of  America,  as  Mew  Vork,  rhiiadelphia,  Moston,  llrook- 
lyn,  and  Cleveland,  commercial  C(jurses  have  been  establislied  in  connection 
with  the  regular  higli-school  course;  and  in  some  of  the  larger  universities, 
as  I'ennsylvania.  Chicago,  Columbia,  schools  in  economies  and  ]i(ditics  liave 
been  created,  —  all  with  a  view  to  e<piipping  a  yoiim^  man  for  an  active  Inisi- 
iiess  career,  in  view  of  the  present  interest  in  tliis  movement,  more  may  l)e 
expected  in  the  near  future. 

The  close  of  the  (,'ivil  War  brought  tlie  American  jieople  to  a  problem. 
vast  in  its  im]iortance  and  intricate  in  its  sobition.  Tin-  negro  race  had  had 
no  o[)])ortunity  for  education  under  tlie  instilution  of  slavery.  I>nt  with 
their  freedom  caine  tlie  necessity  for  creating  a  system  (»f  schoids  wiiich 
could  be  of  special  helj)  to  this  new 
body  of  citizens.  The  South  has 
]ireferred  generally  that  separate 
S(>hools  isliould  be  provided  for  the 
two  races.  In  the  ante-belluin  days, 
the  wealthier  families  usiuilly  sent 
their  sons  and  daughters  away  from 
home  to  obtain  their  education 
under  better  ausjiices  than  their 
<iwn  neighborhood  could  afford.  '>() 
wlieii  tlie  war  comduded.  and  there 
'was  but  little  sign  of  jmblic  schools, 
a  new  system  must  be  cretiled.  and 
at  once.  The  first  work  toward  ed- 
Mcating  the  negro  was  done  by  the 
national  gcivernmeut.  through  the 
schools  op(Mied  by  the  I'"reednian"s 
Aid  Society.  The  different  reli- 
gions bodies  throughout  the  coun- 
tiy  took  a  hand  in  the  good  work, 
liy  establishing  special  missionary 
lioai-ls  ior  work  in  the  South.     Pri- 


vate benevoleiHie   lert 


SIU)S 


lantial 


nooKiat  T.   wAsiiiM.ioN. 


assistance.      (Jeorge    I'eabodx.   the 

nlnlanthropist.  and  John   !■".  Shitei.  botli   lonnded  trusts  which  tliey   richly 


'iidowed  to  aid  in  the  est; 


llll^ 


iment  of  sell! 


in  the  Southern  section.     Hut 


the  greati!st  work  was  done  tliidnL;h  the  awakening  of  the  people  to  the 
value  of  education,  leading  to  liiieral  up[>nnirialious  and  l(t  a  tirm  public 
■up[)ort. 


hi 


3 

i 


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I 


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r.4() 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS    OF   THE   XIX'"  CEXTURY 


J 


llli'll 


I  i 


m 


111:1 


V'  r 


rm 


Within  it'cciit  yfiu's,  iic^fro  ediiciitiou  has  iissiiiiicd  a  now  and  intorcstini,' 
jdiasi'.  Txioker  V.  Washinf^'ton.  ])rin(!iiial  of  tlni  Tiiskt^ifiM'  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial histitntc,  Alabama,  is  the  loadiiiLC  educuitor  of  the  At'ro-Anu'ricans.  and 
he  lias  won  his  high  plaei*  by  t\w  sncocss  whicli  has  attiMidcd  his  efforts  at 
industrial  education.  His  scliool  at  Tuskcgcc  was  started  in  ISSl,  and  to-day 
eontains  over  one  thousand  students.  Whih'  fully  aii|ircciating  the  value  of  an 
aiMcleiaie  education.  .Mr.  Washington  has  t'ldt  that  the  first  necessity  for  his 
|ieii|ilc  was  tiie  knowledge  that  would  earn  a  livelihood.  .\s  a  conse([uence, 
the  industrial  side  of  education  has  been  iicecnted  ;  twenty-six  different  trades 
or  industries  are  in  oiienition  at  Tuskegcn',  and  inw.  is  taught  to  each  student 
of  the  [nstitute.  As  a  cousecinence,  its  graduates  have  gone  forth  into  active 
life,  well  eciuipped  to  become  breail-wiiniers  and  to  till  a  useful  place  in 
society. 

The  care  of  those  who.  from  birth  or  by  accident,  do  not  possess  all  tht^ 
powers  of  a  normal  ]ierson.  has  aroused  much  interest  during  the  century. 
Tiie  deaf-mutes,  the  blind,  and  the  mentally  dciiciiMit,  have  each  had  institu- 
tions created,  where  they  ;ire  taught  as  much  of  the  knowledge  of  the  world 
as  is  possible.  The  instr\iction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  i)roceeds  along  two 
linos.  Tiie  manual  or  sign  method  of  conversation,  based  on  gestures,  was 
founded  by  Abbe  de  I'Epee  in  17(iO;  while  about  the  same  time  Samuel 
lleinicke.  a  (iermaii,  introduced  the  oral  method,  by  which  the  eye  of  tht- 
mute  is  trained  to  perform  the  part  of  the  ear,  by  learning  the  meaning  of 
spoken  words  through  observation  of  the  (dianges  in  the  position  of  the  vocal 
organs.  Special  institutions  for  these  (dasses  abound  in  Kurope  and  Amer- 
ica, with  the  difference  that,  in  the  former,  they  are  generally  jirivate  or 
maintained  by  charity;  whereas  in  the  latter  they  are  maintained  by  the 
State.  IJev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet  and  his  son.  Dr.  Edward  M.  (iallandet,  have 
been  the  leaders  in  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes  in  the  United  States,  and 
have  achieved  a  high  degree  of  success. 

The  teaching  of  the  blind  is  of  erpial  value  to  education.  Two  method.^ 
are  generally  followed  ;  an  aliihabet  of  raised  letters  is  employed  in  some 
oases,  or.  and  more  generally  in  the  United  States,  a  system  of  raised  (hiis 
or  points,  which  do  not  resemble  tlu^  letter  in  form,  but  are  a  kind  of 
shorthand  to  the  reader.  In  both  metli(>ds,  the  sense  of  touch  takes  tic 
place  of  sight.  In  some  cases,  notably  Uanra  Uridgman  and  Helen  Keller. 
the  success  has  been  so  complete  as  to  excite  universal  wonder.  I'erhaps  no 
institutions  alleviate  more  human  misery  than  do  the  schools  for  the  blind, 
by  bringing  world-ideas  within  the  limited  horizon  of  this  afflicted  class. 

^luch  also  has  been  done  for  the  training  of  idiots  or  those  who  are  men- 
tally deticient.  In  1S4S,  the  ]Nrassa(!husetts  Schotd  for  Idiots  and  Feeblc- 
Minded  was  opened,  iind  other  States  followed  with  etpially  generous  provi- 
sion. Within  recent  years,  special  schools  have  been  opened  in  connection 
with  the  school  systems  of  large  cities,  so  that  children  who  need  individu;il 
care  and  watchfulness  may  receive  more  attention  than  they  could  secure  in 
the  graded  class-room.  All  these  tendencies  are  exceedingly  hopeful,  n^ 
indicative  of  society's  recognitiim  of  her  duty  to  those  who  cannot  satisf;ir 
torily  care  for  themselves.  Hnmanitarianisni  in  I'ducation  has  been  a  powei 
ful  and  constant  force  during  the  whole  of  this  century. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  other  agencies  beside  those  established  h} 


j'>''' 


lENTURY 

,v  and  intovestint,' 
oniial  anil  Iiuliis- 
■o-Auifrifaiis,  and 
lied  his  efforts  at 
1  ISSl,  and  to-day 
n;,'  till'  value  of  an 
b  necessity  I'or  his 
\s  a  conse(inenec, 
ix  different  trades 
ht  to  eaeli  stuiU'nt 
e  forth  into  aet,iv(^ 
a  nseful  place  in 

lot  possess  all  the 
iirini;-  the  century. 
.  each  had  institu- 
ledge  of  the  world 
rocei'ds  aloui,'  two 
d  on  gestures,  was 
>anie    lime  Samuel 
eh  tho  eye  of  the 
ing  the  meaning  of 
>sition  of  the  vocal 
Europe  and  Amer- 
■nerally  ju'lvate  or 
maintained  by   the 
1.  (Jallaudet,  have 
United  States,  and 

ion.     Two  methods 
employed  in  sonu' 
Item  of  raised  dots 
.)ut  are  a  kind  of 
l)f  touch  takes  tln' 
and  Helen  Keller. 
|)ndcr.      l'erhai)s  no 
iiools  for  the  blind, 
attticted  class. 
;hose  who  are  men- 
Idiots  ami   FiH'blc- 
Llly  generous  pro\i- 
lened  in  connection 
no  lu'cd  individu;.! 
Iiey  could  secure  ii' 
Idingly  hopeful,  as 
ho  cannot  satisfac- 
li  has  been  a  powet 

lose  established  b> 


EUUCATJOX   DCniSd    THE   CENTbllY 


541 


States  iiave  been  contributing  to  cdi 

one  of  tiie  ji,M'eat  efforts  of 

un 


icatiiin.    'I'lie  Sundav-sciiool  niovnuent  is 

1- 


ih 


the  century,  to  help  in  trainiug  children  by  a  vo 
tary  organi/ation.     In    ITSl.   {{(jbcrt   Kaikes  e!n[)loyed  some  teachers  lor 
e  poor  children  of  (iloucester.  in  (U'der  tluit  their  Sundays  might  he  spent 


I)I(.    E.    BKXJ.     ANI)|!i;WS,    srPKHINTKNDKNT    OK   S(  IIOOI.S,    (  llI(A(iO,    ILI,. 

'juietly  and  with  ju'otit.  Presently,  as  the  n>nid)or  of  Sunday-schnols  in- 
ci'eased.  men  and  women  jn'olTered  iheii  services  gratuitonsly.  The  teaching 
Inllowed  two  general  lines,  seculai'  (readiie^.  writing,  etc.)  and  religious.  'I"he 
funner  was  of  help.  es]ieeially  to  children  who  were  employed  during  the 
week,  l-'rom  England,  the  movement  came  to  the  West.  The  American 
>^iindav-sehool  Tnion  was  oruaiu/.ed  in  iSL'f.  and  has  ever  sim-e  continued 
to  srimulate  the  establishiueiit  !>!   mor*- schools  of  this  kind     In  iS'.Mi.  tlieic 


^m^ 


.t 

% 

4 

in! 

iUll 


.>ili 


TUIUMI'IIS   A.\h    WOSDKUS   Oh'   Tllh:  XIX'"  VENTUUY 


!P  I 


lit  ,'■ 


fit'!  'S- 


\V(>re  l.'J-J,(i'.»7  SuikIiu-scIkioIs  in  tli«'  I'liitt'd  States  aiid  '.M»!»7  in  Ciiiiiula,  with 
a  total  ui(!ml)t'rslii|»  of  ll.',L'.S8. l.Vi  and  "LM.I.'J"*  rcs|M'ctiv('l\ ,  while  it  has  heeii 
(■oiuinited  that  in  tlie  world  the  iiiimucn-  of  Smiday-sch(jol.s  was  L'l(i,(J."i,S,  with 
ail  eiiioUiaeiit  of  '2\,\)VX'.\\'.\. 

Ill  Kiiropeaii  states,  they  have  l)eeii  solving'  the  same  ]ii'(il)leius  as  in  Aiiior- 
iea.  The  inijiortaiice  of  ediictatioii  once  adiuitied.  the  next  iimhieni  is  to 
se(Mii'o  the  fnnds  and  develop  the  system.'  lieeanse  of  administrative!  een- 
trali/iition,  this  has  heen  far  easiei'  in  iMirope  tiian  in  America.  The  Miins- 
fer  of  I'^ducation  in  I'" ranee  or  (iennMiiy  or(h'rs,  mid  his  direetions  are  carried 
out;  the  I'luteil  States  ( 'ommissioiiei'  advises,  ;ind  while  his  recommenda- 
tions iuHuenee  i)ubli(!  opinion,  yet  tiu'  latter  method  is  l»y  f;ir  the  slower. 
As  a  consiHpuMiee,  the  I'hiropcan  s(diools  arc;  mor«  systematized  and  better 
or!;ani/od  than  onr  own.  'I'iieir  coarse  of  stndy  diffei's  widel\  in  details 
from  onr  own,  and  ,i,'(ineraliy  shows  more  intlneiKie  on  the  part,  of  the  jieda- 
{^of^ical  expert.  Tecliincal  mid  proi'essional  edneation  has  heen  developed  to 
an  exceedin,L;ly  iiij;h  decree.  I'Ji^imid  has  hiid  a  jiecnliar  ]>roltlem  to  face,  in 
deterniinin.n'  the  relation  botwei'ii  tlie  (dnircdi  schools  and  the  secnlar  scdiools, 
and  lias  only  solved  it  l)y  maintainin,Lj  iiolh.  .Most  iMiropean  conntrios  have 
adopted  the  principle  cd'  compnlsory  e(hieation  for  children  within  a  certinn 
atre  limit,  and  tiie  same  princi})lo  has  been  accepted  in  thirty-two  States  in 
.\nn'ri(!a.  In  i;'ener;d.  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  chanj;es  in  course  of  stndy, 
in  <'([nipment,  in  the  teaidiership,  etc.,  lv.iro|pe  and  Am<'rica  have  been  work- 
uv^  aionif  parallel  lines.  .\s  a  rule,  these  chan.tjes  have  come  more  qnickly  in 
Anu'ricii,  where  traditions  wen^  as  yet  nnformed  ;  neverlludess.  tlie  proi;i'ess 
in  Knrope  has  been  (;onstant  and  very  groat. 

Canada  has  a  wtdl-established  and  well-regulated  .system,  in  which  the  ])rin- 
ciple  of  free  and  |)abli(*  edneation  is  recognized.  The  eight  provinces  con- 
tain twontv-four  colleges,  and  the  schools  have  over  one  nnllion  iin]iils.  Kdu- 
<'ation  is  more  or  less  conip\dsory  in  all  of  the  ])rovinces,  but  the  law  is  not 
very  st  rictly  enforced.  In  Ontario,  (^)nebec.  and  the  Northwest  Territories 
there  are  sejiarate  scdjools  for  IJomau  Catholics  ;  in  the  other  provinces  the 
schools  are  non-sectarian.  There  is  a  high  i)rofessional  spirit  among  the  teach- 
ers, so  that  the  schools  may  be  exiiected  to  keep  fully  abreast  of  the  times. 

The  idneteeuth  century  hiis  been  a  century  of  contiiuu)us  advance  in  edu 
cation.  Its  spirit  has  been  healthy,  its  acdnevements  are  notable,  it.i  work 
has  been  great.  It  would  be  futile,  howev(>r,  to  assert  that  all  is  yet  accom- 
plished. The  problems  in  elementary  education  are  so  marij-  ami  so  imjior- 
tant  that  there  have  been  times  when  solution  seemed  im]iossible.  !Never- 
theless.  the  system  is  now  established  and  is  assured  of  pid)lic  support,  mid 
with  an  educatiou  within  the  rc-aedi  (d'  every  child,  the  security  of  free  insti- 
tutions is  forever  guaranteed.  Fi;anklix  S.  Edmonds. 


I  J 


'    f'i. 


1  'I'lu'  I'oniparativc  interest  in  eilneiiliini  is  well  illiistrnted  liy  tile  fiillnwiiit;  extniet  fnun  an  :i'l- 
(tress  i>y  Dr.  Cliailes  I!.  SUiniier,  reeeiitly  deliveied  liclnre  the  \.  V,   .\. 

"  Tlic  I'nitcil  States,  ln-day  the  ycniiifjest  (d'  all,  is  the  (Uily  ureat  iialicni  uf  Ihi'  wurld  wlinli 
ex]iends  nnn'e  fur  ediicali  >ii  than  fur  war.  ("ranee  spends  annually  84  jut  capita  nn  her  army  ai:! 
70  cents  jier  capita  cm  eilncation;  lMi<;land,  .8;!.72  for  her  army  and  fi2  cents  for  ediicalidii;  I'riissi.i, 
iS'i.Ol  for  her  army  and  ."ill  cents  for  cdiicatidii;  Italy,  -SL^ii  for  her  army  and  ■'!!)  cents  for  edncaliiii: : 
.\iislria,  Sl.'Ki  fur  her  army  and  02  cents  fur  oilucaiioii;  Knssia,  ■Si.Ol  for  her  army  and  •'!  cent-  l  •! 
edneation;  the  I'nited  Slates,  :)!•  cents  for  lior  nrniy  and  "^l..'!."!  for  education.  Kni;laiid  I!  to  I  !  ■ 
war!  Knssia,  17  to  1  fcjrwar!  the  rnited  States  4  to  I  for  edneation!  Tlip  Unitecl  States  spends  iihi  • 
per  capita  annually  for  education  than  Kn/^land,  France,  and  Kus.sia  combined." 


ENTURY 

r  ill  Caiiiulu,  with 
whilf  it  liiis  bcon 
WHS  'J-l(;,(ir)S,  witli 


■A 


Hi 


l)k'ius  as  in  Aiiicr- 
'xt  proltlcm  is  ti> 
iliiiiuistrativc  cfii- 
■licii.  'rix'  Miuis- 
iM-tions  art'  ('an'it'<l 

liis  rcfomiiiciula- 
l,y  fill-  the  slower, 
iiati/i'il  and  lifttcr 

widclv  ill  dfiails 
(■  i>ar1  of  till!  ]icda- 
;  ln'cii  dcvcloiK'd  t'l 
pi'obU'iii  to  face,  in 
lh(.  scciilai-  scliools. 
„.aii  countries  have 
•ell  within  a  certain 
■hii'ty-two  Slates  in 

in  eonrse  of  study, 
ca  have  been  woik- 
inie  uioie  (luiel^lv  m 
lieless.  the  iin.-;ress 

in  which  tlie  lU'in- 
ii^lit  provinces  cou- 
iilion  tmpils.     Kdu- 
\mt  the  hiw  is  not 
i-thwest  Territories 
ither  provinces  the 
rit  among  the  teacli- 
breast  of  the  tinu-s. 
ous  advance  in  cdu 
.ve  notable,  ito  work 
lat  all  is  yet  aeeniu- 
niany  and  so  inipor- 
inqiossible.     >;  ever- 
public  support,  ami 
I'curity  of  fvee  insti- 
ijx  S.   Ekmonks. 

Kiuti  vxtract  t'n.m  an  n.l- 

„tion  -i{  ti'<'  '^^'"■i''  "'"' '; 

,.r  ciinitii  I'll  !"■'•  '!'''">  ■■"  ' 


its  for  (■(liicalion 


I'nis 


;(l  :ifi  I'l' 


iits  fur  i'(lm'«0"i; 


her  arm 


V  mill  :ii-i'iii-  i"i 


Kiidaiid  fi  ti>  1  '"■ 


ktiiiii. 

lUniU'il  Statos  siii'ii. 


Is  lim 


"THE   ART   PRESERVATIVE" 

I.     riiK  i'iii\riN(i   ei;r.ss, 

WifK.v  rieniaiuiii  l'"ranklin  edited  tiie  "  (Ja/i-tte."  in  I'hiladelpliia.  a  een- 
lury  and  a  lialf  a.in'o,  lie  set  ii|)  liie  tyiie,  worked  dtf  the  |Pii|icr  on  a  wooden 
hand-press  of  priiuit^ive  construction,  made  wodiIch  types  I'or  use  in  liis 
ulliee.  and  eiii^raved  tlie  cuts  witli  wiiich  In  ilhistratc  the  articles.  In  those 
days  iirintiii,!^'  was  an  art  w  liicdi  ti,L;uicd  aiimm;'  the  mysteries  of  science, 
and  was  ])racti(M'd  by  men  of  lii.inii  social  standiuu;'  and  advanced  education. 
Hie  sixty  years  wiiicli  passed  lietween  I'"rankjin's  pur(diase  of  llie  "("lazette'' 
and  his  death  saw  tin;  di>eii\cry  id'  many  scientiti(^  wonders,  but  the  art  of 
planting  nuived  so  slowly  as  to  leave  it.  at  the  (dose  of  )lie  eighteenth  cen- 
tury jiractically  in  the  coudiriou  in  whicdi  Kraiiklin  tonnd  it  when  he  iiegan 
liis  career  as  proprietcr  of  his  I'hiladidphia  printing  establishiueiit. 

And  this  condition  of  affairs  ajiplied  to  iMiglaiul  as  well  as  to  the  rnited 
States. 

With  all  the  rare  ability  possessed  by  the  printer  philosojiher,  he  was 
ahle  to  do  but  little  lor  the  advancement  id'  tiie  pnd'ession  whiidi  was  instru- 
iiieiital  in  making  for  him  an  international  reputation. 

In  all  that  jiertains  to  the  printing  business  there  is  nothing  with  whicli 
tlie  name  of  Franklin  is  connected  as  inventor:  yet  he  is  nd'erred  to  invari- 
alilv  as  in  the  highest  degre(!  representative  id'  the  ••  a''t  pri'servative  of  all 
arts."' 

Were  the  distinguished  scientist,  statesman,  diplomat,  printer,  and  jihilo- 
soiiher  tocoiue  forth  from  his  grave 
in  the  cemetery  of  Christ  ('liur(di. 
at  ['"ifth  and  .Vridi  Streets.  I'liila- 
dclphia,  and  go  into  mie  of  the 
','reat  printing  houses  of  the  coun- 
trv.  how  astounding  to  him  would 
he  the  revelation  I  Xo  more  the 
wooden  tj-])es  or  the  nnsymnietii- 
rical  metal  pieces  ;  no  iiuu'e  the 
wiiodeu  hand-press,  the  wood  en- 
gravings, the  ink  balls,  and  the 
jiidcess  of  printing  a  few  hundred 


slieets  an 


lumr.     The  terriiic  rapid- 
tl 


ity  with  which  tlie  newsi)apers  are 
turned  (uit  to-day.  printed,  cut. 
I'listed,  and  folded;  the  lineiiess  of 
the  work  done  on  books  and  maea- 


ziiies 


tl 


le    wonder    oi    one    press   i-^^j^y  ntiNTtNc  I'ltKss  as  used  «y   mcN.iA- 


I'l 


itting  on  different  colors  at  the 


MIN   FK*NKT,!N. 


.1  yti'ii 


W'l 


Mi       Tim  Mi'ns  ,i.\7)   \\().\f>i-:i:s  or  the  .\i.\"'  (i:.\rrny 


1  !     I 


I  I 


,,Jtli  i^' 


"1:     ^   1. 


IM 


.siiiiii'  linn- ;  llii-  si'tliiii^  nl  l.\|ii'  l'\  marliiiii's  s('i'iiiiiiv;ly  |ii)ssrs,sri|  nl  liiiiniiii 
iutt'lli^cMcc  ;  till'  iii|ii(lil\  tiinl  llic  siinplirity  n|  niiiKiiii;  slrrcntyiir  pliili's; 
tilt'  (Icxlcriiv  <>r  lormiiii;  oriliiiMrv  iiii'liil  l\|irs  min  nil  kiinls  nl  Inriiis  ;  Ihr 
liiilliniis  (if  liiinKs.  —  st'ciiliii'  tiiicl  rrli'^iiius.  —  ii;i|n'rs,  iiml  ^I'lirrnl  litcrin  \ 
|M'iiilii('li<ins  lui'iicil  niil  tl:iil\,  wmilil  sn  |iii//l<'  tiic  i^i'^iinlic  liraiii  ami  I'lnml 
tin'  iiiiilrrslaiidmi;'  d  tin'  |iliilnso|iliri'  as  tn  cause  liiin  to  cM'laiin  :  "  TaKc  ni< 
l)acl\.  O  spifit  I'l  (li'ath.  and  let  nn'  loii'Vfi'  rest  linin  tliis  st'i'lliin^,  snri^in;;. 
wliirliiiL;  s|ili('ii'  nl  nncntivc  pinj^i'i'ssiiin." 

When  the  grniiis  nt  invrnlnm  was  tnmi'il  toward  tin'  iiiintin;^  art.  it  is 
Wdi'tliy  »»!'  note  tlial  tin'  press  wliieli  atliai'tcd  the  f^icalest  atlenlinn  was  tin' 
ID'oduelidii  ol  a  I'liilailelpliian  wlm  nine  liad  lieeii  an  a^sneiale  nl  lieiiiainin 
J''i'aiil\liii.  It  was  Uimwii  as  tlie  ( 'nliiinhiaii  press,  the  iii\eiitinii  nl'  (ieurue 
Clvmer.  and  was  rej^arded  as  (d'  sutlieieiit  enii>eipn'in'e  In  meet,  the  appi'nval 
id  the  piinliiie;  traternity  nl'  (ireat    i'liitaiii  as  well  as  n|  this  eoiiiilry. 

In  the  Xatinnal  .Museum  in  Wasliinntnii.  ]».('..  is  the  liainl  press  which 
lienjainin  l''raiil\liii  used  tn  print  his  I'liihidelpliia  |iapcr.  the  "(ia/ette."  it 
liad  Iteeii  built.  I<M'  him  in  l.nmlnn,  where  he  hail  used  it  almiil  live  yeais  |ii'ini 
in  its  lieiiii;'  hrniiL;lit  tn  I'liiladelnhia. 

What  a  eurinus-lnnkiiii;-  allair  it  isl  \i'\  it  was  little  less  in  Die  way  nl 
])riinitiv('iiess  enmpared  with  that  used  pinu' tn  ISI7,  when  Clymei's  Cnlum 
hiau  came  into  use.  When  these  prnduetinns  are  cniitrasted  with  ilie  mai,' 
iiilicent  cniit  i  ivances  nl'  tn-da\.  Irniii  whiidi  can  lie  tlimwn  sixteen  linudrcd 
papers  per  minute. —  papers  id'  ten.  twehc,  and  rnurteeii  pa.ijes.  ]»riiile(l  nn 
lint  1 1  sides,  pasted  and  Inlded.  —  the  eiuii  pari  son  is  like  |)iilt  in.i:  t  he  steainlmal 
o{  l''iiltnu  liy  the  side  nl'  the  mniistcr  ships  which  crnssllic  At  laid  ic  neean 
t'rnm  New  ^'nrU  tn  Sniithainptnii  ill  less  than  li\('  days. 

The  Cnlumliian  press  was  InnUed  upnn.  when  presented  tn  the  prinlt'rs,  as 
an  advance  worthy  nl  iinte  in  the  art,  it  is  easy  to  imaij;ine  Imw  mneli  pinm 
iiience  was  ijixcn  Clyiner's  inventinii  when  it  was  placed  lieside  the  nld  emu 
mnu  press.  Tn-day.  this  suppnsed-tn-lie  j^reat  piece  id'  mcidianism  wniild  nni 
even  lu>  di'j;nitied  by  a  place  in  the  mnst,  nn-mndern  liatdswnnds  printiic,; 
cstalilisliment.  .\nd  yet  I'rnni  this  were  printed  the  literary  prndiicliniis  nl 
(ireat  riiiiain.  as  well  as  id' the  I'liited  States,  in  the  early  part,  ol'  t.lie  nine 
teentli  century. 

The  Cnlumltian  mechanical  advancement  I'nnsistcd  nl'  the  use  nl'  rollers  Ini 
iiiUiii,^;  the  type.  —  very  nincli  like  the  prncess  now  employed  in  inking  th. 
typt>  wlieij  a  rough  |irnol'  is  desired.  —  thus  dispensing;  with  t.lin  halls,  which 
were  iiiaiiaged  l)y  hnys  ;  the  use  nl' screws  under  the  lied  of  tln^  press  to  Imld 
in  ]insitinn  tin'  I'nrm.  into  which  had  lieeii  securely  adjusted  the  tyjie;  and  IIm 
application  id'  a  Iniiij;  bar  ti>  nbtaiii  pressure  snllicient  to  make  the  impressimi 
on  the  paper.  'I'lie  jiictiire  id'  this  press  shows  the  tlai  carria.ge  upon  wliiili 
was  placed  the  type,  tlie  platen  or  iiressiiie-  siirl'ace,  the  bar  wliicli  forced  Hi  • 
platen  upon  the  tyjie,  the  spring  which  earricd  the  platen  kick  to  pnsilii  n 
when  the  iin])ressioii  had  been  taken,  and  the  track  upon  which  the  eariia  ■• 
was  '.m>ved  forward  and  backward.  —  primitive  enough,  and  siitlicieiitly  siiiipl" 
ill  const nictinu  to  show  the  limited  capacity  (d'  the  inventive  genius  id' mir 
ijreat-tiraml  fat  hers. 

It  was  about  IS'J'.)  when  the  Columbian  gave  way  to  the  Washington  press. 
and  this  w.as  used  for  some  time  I'nr  line  book-work.  The  feature  of  it  un  ■• 
an  automatic  inking  roller  attachment. 


11^ 


/;,v /'/■/>'»• 

iscssi'il  <>r  liiiiniui 
Ici'nilvi"'  I'liit"'^'; 
lis  (il    lonns  ;   IIk' 

■  liraiii  ;Hiil  cluuil 
i'l;iini  ;  "  TiiK''  ni' 
siM'lliiii^;.  sm^'in.L;, 

piiiilini:  ;nt.  il  is 
jillnilioii  WHS  tlir 
,'i;il<>  III  Ui'iiJMinin 
M'lllinll  nl'  (it'nl';_;i' 
ini'i'l  111!'  ii|>|irnviil 
is  I'Duiilry. 
liiiiul  inr-s  wliicli 
111-  "(i;i/i>tti-.""  II 
mil  live  vt'iiis  inini 

less  in  llif  wmv  nl' 
■11  ('1>ii\it's  ('(.Imn 
sti'il  Willi  tin-  iiiii;,' 
:ii  sixtft'M  limiilrt'tl 
II  piii^i's.  i)riMl('<l  (III 
(liiii:  IIk-  slt'iiiiiliniil 
;  tilt'  Alhinlic  (ii'iMii 

til  tilt'  |iiiiilvrs,  ;i  ■ 
lilt'  liow  imifli  prinii 
licsitli'  till'  i)lil  <'"iii 
cliiniisiii  wmiltl  iwi 
lacUwiuiils  iiriiiliii'; 
iirv  iivtMliii'tidiis  III 
y  part.  1)1   1,1m  ninr 

In-  use  til'  riillt'i'S  l"i 
iiyi'd  ill  iiikiiii;-  Hi' 
it'll  llm  balls,  whirli 
il'  lilt'  )in'ss  Id  Iml't 
1  tilt'  typt';  mill  Hn' 
akt«  tilt'  iiiiiiivssinii 
|arriii,ij;t'  11)11111  wlm  !■ 
lir  wliifli  t'ori'fil  111' 
•a  back  tu  jmsili' n 
whit'li  lilt'  t'airia   .' 
siitlififully  siiii]    • 
jitivc  i^ciiiiis  of  111" 

Wasliiiii,'ti)n  pn  ^  . 
!(>  i'caturo  nl'  it.  \^' 


/•///■;    I/;/  I'lnisEiiVMivi-: 


Mti 


i' 


Wliilt' lilt'  W'a  ;lim'^lnii    pnvss  liaij   llif  iMpant  \    Im    prinluriii;;  lint'   wml;,    il. 

was  ili'lit'it'iil   in  llif     j i  ifpiiiftl  tm   iiii'i'lin^'  I  lir  lii'iiiainl  linn  .jinwin!;  Im 

iiiHiKs  and  iii'w  spapiT  ..       Tliin  iIm'    piinliT,  Iniiiril  In  a  i'\liiii|i'i    hii'-.s  wliii'li 
liail   apprai'iil    in    iIm'    la-l    iliiadi'   nl    llif  i'|i;hl ''I'lil  li    ii'iilnis         Tiit'    I Imm 

Tinirs'    hail    lakrii    linM   nl    ii.  aii>l   binii'^jil.   It    III  sinli  a  riiinlit  mil   llial    11. 

I I   was  raisi'ij  In  snniftliin'.;  Ilk''  a  lliini^anil  iiiipif  .^.inns  an  Imin.      Kniii'.',, 

I   liallM'   111    Sa\n|i\.    in    |S|,"(.   piiiiliiii'ij   a    pir-.:;   |ii|    prinlllll,'  linlli    .^nl"^    nj    liii' 

lii'i'l.  Il,  ii'si'iiilili'ij  tv\ii  nil,:!''  pii'^si'-i  plan'il  willi  llirw  I'vliniji'is  tuwaril 
.  ,ii'li  nllit'i'.  I  111'  .liri'l  liijii';  I'ai  Ti"  i|  liv  t,ipi'-,  trnni  I  lir  lir.^l.  In  till'  si'cniiil  I'yliii- 
,|i'r.      Its  rapai'ity  wa  .  7'><l  -In'fl  ■.  Imlli    nji',.  an  limii. 


1  III     I  nilMia  \s    I'Ul.sv 

Caiiiliriil'^n  II  iin  rrsily  aliniit  llii  liiii<'  wa,>  iurnislii'ij  wilii  a  priv-^s  in  wliirli 
llir  typrs  wri'c  plai'i'il  nil  I  ii''  Iniir  -iiii'>  nt  a  pi; -In.  1  in'  pa  j  nT  Ih'Iiil;  a.pplii'il  liV 
aiinlliiT  prism.  Il,  pinvcil  iiiisnccfssliil.  in  liii-^  pns-.  linWfMr.  witi'  i:ist 
niiiiiilnrrij  till'  inkiii','  rnili-rs  ruiiin-ii  nl  a  cniiiliinat  mn  nl' ,L;ln(' ami  ninlassi'.s. 
li'iilliTs  arr  ma  ill'  nl   t  hc^i'  l  \\  m  ma  ti -rials  In  t  !ii>  day. 

•'iiwjirr.  an  l''aii,dislimaii.  in  l.sl."").  ml  luiiiiri'd  ciirNfii  ^li'ii'iit  \|ii'd  plati'^aml 
ll'.'ii  lliciii  In  a fyiindi-r.  Tu"  |p|a<-i- i-ylindia--,  ami  twn  iiiipr('.--siiin  rylindi'i'S 
wi'ir  sunn  al'trrward  wnrki'd  tnu''iiii-r  nw  niii-  prl^•^s  liy  ('n\\|ii'r.  pi'inlinu  Imtli 
.-^^iiii's  nl'  llir  sIh'i'I  at  till'  r.ifi-  nl  him-  i''Mn.-,.inil  i-iipii--,  an  Imiir. 

Tliis  sci'iiis  In  liavc  lii'iMi  tin-  |ii-iind  wlifii  in\i'nii\i'  .-^kill  lii".,Mn  tn  a.-..M'rt 
iNi'ir  in  tlir  printing  [irfs,s.  'Jin- f(iiicatinii.il  .idvaiici'ini'iit  ul  llic  pi'n[ilt;  in 
;!r. 


I  f\ 
'  il 


II'' 


#i' 


}M 


■fit! 


i 


i  'II 


4-  ji 


lii 


n     ii 


n 


I  I 


!1 


&u> 


THiiiMi'iis  AM)  \\()M>/:ns  or  rm-:  a/a'"  ckm ihy 


this  cmiiitrv  ami  in  l'!iiiii|it'.  witli  tin'  l;irl\  dl  rucility  lur  liiiiiisliiii;^'  inldrina- 
tidii  <ir  till'  i'aiii|iiii;^iis  tpf  Naimlcon  liniiaiiaric,  tin'  di'sirc  lor  laris  ir^anlin.: 
t  III'  ('\ I'lit.s  ti'iitis|iii'iii,i;  ill  l']ii,iL,'laiMl,  Kraiicr,  ami  ( ii'i  iii;ni\ ,  llir  Mi>'a'4i('iii'H>  i>l  \\\r 
(It'tails  whii'li  iiail  Im'cii  iiiniislu'il  nl  liic  I'lmtliri  liriwi'i-n  (iirat  Hiilain  ami 
till'  I'liilril  Stales  ill  ISiL'.  cniis  iiici'il  liic  |iiiiili>lH'rs  nl  iii'\vs|ia|ii'rs  in  llii. 
('(iiiiit.i'y  ami  alunail  tlial  llir  laws  nl'  sii|i|i|\  ami  iliiiiaml  wni'  not  I'ljiially  lial- 
anct'il.  Tlic  (Miti'onif  of  tliis  was  a  pp-  •  ,  .instnn'tnl  lo  |iriiii  liotli  siilcs  ol 
till'  slioi't  Iroiii  ls|M',  ami  was  soon  lollownl  lu  ilir  inlroilncl  ion  ol  loui 
iiii|in'ssion  cylimliTs.    'riicsc  wcic  a|iiilit'il  lo  tlii'  ii't.'i|ii't)(;atiii,i;  bod  to  earn 


lU 


li 


«UI 


•  ''II 


WASlIINdTON    HAM)    I'UKSS. 

the  type  for  one  side  of  tlie  sheet,  the  sheets  beinj^  fed  from  four  fciii 
boards,  the  impression  cylinders  alternately  risinij  ami  falling,  so  that  i 
sheets  were  printed  dnriii!,'  the  passa!j;e  one  way.  the  otlier  two  on  the  reti 
passage.  A  jiair  of  inkins^  rollers  between  the  imjtression  eylinders  obtai; 
ink  I'rom  the  reeiprocatint^  board. 

The  capacity  of  this  press  was  five  thousand  an  hoiir.  and  this  wa> 
.u:arded  as  a   feat  wortliy  of  public  mention,  record  of  it  beinj^  made  in 
newspapers  of  that  i)eriod  in  a  way  which  shows  the  general  interest  in  : 
work. 

The    first  power-])ress  used  in  the  United    States  was  ni-ide  by  1', 


\',(i 

I  Ml 

,r,l 


hi' 


t  K 


(i:\TiL 

>' 

tiiniisl 

lill.^r  iiiloiiiia 

lor  til 

■IS 

n'jiJin 

liii'j 

IC   llll'il 

4V('11fS-^i'|  tlic 

1  Com 

11 

•itiiiu 

iiiul 

Ill'WSl 

ai>. 

IS    111 

llii 

wrvi'  IK 

it  <■ 

|iiiill,\ 

ImI 

1  iniiii 

ImiI 

li  siilt 

S    1  '1 

Mtrodi 

I'llliH    111 

IliUI 

(icalur^  lifil  U»  I 

;ur\ 

Till-:    MIT  l'lii:si:li\ M  IVE 


517 


fed  from  four  t't'nlnn: 

a  fallins?.  so  that  t  ^v.i 

ItluM-  two  on  tho  ri'tuni 


Mull  cvlimlers  o 


btaii 


hoiu', 


iuul  this  \va> 


it   hcinij;  mai 


h>  11 


1     'IM 


m'lu 


ral  inti'ivst  m 


was  made  l)y  1 


),    -IC 


i'rciiilwi'll.  nt    llnNtuii.   Ill    IM.'!'.      I'wii  (it   llicm   wi'ir  \\M'{\  liy  tlif   l>il)li'  ami 
I'rat't  siM'ii't  ii's. 

Tlic   LiMidoii  •• 'I'iiiii's  "  liad  mk cdnl  in  a|i|ilyiiiL,' steam  to  tln'  iiiovciiiriit 

i|  till'  luiiitiii^'  prt'ss  as  early  as  IM  I  — a  eyliinier  press  lieiu^'  lnoii^^lit  iiitu 

li'i|llisif  i<ill.  Ill  the   use  111    ulllrli   tlie_\    li;id   t  lie  ('XclusiM'   ri;^llt. 

ImiIIiiU  illi;  I  lie  'Ireadwell  |ile>S,  aliollL  JSl'.'),  ealile  I  lie  illl|i|(iveniellts  (if 
Saiiiiiel  and  i-^aae  .\daiii>.  and  tlie  ^^eiieral  use  ol'  tlie  pres>  wliii  li  is  .^till 
AHiked  ill  tile  liiiiik  nlliers  iij'  tills  cnuiitis  and  (ileal  riiilaiii.  It  was  nil 
I  lie  nl'  tiie.M'  Adaiu--  presses,  in  iSti.!,  ili.il  waN  printed  the  liiink  written  liy 
l»r.  l'',!i>lia  Kent  Kane,  deseiiliiii;^  li;,s  >eennd  expedilinii  in  seandi  III  Sir 
.Idliii  l'"iaiil\liii.  llie  All!  ie  exiilnrer. 


OLD    WOUDKN    KllAMi;    ADAMS    nil)    AM>    I'l.AllON    ItimK    l'UI>s 

It  was  f'diind  that  the  Adams  jiress  coiihl  he  used  inr  newspaper  as  well 
as  excocdiiifjly  tine  hook-work,  its  eoiistriietinn  admittint^  of  the  use  of  jdales 
or  type,  and  its  sjiced  suidi  as  nearly  came  up  to  the  reipiiicmeiits  id'  tliat 
period.  In  tliis  press  a  feed  hoard  holds  tlie  paper,  which  is  i'ed  by  hand 
111  a  second  hoard  or  tynipan.  haviiit;  points  to  make  holes  in  the  sheet  to 
rcj,'iilate  tlm  second  side.  The  ty]>e  rests  upon  a  hed  whiidi  is  raised  by 
sti'ai'.,diteninix  a  toi^tile-joint  a;^faiiist  the  upper  ]ilates. 

Till'  toiintain  for  the  ink  is  carried  at  one  end  of  the  press.  Tho  inkinp; 
lellers  ])ai-'H  twice  over  the  foi'm.  The  paper  is  cau^dit  by  Lirippers,  carried 
ill  a  frame  called  a  frisket  over  the  fnrm  (or  tyjie).  receives  the  im]iression, 
and  is  carried  by  tapes  tc;  a  tly  frame  in  the  rear  wliiidi  didivers  it  to  the 
sheet  hoard. 

With   the  two-,  three-,  and  four-cylinder  presses,  the  Adams  p«ress.  steam 


111  I 

I!' I 
Vi\  ill 


;•"« 


v\\«{ 


m 


ppiii; 


^ 


III 


I  ,i 


!|' 


548         TRIUMPHS   AND    WOXDKliS   OF  THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 


I  ; 


1      I  ■! 


power  and  various  imi)roveiiieuts  in  the  make  of  inks  and  rollers,  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  \va;'  looked  \i|)on  as  havin<:[  made  for  the  ])rint- 
inj,'  press  extraordinarily  rapid  advancement.  (Jreat  ISritain  held  lirst  i)lace 
'a  the  pro(hietion  of  newspajicrs  and  hooks,  the  TniUul  States  was  a  slow 
second,  then  canu'  !'' ranee,  (Jermaiiy.  IJussia,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Austria,  in 
the  order  given.  'I"he  greatest  evidence  of  thismaridi  ol'  improvement  was 
the  enormous  increase  in  the  ])roduction  of  the  llihle,  ami  the  briiiLrint,'  of  the 
cost  to  a  ligure  which  tlien  was  looked  upon  as  placing  it  within  the  reach  of 
all  classes.  Sci'eidilic  and  literary  works  were  being  ])ut  out  in  great  inim- 
hers,  m'\vsi)apers  were  hcing  started  in  every  town  in  tins  country  and  Kng- 
land.  ami  the  editions  put  out  in  such  I'audpean  centres  of  advancement  as 
I'aris.  Madi'id.  I'lerliu.  Urussels,  !,ondon,  Liverpool.  l>nl)lin,  (ilasgow.  St. 
retersburg.  N'icnna,  and  l»onu'  reached  |iro[)ortions  then  supposed  to  be 
enormous.  'I'he  l.omlon  "'riun's''  at  tiiat  period  had  a  cire.idation  of  about 
;^().(Mt(i, — ;iud  this  was  tlie  leader  in  journalism.  Im  the  I'liited  States  the 
leading  lu'wspapcrs  did  not  issue  daily  eilitions  greate'  than  '-'O.dOO.  while  ;i 
eircidiition  of  lO.OttO  daily  was  regarded  as  being  entirely  satisfactory  to  the 
business  ideas  of  the  average  pul)lisher. 

'I'he  opening  of  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  centiii'y  may  be  spoken  of 
as  a  (piiescent  period.  It,  was  the  calm  in  the  affairs  of  the  I'liitcd  States 
which  preceded  the  occui'ring  oi'  stormy  events  which  put  to  the  lull  test  tlic 
strength  ol'  the  young  republic,  the  attitude  of  the  nations  of  the  old  world 
toward  us,  and  the  jiowei'  (d'  the  people  successfully  to  maintain  a  govern- 
ment- ••of  the  people,  for  the  people,  aiul  iiy  the  people." 

Millard  Mllimu'c  becanu'  the  President  u\  the  I'niteil  States  in  ,luly  nf 
IS,"*!!,  succeeding  /aclmry  Taylor,  who  died.  The  Congi'ess  had  Inkcn  a  stand 
on  tht^  dislurbing  ipieslion  of  sl;i\cry  liy  the  passage  of  the  fugitive  slave 
law,  and  had  made  the  first  st('|i  lowaid  lieedom  for  the  negroes  by  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  It  was  in  this  year  thai 
New  Mexico  and  I'tah  were  admitted  as  Teriitories.  the  entire  populalinn 
of  the  I'liited  States  being  only  L'.'t. l',H.S7(> :  ten  years  lat.i  r  the  population 
reached  .'>1.H.'!..">L'I.  The  people  Were  beginning  to  realize  how  important 
was  the  ])riid,ing  press  in  placing  them  in  communication  with  the  statesnnn 
of  the  country.  They  were  looking  to  Webster,  ('alho\ni.  Clay,  Mereduli. 
Everett,  Scolt,  Critteudeiu  Collamcr.  Marcy, — ^then  in  the  fulliu'ss  of  nuMilii! 
vigor,  —  ami  they  wei'c  demanding  information  (d'  theii'acts  in  the  eabinei. 
their  s|iee(du's  in  Congress,  their  views  on  state  rights  and  slavery. 

It  was  at  tins  time  that  tlu-  Hoe  American  rrinting-press  Company  starlleil 
the  world  by  |iroducing  the  ten-cylinder  iiress.  the  sjieed  of  which  was  linntril 
only  by  the  ability  id'  the  feeders  to  sujiplv  the  sheets.  The  first  one  ni 
them  t(i  be  used  in  the  rnited  States  was  that  upon  which  the  I'liiladelpli.  i 
'•  I'ublic  licdger"  was  priidcd.  It  at  once  eanu'  into  geiu'ral  use  in  l''inii|H' 
and  .Vim'iica.      Its  speed  was  L'O.OOO  co]iies  an  hour. 

In  this  press  —  still  in  >ise   in  many  cities  —  the  form  (d'  type  is  placed  >   i 
the  surface  of  a  hoi'i/oidal    rexolving  cylinder  of  about  four  and  a  half  I"' I 
in  diameter.     The   form  occupies  a  segnu'ut   (d'  oidy  about  one  fourth  ol  ifi.' 
surl'aee  of  the  c\linder.  ami   the    remainder   is  used    as  an    ink-distribni ' 
surface.      Around  this  main  cylimler,  and  jiaralltd  with  it,  are  smaller  impi 
sioii-eylinders.     The  laige  cylinder  being  put  in  motion,  the  form  of  type-    • 


-*iirW: 


/•:NTUiiy 

\  rollers,  the  tirst 
uido  for  the  print- 
in  held  lii'st  \)l:ie(' 
itates  was  a  slow 
.,  and  Austria,  in 
inil>i'oveiiUM\t  was 
he  brin;j;iiig  of  the 
,•  it  hill  the  reaeli  of 
out  in  i,Meat  uuni- 
;  conntiy  and  Kiej;- 
1,1'  advancfiiK'nt  as 
l.lin,  tilas-ow.  SI. 
'11    supposed    to   li;' 
irculalniii  of  nluml 

United  Slates  the 
hail  'JO.OOO.  wliile  a 

satisfaetory  lo  the 

V  may  he  spoken  nl 
i  th,'  I'liited  States 
t,  to  tlu'  full  tvst  tlie 
ns  of  tho  old  world 
niaiutain  a  govmi- 

fd   States  in  July  "I 
hud  taken  a  stand 
the   fugitive  slave 
.jv,.,H.s  hy  the  aholi- 
,riii  this  year  tliai 
.  entire   populali.ui 
itA  r  the  iiopuhitieii 
iz,.   liow   inipoi'laiil 
with  the  statesmen 
in.   Clay.   Mereditli, 
,.  fullness  o[  menial 
u-ts  in  the  eabinet. 
d  slavery. 

ss  Company  startle.! 

f  whieh  was  limite'l 

^.     The    lii'st  one  m 

ich  the  rhiladelplii' 

neral  use  in  I'hiroi"' 


'/•///•;   .  I  A'  /■   /'A'/vNA'A'  I  •.  i  77  VK 


640 


lof  type  IS  1 


ilaeed 


Ifour  am 
Lit  one 


1  a  half  !■■■ ' 
fourth  ol'  ilie 


n    mU-ihs 


triiiHli 


are 


^ma 


the  form  » 


ler  impi' 
if  tyi'e- 


1  arried  suecessivtdy  to  all  I  he  iinpivssion-eylinders.  at  caeh  of  which  a  siicet 
is  introduced,  and  reeeives  the  impression  of  the  type  as  the  form  passes, 
line  person  supplies  the  sheets  of  paiier  to  eaidi  eylinder.  .Vfler  heiiiij 
|irinled  they  are  carried  out  hv  tape.s  and  laid  upon  heaps  hy  means  of  self- 
.uliny;  Myers,  'riie  ink  is  eoulained  in  a  fountain  placed  heneath  the  main 
>\lind.'r,  and  is  conveyed  hy  means  of  distrihiitiiii,'  rollers  to  the  distributing 
surface  on  the  main  cylinder.  'I'lii-  surface  being  lower,  or  less  in  diameter 
ihati  the  form  of  types,  passes  by  the  impression-cylinder  without  tomdiing. 
I'or  each  impre.ssion  there  are  two  inking  rolleis.  which  receive  tlioir  sn]iiily 
I'l  ink  from  the  distributing  snrlace  of  the  main  cylinder;  they  rise  and  ink 
liie  form  as  it  passes  under  them,  after  which  they  again  fall  to  the  distri- 
.'Uling  surface.  Ivicli  page  ol  the  jiapei'  is  locked  up  on  a  detaidieil  segment 
.il  the  larger  eylinder,  which  ciuistituli's  its  bed  and  chases,  termed  the 
■■turtle."'  The  column-rules  run  jiarallel  with  the  shafti  (d  the  cylindtu.  ami 
coiise([uently  are  straight,  wliile  liead.  advertising,  ami  dasii  rules  an-  in  the 


IHiLT.I.K   CVMNDia;    IMIESS. 

lorin  of  segments  of  a  circde.  'I'he  column-rules  are  in  tlie  form  id'  a.  wi'dg(>, 
with  the  thin  part  directed  toward  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  so  as  to  bind  tiie 
t\  pe  seciindy.  These  wedge-shaped  c(dnmn-rules  are  iu'ld  down  to  the  bed 
liy  tongues  projecting  at  intervals  along  their  length,  whieli  slide  in  r(d)ated 
grooves  cut  crosswise  in  the  face  id'  the  bed.  The  spaces  in  the  grooves 
lictween  the  rules  are  accurattdy  fitted  with  sliding  blocks  cd'  metal,  oven 
with  the  surlaee  of  the  bed.  the  ends  (d'  whiidi  blocks  are  cut  away  under- 
neath to  receive  a,  ]U'ojection  nn  the  sides  (d'  the  tongues  of  the  columii-rnles. 
I'lie  form  of  tyjie  is  lo(d<ed  up  in  the  bed  by  means  of  screws  at  the  foot  and 
sides,  hy  which  the  type  is  held  as  secundy  as  in  the  ordinary  manner  nimii 
a  Hal  bed. 

This  press  was  regarded  as  the  highest  degree  o\'  ]ierfection,  until  William 
A.  l'>ullo(d\.  of  I'hiladelphia.  jml  out  his  web  perfecting  press.  'I'his  com- 
pletrly  revolutionized  the  printing  Imsiness  so  far  as  the  newspajn'i's  were 
i-i'iicerned.  it  came  into  use  in  ISfil. — just  JKdbre  the  breaking  out  ol' the 
war  of  the  rtdudlion  in  the  I'nited  States. —  in  time  to  mi'ct  the  eiKuinons 
demands  made  upon  tlie  in'inting  press  at  home  and  abroad,  it  had  been  in 
eneration  but  a  slnu't  time  wlnui  the  newspaper  owners  oi  (Ireat  ISrilain  took 


h 


\P 


\\vv 


:« 


'/!', 


mm 

m 

■I  I 

I 


rhA) 


TIUIMI'/IS   AM>    nOXDiniS    Uh'   Till':   XIX'"  (ENTintY 


II  t 


^r    I, 


ii  '>iii 


il  j  'I 


'!■:  :. 


•  I'l 


lidld  nl'  it,  iiiid  tor  several  vears  no  otliiT  press  was  used  l)y  the  newspapers 
oT  lar^je  circulation. 

Mow  slow  and  toy-like  it  seems  in  eomparison  with  tiie  monsters  of  the 
present  day  I  And  yet  this  machine  nu't  tiie  demands  ol'  a  period  when  it 
was  supposed  the  cireulalion  ol'  the  daily  press  had  reached  an  altitude  never 
to  he  surpassed.  A  newspaper  like  the  New  ^'ork  '•  Herald,"  which  had 
attained  a  daily  circulation  of  ahout  7.">.(MI(),  was  looked  upon  as  achieviujn' 
the  hijj;hest  de.^rce  of  success.  In  this  last,  year  ol'  the  ninet.eenth  century 
the  '•.lonrna.l  "  and  "  World  ""  ol'  Mew  York  send  out  at  least  a  million  cojiics 
ol'  their  papei's  .■)(!">  d;iys  in  {\w  year. 

William  \.  Uullock  worked  at  his  weh  priulinj;'  press  i'or  six  years  htd'ore 
he  had  it  in  shape  t.o  pronounce  it  applicalile  to  the  i'e(piiremeids.  It  was 
not  lonj;'  alter  it  was  in  successl'id  operation  thai  one  of  his  liml)s  (mul^IiI 
in  th(!  ina(dnnery  of  one  of  his  jiresses,  and  death  was  the  result.  As  tiic 
pn'sses  lirst  were  made,  and  indeed  for  nuiiiy  years  thereafter,  the  paper  wiis 
cut  in  the  press  lud'ore  liein,^'  piinted,  and  it  was  a  diilicuit  matter  properls 
to  coidrol  tiu'se  single  sheets  until  they  were  delivered,  while  the  presses 
were  without  any  I'oldint^  attachment.  l'>ut  these;  old  style  IhiUock  ])resses 
did  succeeil  in  tiirniiiLC  out  (iOdO  ei^ht-iiage  papers  an  h(i\ir,  priid-ed  on  both 
sides. 

In  1S7.'{  a  .n'reat  improvenuMit  was  inaile  in  the  IWdlock  ])resses,  .inch 
allowed  of  tiu'  papers  heinjj;  piiided  on  the  endless  roll  before  the  ])aper  Wiis 
c\it. 

With  tiie  aid  of  other  improvements  ^idtsecpu'iiliy  made  these  presses  al- 
taiiu'd  to  a  capacity  (d'  KJ.OOO  ei^ht-pai;-e  papers  an  hour.  l>id,  an  viiu'X|iectc(l 
limit  was  iouml  in  the  impossibility  of  delixerinn'  beyond  a  certain  I'ate  from 
the  tiy.  Then  1».  Hoc  v^  Co.  (about  1.S77)  inv<'nted  a  r'ontrivance  wliicli 
obviated  tlu>  ditliculty.  It  consisted  of  an  accumuiatiny;  clinder,  on  whirl: 
six  or  ei,!4;ht  sheets  were  lidd  one  above  the  other  and  then  delivered  from  the 
fly  at  one  nn>tion.  This  im-reased  the  capacity  of  their  jierfectin*,'  jtress  to 
IS.OOO  an  hour.  A  foldiui;'  attaciiment  was  then  added  ;  next  a  pastinj^- ;ni(l 
cuttin;j;  attiiclinu'id.  Thus,  in  ].S7'.t  they  were  able  to  turn  out  a  press  which 
produced  ."lO.tUMI  perfect  ei,t,dit-iiage  jiapers  an  hour  —  jirintt'd.  cut.  pasted. 
and  I'ldded. 

The  next  great  achievenu^nt  was  ])ut  in  operation  in  a  New  ^'ork  pre-^- 
rooni  in  lS.sr>.  That  was  the  doidile  supplement  picss.  which  in  reality  cnm 
bines  two  presses  in  oiu'.  It  was  the  lirst  jiress  to  insert  sujiplenuMit  siicds 
automatically,  and  it  was  the  lirst  press  to  ])rint  I'lom  two  rolls  of  paper,  oni' 
roll  being  jilaced  at  right  angles  to  the  main  roll.  As  the  mnne  of  the  prt>s 
implies,  from  the  secondary  roll  tlie  su))|)lemeiits  are  ])rinte(l  at  the  siinic 
time  that  the  main  part  cd'  the  jiiiper  is  being  printed  I'roni  the  other  rull. 
And  by  means  (d'  what  to  tiu'  ordinary  man  seems  a  nuraculous  contriviiih  r, 
but  which  to  the  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  mecliaiucs  is  no  doidtt  vi  rv 
sim])le.  the  su]iplem"nt  is  aulomatieally  inset  and  pasted  into  the  main  ]);i|iir 
before  reaching  tiie  Hy.  and  dropped  out  folded  ready  for  tlie  newsdealer. 

l-'rom  this  press  has  been  evolved  the  su]»erl)  printin,g  machine  wliici:  ii 
recent  yeai's.  has  astonishi'd  the  world.  On  it  can  be  jirinted  eight-,  ten  ii 
t\V(dve-page  jiiipers  at  a  running  si)eed  of  L'4.()(l((  an  hour,  or  4(M>  a  iiiiii!  :i', 
and  whether  eiglit,  ten,  or  twelve  pages  are  priided  they  all  come  out  '^  Mi 


Wi 


I  i'« 


.)y  tlu'  iiowspiiiH^rs 


77/ A'   A/rr  I'lUlSKIiVATIVI':  TM 

the  siipi.loiiicnts  iusot  and  tln"  impn-  pasted  and  folded.  Kmni  iliis  press 
was  developed  the  next  triumph,  the  (piadnipie  press.  .Marvelous  niaehiues 
these  (piadruple  presses  are,  and  it  se<Miied  inipossdiie  that  any  pres.s  eonld 
he  l)uilt  lor  many  years  to  (M)me  tiiat,  would  heal  I  hem. 

'I'he  print  int,' business  stood  ama/ed,  awe-st  rieken  aX  the  si.i^ld,  <d' so  many 
papiM's  l)ein<(  turned  out  each  hour.  .And  li.dcuv  the  ama/.emeid.  had  sulisi(h'd 
there  came  i'orlh  tiie  machine  which  is  destined  to  j^o  down  in  history  as  one 

ot  the   great  aciiievements    in    mecdianics   of  the  nineteenth   centiirv. the 

sextuple  pre.s.s,  mannlactured  l,y  lloe  ^S:  (Jo.,  which  has  hrou,t,dit  forth  as 
many  wonckirful  improvements  as  any  mechanical  concern  in  the;  world. 

Althon.L,di  it  is  impossible  to  explain  in  la.ii,i,Miajre  eom].reiieiisihh!  to  the 
man  who  is  not  an  en!.;iiieer  how  this  monar(di  aiiion>;  printini;  presses  does 
lis  W(»rk  at  a  rate  of  speed  whicli  is  well-ni','!,  incrediiiie  and  oiitstrijis  tiie 
!li,i,rhtof  imagination  it.seif,  yet  it  is  possihle  to  convey  an  idea  (d'  what  the 
extent  of  the  Wcuk  is. 

This  machine  will  print,  I'okl,  paste,  and  deliver  '.(O.OOO  of  a  four-i.a.u'e  paper 


«■ 


m 


'  ill 


KiusT  ria:i'K("riN«i  imikss. 


next  a  pasting,'  ami 
lirn  out  a  press  wlii'li 
printed,   cut.   i^stcl. 


IvhieU  in  reality  c"iii 
rt  supplement  shcri^ 
o  rolls  of  paper,  "lu 


from  the  other 

Iractdons  coidrivaii"'. 

is  no  doulit   VI  IV 

ll  into  the  main  pap' r 

Ir  the  newsdealer. 

li<r  machine  which,   n 

riiited  ei;j;ht-.  ten      'i' 

nr.  or  4(»»>  n  mii'^  '"'■ 

>v  all  come  out  ^.  'li 


or  six-pat^o  news])ap<'r  in  oik?  hour.  It  will  re(iuire  some  fijriirin.i^  to  convey 
an  adequate  idea  of  how  fast  that  is,  lor,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  faster  than 
a  man  can  think,  and  that  is  why  I  say  that  tiie  speed  of  the  machine  out- 
strips the  tli,ti;ht  of  inini^inatioii. 

Ninety  thousaml  copies  an  hour  is  eipiivalent  to  fifteen  hundred  copies  a 
Miiiiute.  and  tifteen  hundred  copies  a  minute  means  twenty-live  copies  per 
second  I 

Now  take  out  your  watch,  and  while  tlie  second  hand  is  ])assiiig  from  one 

s lid  to  another  try  to  tfiasp  tiie  idea  that  in  all  that  hricd'  interval  ol   time 

twenty-live  six-])a<.je  newsjiapers  have  been  ])rintcd.  ^du  can't,  do  it.  It  is 
raster  than  yon  can  think. 

And  yet  in  that  second  those  twenty-five  papers  are  n<it  only  jirinted,  l)iit 
the  inside  slieets  are  automatically  pasted  in,  and  tin;  twenty-tive  papers  are 
nil  cut  and  folded  ready  for  delivery  to  the  n(!W,sdealers.  Is  there  anything;- 
iiMiii'  marvidous  than  that  recorded  in  the  "Arabian  Ni.ijhts" '.'  Who  said 
tl)at  there  are  no  niiraides  in  this  niiieteentli  century?  Why.  if  old  (liiteii- 
111  TLr.  —  peace  to  Iiis  soul.  —  or  l''aust.  or  ('axton,  or  even  our  own  lieiijaiiiin 
IVaiiklin  had  seen  anythiii"  of  the  sort,  tliev  wouhl  have  sworn  that  it  was 


i! 


\  m\ ' 


li 

■■  'iii 

i 

•  '?:|,i 

, 

,  ;i 

i 

i 

i  iVii 

:i 


^:'^t;.:.4 


III; 


!'»' 


652 


rniuMPiis  AND  n'oxDHns  or  the  xix'"  ckntury 


citlicr  a  miracle  or  the  work  of  the  supernatural,  with  the  chances  in  favor 
of  the  latter. 

Kaeh  pap^e  of  the  avera;j;e  newspajier  has  'six  rolunms,  and  in  each  colnnin 
there  is  on  an  averas,'e  l.SOO  vonls.  Six  nniltiplied  liy  six  and  the  jiroduct 
of  that  hy  twenty -Hve,  and  that  again  by  l.S(K».  yon  will  lind  makes  iJJl'O.OOO. 
wiiich  is  just  about  the  number  of  words  that  this  press  prints  in  a  seeoiwl 
when  ir  is  turning  out  six-])age  papers  at  the  rate  of  twenty-Hve  a  second. 
That  is  sonietliing  that  will  stagger  any  nuin's  imagination  if  he  tries  to 
realize  what  it  is. 

This  press  will  jjrint,  cut,  paste,  fold,  count,  and  d(diver  72,000  copies  of 
an  eight-page  newspaper  in  one  hour,  which  is  efpiivalent  to  IL'OO  a  nunute 
and  L'O  a  second. 

It  will  print,  cut.  paste,  count,  and  deliver  complete  4S.000  copies  of  a  ten-  or 
twelve-])age  news|);ipcr  in  one  hour,  which  is  equivalent  to  <S00  a  minute 
and  a  fraction  over  1.'!  a  second. 

It  will  ))rint.  cut.  paste,  fold,  count,  and  deliver  complete  .'Jf^OOO  copies  of 
a  sixteen-page  newspajn'r  an  hour,  wliich  is  at  the  rate  of  (>0(l  a  minute,  or 
10  a,  second. 

It  will  print,  (uit,  paste,^foid,  count,  and  deliver  complete  L'4,00(»  copies  of 
a  fourteen-,  twenty-,  or  twenty-four-page  newspaper  an  hour,  which  is  at  the 
rate  of  400  ;i  minute,  or  very  nearly  seven  a  second. 

4"his  is  liglitning  work  with  a  vengeance,  and  yet  it  is  jiossible  that  there 
nuiy  be  some  wlio  read  this  who  will  live  to  call  it  slow.  That  will  probably 
be  when  they  have  i'ound  out  all  about  how  to  (lut  a  harness  on  electricity. 
No  one  can  predict  when  inventive  genius  will  reach  its  limits  in  the  print- 
ing ])ress.  liefore  this  press  was  built,  the  fastest  presses  in  the  Avorld  Avere 
Jloe's  (puidruple  presses,  which  will  turn  out  4S,000  four-,  six-,  or  eight- 
page  ])apers  an  iiour,  1'4,000  ten-,  twelve-,  fourteen-,  or  sixteen-])age  i)apers  an 
hour,  and  lL',000  twenty-  or  twenty -four  i)age  papers  au  hour,  all  cut,  pasted, 
and  folded. 

The  sextujile  ])ress  has  a  well-nigh  insatiable  appetite  for  white  i)ai)er. 
To  satisfy  it  it  is  fed  from  three  rolls  at  the  sanu^  time,  one  roll  being 
attacdied  at  either  end  of  the  press,  and  the  third  suspended  near  the  centre. 
It  is  tlui  only  press  which  has  ever  been  able  to  accomplish  that  feat.  Each 
roll  is  sixty-thnte  inches  wide.  When  doing  its  best  this  i)ress  will  consunu' 
LT)!  miles  oi'  (i.'J-inch  wide  white  paper  in  one  hour,  and  eject  it  at  the  twn 
deliveries,  each  copy  containing  an  epitome  of  the  news  of  the  world  for  the 
preceding  twenty-four  hours,  and  each  copy  cut.  pasted,  and  folded  ready  Iim 
delivery.  It  is  a  sight  worth  seeing  to  see  it  done,  and  in  its  way  it  is  ju-i 
as  impressive  as  Niagara. 

A  UKUi  turns  a  lever,  shafts  and  cylinders  begin  to  revolve,  the  whirriii'. 
noise  sets  into  a  steady  roar,  you  see  three  streams  of  white  ])aper  poiuiu 
into  the  machin**  from  the  three  huge  rolls,  and  you  ]iass  arouiul  to  the  otlir 
sid(!  and —  it  is  literally  snowing  newspapers  at  each  end  of  the  two  deliver; 
outlets.  So  fast  does  one  ])aper  follow  the  other  that  you  catch  (udy  ■ 
momentary  glitter  frtun  the  deft  steel  fingers  which  seize  the  papers  and  ca-i 
them  out. 

The  machine  weighs  about  fiftj'-eight  tons.  It  is  massive  and  strong,  wit' 
the  strength  of  a  thousand  giants.     Au<l  yet,  though  its  arms  are  of  steel  an  ' 


THE   ART  I'llKSERVATIVE 


553 


its  motions  are  all  as  rapid  as  lightning,  its  toncli  is  as  tendor  as  tliat  of  a 
woman  wlien  she  carosscs  her  babe.  How  else  does  the  luacliine  avoid  tear- 
ing the  paper  ?  Paper  tears  very  readily,  as  ycni  often  ascertain  aeeidentally 
w  lien  tnrning  over  the  pages.  Trnly  wonderfnl  it  is,  and  mysterious  to  any- 
liddy  but  an  expert,  how  tiiis  huge  machine  can  make  ne\vs])apers  at  tlie  rat© 
iif  twenty-five  a  second  without  rending  the  paper  all  to  shreds. 

It  has  six  plate  cylinders,  each  cylinder  carrying  eight  stereotype  ])lates, 
;ind  six  ini[iression-cylinders.  Tliese  cylinders,  when  the  press  is  working  at 
lull  speed,  make  two  hundred  revolutions  a  minute.  The  period  of  contact 
between  the  pa[)er  and  the  plate;  (cylinders  is  therefore  inconceivably  brief, 
anil  how  in  that  fractional  space  of  time  a  i>erfect  imj)ression  is  made  even 
to  the  reproduction  of  tlie  linest,  is  one  of  those  things  wliich,  to  the  man  who 
is  not  "  up  ''  in  mechanics,  must  forever  remain  a  mystery. 


P 


•six-,  or  eight- 


|r  wliite  i)ai)er. 
one  roll  being 
lear  the  centre. 
Kit  feat.  Eacli 
will  consunii' 
it  at  the  two 
|(>  woi'ld  for  thr 


Is  wav  it  IS    ii-t 


] taper  pounir 
lid  to  the  othr 
lie  two  delivev; 


liainn's  and  (m 


lid  strong,  wit 


lOlU   UOI.1.KU  TWO-ISKVOl.iriON    1M!I>S. 

A  double  folder  forms  iiart  (d'  the  marhine.  A  single  foMer  would  not  bo 
('(|iial  to  the  task  imiiosed  on  it.  As  it  is.  tliis  double  folder  has  to  exi-r- 
lise  such  (iclerity  to  kee])  np  with  the  streams  of  juinted  jinjier  which  (h'- 
scend  upon  it  tliat  its  operations  are  too  ([uick  for  the  eye  to  follow. 

The  press  has  two  delivery  outlets.  At  each  the  ]ia))ers«iri'  automatically 
(•"unted  in  jiiles  of  iifty.  Xo  matter  how  ra])idly  tlie  papei^s  come  out.  th(>re 
is  never  a  mistake  in  the  count.  It  is  as  sure  us  fate  l>y  an  ingenious  con- 
trivance—  if  I  should  try  to  describe  it  more  definitely  most  i)eo])le  would 
1"'  none  the  wiser  —  each  lilticth  pa]ier  is  shoved  ont  an  inch  beyond  the 
ntliers  which  have  been  dropped  on  to  the  receiving  tapes,  thus  serving  as  a 
suit  of  tally  mark. 

Truly  it  is  a  marvelous  machine  —  this  sextuple  jircss.  Nowhere  yon  will 
tiini  a  more  perfect  adajitation  nf  means  to  ends,  nowhere  in  any  branch  of 
industry  a  iiiece  of  meciianisin  which  offers  a.  iiner  example  of  what  human 
skill  and  ingenuity  is  capable  of.  And  it  is  free  from  that  rciiroach  wliich  is 
sdiiietinies   brought  against  the   greatest   triuiiiiths  of    inventive  genius   in 


im 


"t:! 


!    ^  ! 


Sili't' 


t  n 


']'■  -Hi 


:!■■     ! 


654 


TlilUMl'/lS  AM)    WONDEnS   OF  THE  X/X'"   CKNTUIiY 


otlior  (Icjiiirtmcuts  of  luiiiuin  uctivity,  —  that  tho}'  luako  inero  automatons 
out  of  liuiuaii  l)('iii!j;.s. 

Tliciv  was  i'f(!('iitly  manufactured  by  the  I  loo  Coni])auy  for  a  iS'ew  Y'ork 
j)aiu'i'  an  aiUlitioii  to  this  woniUu'ful  jtii'ce  of  machinery  (U'sis^nated  an  ovXw- 
j)h'  ]>i'ess.  ivunniM,^'  at  full  sjictcd  it  will  print,  paste,  cut,  fold,  and  count 
i)().(>0()  ei^dit-jiage  impers  an  hour.  Jt  is  nearly  1-1  feet  hij;h,  niid  L'o  feet  loiif,'. 
Ten  men  are  reiiuired  to  o])erate  it.  The  cylinders  revolve  HOd  times  in 
every  (10  seconds. 

Tliis  monster  is  divided  into  two  working  parts.  The  ])rinting  is  done  on 
the  lialf  of  the  macdiint^  to  the  right.  The  pap(M'  passes  over  the  cylinders 
there,  where  it  is  jtrinted  from  the  stereotype  jjlates,  and  then  runs  througli 
the  other  half  of  the  machine  on  the  left,  where  it  is  cut,  inserted,  i)asted, 
delivered,  and  counted  from  four  outh^ts  folding  in  half-i)age  size. 

This  jjress  shows  four  distinct  double  ju'inting  machin(^s,  each  fed  by  its 
own  roll  <»f  paper.  The  paper  from  each  roll  passes  against  two  sets  of 
stereotype  jilate  cylinders  —  one  for  each  side  of  the  printed  sheet.  The 
machim^  is  so  jterfectly  adjusted  tliat  by  simjdy  turning  a  screw  and  moving 
a  gear  a  few  inches  each  of  the  four  sets  of  cylinders  can  be  tlirown  out  of 
o])eration  ;  that  is  to  say  one  (juarter,  one  lialf,  three  (piarters,  or  the  wliole 
press  can  be  operated  at  will. 

The  folder  is  harmoni/ed  for  each  adjustment  of  the  jjrinting  cylinder. 
Thf  folding  t)f  the  pa]iers  has  been  brought  to  the  highest  state  of  i)erl'e(;tion. 
The  sheets  are  folded,  cut.  and  delivered  by  a  rotary  motion  at  a  speed  thai 
could  never  have  been  attained  with  the  reciprocating  arms,  such  as  wen- 
used  prior  to  the  lioe  inventions. 

When  a.  sixteen-]iage  ])a])er  is  l)eing  i)rinted  it  comes  in  four-jjly  thickness, 
and  then  doubles  and  shoots  eight  thicknesses  under  the  knife. 

When  a  twenty-four-j)age  paper  is  being  jtrinted  it  passes  over  the  longi 
tudinal   folder   in   six-])ly  thickness   and  passes  under  the  knife  in  twelve 
thicknesses.     All  this  is  attained  without  the  use  of  guiding  tapes.    In  fact, 
the  s])eed  coidd  not  be  attained  with  them. 

As  the  ]ia])ers  are  folded  and  delivered  from  the  four  outlets,  with  a  speeil 
too  great  for  the  eye  to  iVdlow,  the  machinti  itself  counts  them  in  total  and  in 
bundles,  as  is  (h)ne  on  the  sextuple  jtress.  This  monster  octuple  machine 
lias  a  perfecteil  system  of  ink  distribution  with  which  no  other  presses  arc 
e(pupped.  Under  the  system  results  are  obtained  l)y  decreasing  the  size  anil 
increasing  the  nundu'r  of  ink-rollers  around  each  cylinder  (Sf  plates. 

The  arrangement  of  the  tv])e  cylinders  is  such  as  to  make  the  press  one 
that  can  be  handled  with  great  ease  and  ra])idity.  Along  the  right  liand  ol 
the  machine,  between  tlie  two  rows  of  cylinders,  is  an  o])en  passageway,  ii 
is  large  enough  for  men  to  pass  through  either  I'rom  the  ground  or  fi'om  lln' 
gallery  near  the  latitudinal  centi'e  of  the  press. 

From  this  open  jiassageway  the  pressmen  are  able  to  watch  every  move- 
ment of  the  machine's  interior  working,  and  from  it  they  are  able  to  make 
quick  changes  on  the  ]>late  cylin(h'rs.  The  change  in  ])osition  of  only  tw^ 
ink-rollers  is  necessary  to  change  a  ])late  on  any  cylinder.  This  is  a  matte' 
of  great  importance  to  a  pajier  whi(di  prints  many  editions,  for  it  is  neeessar\ 
to  change  plates  so  often  and  to  economize  every  miinite  of  time  in  order  t^ 
catch  the  fast  mails  which  carry  the  paper  to  all  (quarters  of  the  earth. 


ruRY 

>  automatons 

a  New  Yolk 
lati'il  an  o(!t\i- 
1(1,  and  count 
L'r>  feet  loii.H'. 
LJdO  tinu's  in 

n;j;  is  done  on 

till-  cylindfrs 

runs  throuKli 

(LM'tt'd.  i)astt'cl, 

Zf. 

acli  fed  by  its 
;t  two  sets  ol' 
d  sheet,  'riie 
w  and  moving 
thrown  out  ol' 
;,  or  the  wlioh- 

iting  cylinder. 
•  of  i)erfe(!tion. 
lit  a  speed  that 
,  such  as  were 

-l)ly  thickness. 

over  the  h)ngi 
nife  in  twelve 
ipes.    In  fact. 

;.  with  a  sjieeil 
in  total  and  in 
[tuple  niachiiii' 
ler  presses  aie 
11  j;  the  size  ami 
lates. 
the  press  one 
riudit  hand  nl 


Tl/i:   A II T  nnESKIt  VA  Tl  VE 


ooo 


lissageway. 


li 


|ud  or  from  tli'' 

I'll  every  move 
le  able  to  mak-' 
l>n  of  only  tw" 
Ihis  is  a  mattfi 
it  is  iieeessavN 
Ine  in  order  i  ' 
lie  earth. 


On  the  octuple  ju'esses  each  nil!  of  paper  is  ijuarded  ii,i,'ain.st  breakage. 
'I'liere  is  a  device  in  tiie  shape  of  a  sliort  endh'ss  belt  nf  riil)l)er  which  ])asses 
nver  two  i)ulleys  and  rests  on  top  of  the  roll  of  paper.  The  jiujier  is  then 
l)ulled  from  the  roll  as  gently  as  the  thread  is  imlled  from  the  spool  of  a 
sewing  macliine.  'Die  belt  imshes  tiie  roll  along  at  a  speed  (-(pial  to  and 
sometimes  a  little  greater  thiin  lliat  of  the  sterootyix'  cylinders,  llunce.  all 
tension  is  removed  fi'om  the  paper. 

l'"rom  the  stereotyper's  department,  where  they  have  been  made  in  a  few 
iinnutes.  come  tin;  plates  of  curved,  bright  metal.  I'assed  to  the  pressmen, 
ihcy  are  locked  on  the  cylinders  as  fast  as  they  can  In-  liardled.  The  rolls  of 
]iaper  have  been  placed  in  their  proper  positions. 

Tills  accomitlislied.  the  men  step  back  from  the  machine,  the  brakeman 
pidls  the  lever,  and  the  giant  })ress  begins  its  work.  Slowly  its  cylinders 
revolve  at  iirst.  bnt  as  headway  is  gained  the  rumble  that  accompanied  the 
start  increases  into  a  shrill  shriek  as  the  limit  of  speed  is  reached. 


l.ITIIO(llt.\I'HI(     I'UKSS. 

The  pajier  rushes  from  its  continuous  rolls,  is  printed,  folded,  cut,  and 
thrown  out  from  the  four  outlets  at  a  sjieed  that  would  be  o\cr  twice  greater 
tlian  that  of  any  ex])ress  train  if  it  were  eoiiHiied  to  one  roll.  Every  paper 
is  just  like  every  other  one.  i»erfect  in  every  detail. 

When  this  has  gone  on  for  an  hour,  two  hours,  or  however  long  it  may 
take  to  run  off  the  editions,  the  monster  press,  can  be  stopped  in  an  instant. 
AVith  the  simple  touching  of  a  lever  all  its  movement  will  cease  before  the 
ryliiiders  can  revolve  five  times,  ami  they  had  lieeii  revolving  two  hundred 
times  a  minute  before. 

The  two  -wonders  just  descrilied  lire  contined  to  newsjiajier  work.  This 
f-ame  American  firm  has  produced  jiresses  ujion  which  are  jirinted  the  hnn 
specinn^ns  of  magazines  where  the  work  takes  a  striking  r(>semlilance  to  litlio- 
grajili  ])rinting.  They  have  a  sjieed  of  S(K)(>  an  lioiir.  From  them  come 
lidoklets  of  ICi,  !J(),  or  '2\  jiages.  I'"rom  the  iiri^sses  of  KXH)  an  Jioiir  come 
hooks  of  .'(L*.  40.  and  IS  ]):iges.  In  construction  they  are  complicated  and 
grand. 

Then  come  the  ]iresses  upon  whicli  are  printed  diffei'enl  colors.  These 
are  made  in  Hngland  and  the  Tnited  States,  and  are  used  with  satisfactory 
residts  on  prominent  jaiblications  in  lioth  countiies.     A  recent  issue  of  the 


KHM 


11"  1- 


;,  i' 


Ill 


I   I 


.V)(5       riiiUMriis  AM)  noxDKiis  OF  rill':  a/a"'  vkstuhy 

"  l<ritisli  ;>ii(l  ("nloiiiiil    I'riiitcr"  ilirccts  iittciitiiiii  to  lliis  iulvjiiico  in  iiu'cOuiii- 
isiii  tlirom,'li  llu'  incdiuiii  nl  llu'  Hoc  ;irl  inlarv  i'lU'in  t'ccdt'r.      It  says:  — 

••  Tliis  iiiiu'liiiii' (Mi'iifs  llic  niiiiil  liiirk  natuiiillv  to  iirc-rotary  diiys,  wIkmi  tlic 
Hoc  iiiulli-lccdcr  licld  llu'  licld  ;is  Mic  ii('\vs|ia|M'r  luiicliiiit',  to  tlic  days  of  the 
lii'iivy.  ;iiid  iis  we  consider  in  tiicsc  inlvinn'cd  days,  chmisy  t.nrt.lc.  Wlicn  l,lit( 
crtMlivc  genius  ol'  Colonel  lloe  evolved  I  lie  rot;irv  press,  tlu'  nndt.i-lcedcr  was 
idnnist.  ;it  (nice  releniited  to  t,he  hnnlier  room  ol'  olisolete  nie(dia,ni(^s.  Il  is 
liiirdly  eoni't-ivalile  tliat  it  entered  tiie  mind  ol  iiny  practical  miin  :it,  this  tinn- 
lliid  the  jn'inciplc  ol  iiinlti  Ted  tint  sheet  jnintini;'  wonld  evcf  he  ;nliipted  to 
the  productiion  of  hi!;li  art  ilinst  i;iled  literal  arc.  ;d.  a  speed  e(pial,  or  nearly  so. 
to  the  I'omier  iloi-  news  miichinc.  It  has.  at  all  events  in  oni' eoiint.ry.  loni,^ 
been  a  settled  opinion  that  snch  work  eoidd  only  he  siicccsslnlly  accomplished 
npon  a  Hat  lied  machine,  thai  the  mere  cnrvatnre  of  a  plale  mnst desti'oy  the 
luMiity  of  a.  line  process  iilocU  lor  example,  and  that  any  attempt  to  travel  at 
a  uM'cater  sjiecd  than  IL'OO  to  loOi)  an  honr  nnisl  he  at  the  sacrilice  ol'  ilepth 
and  sntliciency  ol'  rollint;.  Whether  this  is  really  so  reailcrs  will  ntcv  he 
able  to  form  their  own  opinion  from  the  |iai;es  ol'  the  "Strand  .Ma.i,'a/,inc.' 
'I'liose  pages  ahonnd  in  very  varied  nu'thods  of  enLjravin;^,  woodcnt  and  pro- 
cess, line  and  natni'c.  and  i'e|ii'odn(Mions  alike  Irom  ]ihot()S  and  from  wash  and 
crayon  drawini^s.  l''vei'y  pa^c  has  undeiijone  the  process  ol'  elect roty pi n;^. 
east  strai.Lrht  and  carved  snhse(piently.  and  iliereron-  the  conditions  of  print- 
\u>x  at  the  hi.Li'h  speed  ol'  |U(I0  (or  to  he  strictly  accnrale.  I'oiir  sheets  of  I(» 
]ia,Ljes  each  put  ihi'onLvh  at.  the  rate  of  '.(.">()  eaidi,  or  .">S(I()  per  honn  aie  as 
severe  as  conld  lie  desireil. 

■•  Thi'  Uriiish  iM'inier  has  yet  to  ac(piire  a  I'nll  masteiy  of  its  capahilities. 
and  the  enLjineer  has  eipialiy  hel'orc  him  in  sonu'  dei^rce  a  period  ol  develop- 
ment. Sonu'  of  the  porlraitnre.  hnman  and  animal,  is  <>(pial  to  anythin;^ 
seen.  The  make-ready  (^upon  hard  packini,^  exhihits  the  hi,i,diest  (piality.  and 
the  distrihution  ol'  color  |icrt'ection.  'I"he  plat('-c\  Under  is  maih' as  larLi'c  as 
the  desired  speed  renders  praeti<'al>lc,  in  order  that  the  (Mirvature  ol'  the 
plates  may  he  reduced  to  a.  minimnm.  The  provision  for  secnrini^  adecpiaie 
distrihution  and  in-i-ollini;'  is  npon  a  liheral  scale,  hut  not  one  whit  iiioi'c  so 
tlian  is  re(piisite.  I'xtent  ol'  snrlace  and  speed  of  rnnnini^  (Minsidered.  'I'licr(^ 
•are  K!  inkers  and  .">S  distrihutors.  with  !(>  iron  distrihution  cylinders.  The 
sheets  are  led  in  two  at  either  side  of  the  nnichiiH',  those  from  the  ri;.,dit 
hand  reeders  hein.i;  delivered  upon  the  table  at  the  extreme  left,  the,  other 
ii]ion  the  inner  dcli\ery  hoard.  'I'he  plates  are  rit^idly  secured  by  special 
olntches.  To  facilitate  the  impositicui  of  the  plates,  or  any  atttMition  re- 
<piired  by  the  cylitidcr,  the  short  rear  portion  of  the  machine  back  of  the 
cylinder  is  detach:ible  and  can  be  run  ont  u]toil  an  extench'd  bas(>.  and  tlieii 
closed  uj)  and  put  into  cjear  aj^ain.  This  renders  it  perfectly  a(!cessible  at  the 
most  essential  point.  Tlio  sheets  are  of  course  jirinted  on  ono  siiUi  only.  W  c 
have  nut  yet  attained  to  the  perfecting'  stage  in  art  work  in  combination  with 
higli  sjieed  ;  the  introduction  (d'  the  iloe  art  rotary  press,  liowever.  niark^ 
a  distinct  epoch  in  this  class  of  jirinting  in  (Jreat  IWitain.  ('olor  printing 
presses  are  in  use  in  the  nows])aper  and  magazine  olHces  in  this  country,  ami 
from  them  are  jn-odnced  the  artistii!  as  well  as  the  lurid  styles  of  art." 

What  the  possibilities  of  the  ])rinting  press  arc.  looking  at  the  degree 
of  excellence  at  present  attained,  it  is  diiHcnlt  to  predict.     It  woiihl  seetn 


atlvinuHi  in  moiiliiui- 

•r.      It.  siiys:  — 
itiiry  (liiys,  wlifii  llu- 
;  to  lilt-  (lays  dl'  tlif 
,•  t.drl.lc.     Wlu'u  i.lui 
li(«  imilti-li'ctlcr  wiis 
(•  iiiccliaiiifs.      It  is 
imI  man  :il  this  linw 
ever  lie  ;i(liiltti'<l   I" 
I  fiinal,  <w  nearly  so. 
ill  (iiir  cniiiitjy,  loni; 
ssliillv  afi'i>iiii»lisli(Ml 
\\{\  iiinsl  (lest my  tin- 
iitliMiipl  to  tiiivcl  ;il. 
he  s;icriii<'f  of  (lf|itli 
rciult't's   will   nti'.v  1"' 
i   -Strand   M:ii,'a/ini'.' 
i<4,  woixlfiit  and  in'n- 
is  and  Iniin  wasli  and 
CSS  (iT  clcctrotyiiini,'. 
«  conditiniis  ol  iniul- 


a,  jicriod  (li  dfvi'liiii- 
is  tMinal  t(i  anylliin:^ 
hii^iicst,  qnality.  and 
r  is  made  as  lari^i'  as 
the  curvature  ol   the 
lor  secuiint^  aiUMpiate 
lot,  one  wliit.  more  so 
<j;  considered.     'I'liere 
it, ion  cylinders.     'I'lie 
those   irom  the  ri^dit, 
Itremi'  left,  the  other 
,•   secured  by  s])eoial 
or  any  atttMition  re- 
iiachine  hack  of  the 
Mided  base,  and  then 
ctly  accessibh'  at  the 
|m  one  side  only.    ^^  •' 
ill  combination  with 
ess,  however,  niark-- 
ain.     Color  iirintini,^ 
in  this  country,  and 
stvh'S  of  art." 
okin;,'  at    the   de-,nv.' 
diet.      It  wouhl  seem 


'////•;  MIT  /'/i'/i.s7;/i'r  I /7I7-;  557 

as  if  the  lu'i},'lit  of  |ierreclioii  now  had  1 n  reached.     The  |)rol)ahilit  \   is  that 

llie  priiit.er  at  the  end  of  the  hist  (|ii;iilrr  of  iIm'  (wenln'th  century  may  look 

with  somel hill]!,' akin  to  coiilciii|.|  u| the  ma<'liines  which  now  are  iei,'ardcd 

with  so  much  |M'ide. 

Siudi  a  thill},'  is  |iossiliie  in  this  aj,'e  of  iuveution. 

11.     iiii;  si.iiiM.   oi     ivi'i:. 


In  the  heiMnninL'  of  the  ninelecnlh 


century,  wlieii  the  little  iiiotii.1  pieiMfs 


^IMIUIilNc    I  AIM)    I'liK 


if  t,y|)e  were  iiiekeil   nj)  one  at   a  time  and  |ila<'c(i  in  the  com|)osiii,i^'  -stick" 

In  ilic   work   an    ini|iortaiic,c  which   clevatcil   it: 
essioiis.      Ill  l'',n,i;lanil.  as  late  ;is  I.S17, 
■niii|Misilors  arroi^ated   to  themselves  the  diL;iiity  of   currying'  swords.       At 
lie  close  (d   the  nineli'ciii  h  eeiiiiir\.  ihe  ;ii-t    is  seen   to  lie   |);i>sinL;'  into  the 
•I'lierc  (d"  iiie(dianics. — the  metlmd^  in  mil^'hc  niakiii'^- it  entirely  u  ii^'elianieal 
II  operation.      I'.efore  many  years  (d'  the  twentieth  century  have  jiasscd.  there 


hand.  Ilicu'e   was  attached 
Iniost,  to  the  ranks  of  the  trained  prid 


Hi 


if  '^ 

fji 


iiilj 

ifl'4i ' 


1 


IB 


h 

tl 

ri 

till 
1  'i 


J 


m 


!  I!  ! 


i^l>i|l 


HI 


im 


ill 


)t'l 


II- 


piling 

11 


1  I        1 


ill'     I! 


ftft«       rnirMi'iis   i.v/>  ir(*.v/)/;/;.s'  (»/•  /v//';  a/.V"  ckmi  i;y 

will  li;i\i'  lici'ii  iitl.inicil  a  (l('!;ni'  nl  advimcciiu'iil  wliicli  will  ilis|icii.si'  w  itli 
tlii>  liaiiil  I'l  mail  ni  '^iiuiiti';;  llif  iiicivi'iiiiMils  nl'  I  lie  iiiai'iiinc.  'I'lir  iiivriil  i\  c 
sKii!  w  1 1  It'll  lii<>ni;lil  tin-  |iriiit  iii).,'  pri'ss  to  siicli  a  iiii^li  (Miiiil  ui'  cM'cIli'Urr  .iml 
s|nM'il  lias  lici'ii  linnril  Inward  llic  wniK  ol  t  \  pc  ('(iiii|)(isiii!;,  ami  llii'  idiwaiil 
liiaii'li  is  iiki'ly  lo  ln'  as  rapiil. 

Oiilsiilc  111  ili(i  ai'liial  ItMriicd  iirnlcssiniis,  iin  (Mrii|iatii>ii  lias  cniil  riliiili'd  m> 
iiiaii\  |iroiniii('iil  li;;iir('s  In  tin'  Iiisldiv  and  |iitiL;ri'ss  id  tliis  cniinliv  as  llic 
('iiiii|iii?.iiiL;-riioiii.  'I'lii'V  liavc  iillnl  iiii|inilanl  iilaccs  in  jniinialisiii.  jMilil  ics, 
( 'oii'^rcss.  slate  l('i;islat  iiics,  llic  ariii\   and  iia\y.  and  llic  wnild  n|'  lilcratinc. 

I  loraci'  ( ircclcN .  I  lie  liMiudiT  nl  I  lie  New  \  imK  "  Till  nine."  --  writer,  slates- 
man.  and  man  o[  a  11  airs.  -  -  is  one  id  (lie  notalili'  Iii; ii res  of  llie  incsenl  eenlin y, 
wild  iaiil  the  roiindalioii  of  liis  career  al  a  case  of  lypc. 

Seliiiv  ier  Ctdlas.  w  lio  liecanii'  \  ice  I'rcsident  (d'  tlie  riiited  States  in  IS(i'.>. 
|)iisseii  ilieearlx   \eais(d  his  lile  mI  i  iiij;  t  \  pe. 

.\nd.  slrani;!'  In  sav.llusi'  two  inen,  \\  lien  the  presidential  I'liair  seemed 
ii  possible  reali/ation  of  Iheir  andntion,  were  opposed  liy  men  ol'  llnircrari 
si  III  pi  \    lieeanse  t  lie\    had  seemed  lo  run  so  I'ar  ahoxc  I  he  ••  si  ic!\  ""  and  '•  i  iiie." 

Siiiion  Caiiieron.  ol  !'eiiiis\  1\  aiiia.  once  Secretary  (d  War.  riiiled  Slate; 
senator.  reprc.'-cnialM  c  o\  the  I'niti'd  Stales  abroad,  and  lor  man\  _\eais 
pidilieal  masler  (d  his  ureal  Slate,  was  proud  to  say  ihal  he  had  lie|;iiii  his 
career  as  a  I  \  pc  setter  in  a  conn  I  ry  priidinu  oil  ice.  1 1  is  woil  h  w  Idle  not  iciie; 
thai  I  his  prinler-|iolilii'iairs  iit'e  co\-eicd  nearly  ;t  cent  iir\  id'  existence.  III. 
lile  spanned  c\er\  president  Irom  dohn  Adams  in  ITM'd  to  lien jiiiiiin  liar 
risoii  III  iSS'.t.  wliile  his  active  political  control  of  l'eiiiis\  l\  aiiia  covered  a 
]ieriod  ol  sixl  \  li\i'  \ears. — a  record  made  liy  onl\  one  man  within  the  his 
lor\   id  t  he  I '  iiilcd  Slates. 

Mvciy  stale  in  ihi'  rnion  has  cmil  rihiilcd  to  history  it  ■;  iiiiota.  of  priiilei 
slatcsmcn.  printer  aniliors.  and  |iriiiler-ioiiiiialis1s.  How  many  of  such  there 
lia\c  hi'cn  in  this  nincicentli  I'enlnry  wonhl  he  lieyond  ordinary  research  In 
ascertain.  I>iit  primers  -  composinns  —  can  refer  with  just  pride  |,o  the 
fact  tliat  in  all  the  advanced  walks  (d  life  are  to  he  found  men  who  have 
lieeii  mendiei's  (d'  the  L;iiild. 

'I'lic  setting;  of  type  liy  hand  prevailed  universally  until  as  lai.e  as  ISSO 
That  may  lie  imt  down  as  the  period  when  tliere  eanic  info  nnytliini,'  likr 
jI(Mieral  use  (lie  niacliiiies  for  type  composition.  all,linui:;Ii  i'X]it'i'inieiifs  in  that 
direction  had  been  ij^oini;  on  for  sixty  years. 

As  early  as  ISL'O.  printers  rea,li/cd  that  macliinory  evoiifiially  musf  he 
broui^lu  into  phiy  for  eoiiiposiii<x  f.y])e.  Ibit  how  to  do  it.  was  ilic  seieni  ilic 
as  well  as  uicclianical  ]ir()blem.  It.  was  arj,'ued  that,  the  iiiaeliine  must,  be  sn 
constructed  as  lo  pick  up  the  tyjie,  uniformly  distribute  llie  space  bet  ween 
tlu'  words,  and  "justify  "  the  lines,  that  is.  make  them  the  exact  width, 

"It  is  beyond  the  raut^e  id'  po:;sibiiity."  sut^.L^estod  the  printer.    "  Mcchauism 
never  can  bp  applied  to  art.     Tlie  i,'reat  ncnjaniin   Franklin  would  liavti  dis 
oovered  llio  way  to  make  such  a  thin,!;  jiossiblc,  if  it  were  possible  —  wdiicli  i 
im])ossible."' 

And  tlio  scientitic  tdectrie  discovery  niade  by  JSenjaniin  Franklin  in  tin 
eitjhtoiMith  century  is.  at  the  doso  of  the  nineteeid.Ii,  the  motive-power  iisnl 
for  driviiisT  the  niacliiues  for  t.y])e  ('oni])osition,  —  the  seemin,t,dy  inipossiM' 
has  reached  the  stage  of  possibility. 


(hsiit'iisf  Willi 

•rl\t'   illVflllur 

,.\c('llt'ii<M'  .mil 
,1,1  tlit>  l'(>r\v;iril 

^  (■(iI\tlil'Uti''l  •■  n 
ciMiulrv  ii^  •'"' 
iiiilisin.  piililit'"!. 
,1  (.1  lilcr;ilniv. 
—  wrilcr.  slalfs 
|in>st'iil  iiMidiiy, 

I  Slatfs  in  IS<'.'.>. 

i;il  .•liiiir  mtiiiimI 
irii  ol  tluir  rralt 
icU  ■■  iniil  '•  nil''." 
,1,  Inilnl  Sl.ltr. 
inr  ui;m\  \r:irs 
lie  lia.l  lM■^;ll^  In- 
•111  while  iinliciu:'. 

r     I'Msh'lHT.  Ill 

,1  I'.ruiiiiniu  liar 
,lvania  cnvi'ivil  a 
,11  within  IIk'  his 

miola  ni'   luiiili'i 
;,,,v  nl'  such  llii'it' 
liiiary  icscan'h  \i< 
just    yvuW   t"  *'"' 
(1   iiu'ii    who  havr 


'/•///•;  Mir  i'f{i:si:i;y  \  i ivr. 


.v.» 


1  as  lal.c  :i^ 


lSS(t 


ltd  aiiytlii'i!^  I'l^'' 
|icriiufiil.s  ill  thai 

[cMtuall.v  lu'isl  hf 
was  tilt'  si'iciitiiii' 
achint'  must,  lu'  sm 

[he  si>ac<'  Ih'Iwi'cii 
'xat't.  width. 

Iter.    "  IMtM'liaiiisiii 


tl  W1>1 


hssi 


ihl  liave  (li 
l,l,._whi('l 


1    I: 


Kraiikliu  in  Mm 
Inotive-iMiwt'r  n^''! 


l»i',  Wiliiaiii   rhiiii'h.  <>t    «'.MiiiiriiiMil.   pi'iMJiii'i'il   ;,   niiti'hiiii'   hiukinM    |,,  m;,, 

rilllli'  l,V|M'  CnmiPOsidnil   ill    I  .S'JO.        |t    ,|„|   ,,,,1    rnmr   mln  ,,,...  altlliMl^h    he  slMiil 

lar,u<'  SHIMS  i.r  iiiMiicv  Mil  It,  :iih|  i|)'\ii|ri|  a  vast   ainmini  n|  cin  ij^m   Inwitnl  ii.iv 

111^'  It  laki'ii   ii|>  hnih   III   tins ntn  jiimI  in   MiiiihiiMl.      At  Ww  |';iii,  {■"Ahil-i 

iioiiili   l.s;;."i  tlinv  w.'ir  .Aliilnt.'d    ..'Nrial  iiia.'liimv,  (.1    thls^;,.,l ii|   whi.li 

I  lie  pal  fill,  I'l'  ('liii>liaii  .S.,i.ii  t-ii.  (ij  rn|,<.|ilia:iii        was   iisnl   ii|miii  ;,  ,|.ii|\ 
pajH'i'  issn.'ii  liiiiiii.i;  III.' .•\liiliili..ii.      In  I.STI.al  Ihr  I  iil<'i  ii.it  lonal   I'a  IhImI  khi 

Ml   Luiiihiii.  thi'ii"  was  :.iinwii  a  iiiat'liitn'  |p().sscs,siiiM  | iili;,,-  Iciiliirr;.     ||  ,isci| 

.1    |H'rl«iral('i|    i  iIiIkhi.  liiiiMi;^'|i   thr   iiii'ijiiiiii  nlwhii'li  l\  |ii's  wrrr  wmkrd    min 
|i(isiriiin.     'I'lit'   iiiai'hiiM-   was  cimilirrsniiir,  cniiiiiliratcd,  and    r\|M'nsivr,   and 


I.INOTYI'K   n  VI'K  M/lTINfi)    ,MA<III.SI,    (lltll.NI     VIKW). 

could  not  be  hrnnirjif,  into  anytliin;,'  like  j^'cncral  iisa^c.  In  ISTH  M.  Dr-l- 
caniltrc.  of  Paris,  alter  twenty  ycjirs"  work  |irodiiccd  a  machine  it,  New  \'oik. 
Ir  had  IIk!  Kami'  ohji-clioiis  as  the  others.  W'liiie  this  mai'hiiie  could  do 
.IS  miicii  aa  the  lahnr  u\  three  men  hy  hand,  it  re(|iiired  a,  man  to  o|ier;,t,('. 
another  man  to  jilace  the  set  ty|M'  in  lines,  team  to  keep  it  in  motion,  and  a 
hit,'  cost,  to  constnii't. 

!')»  to  this  jieriod.  all  the  experiments  had  shown  the  want  of  sometliiiif^ 
which  would  ohviate  the  |)resencc  of  ;i  iii;iii  to  make  the  lines  id'  tlie  projier 
Icni^rtli  ;ind  wit  h  eipial  s|(acin'^' liet  ween  tlu^  words.  All  the  maidiines  which 
were  anytliin,Lt  near  availalde  pii'ked  up  and  placed  in  position  separate  types. 
.\t  the  ('entenni.'il  Kxhihitioii  of  l.s7<'i.  in  I'hilailelpliia,  then;  were  shown  ma- 
chines which  usod  brass  dies  and  cast  a  iMie  of  type.     Tliese  seemed  to  pos- 


I'M    >  Ifl 


i1 


i.'i 

I'  '■! 
I< 

|,T 

ill! 


r!^ 


m 


!-H'.. 


r  I 


hii4 


«  I 


i)ii 


-)(i(i       rini  Mi'iis  .i.\7>  woMUcus  or  iiii-:  .v/.V"  ck.mi  i:\ 

si'ss  till' <'li'iii('Ml.  tiir  .siicr(',s>liil  iiM',  aiiil  till'  oiilfuiui'  Wiis  t.ln'  |irn(liirii(iii  ol 
llif  iiiacliiiii'  wliii'li  is  imu  in  use  in  all  liir  lii;^'  iit>\\  ^|la|l^^  nlliccs  in  tins 
(.unntrv — tin-  ••  Mfii^cnl  li;ili  r  Limit  vju'.'"  I'raclicallv  it  lia.s  iliivni  all  liic 
citlicr  iiiacliincs  onl  nl  use,  Iml  imw  lon.^'  it,  will  Imlil  s\va_>  is  a  i|ncsiinii 
Already  ini'ii  ni'  ■genius  arc  r.\|icriiiiriitiiiy;  with  luo  oliji'cts  in  view.  —  in 
ncase  of  s|it'('il,  ilmcaM'  "I  i'(i>i.  ami  it  is  lair  tn  |iit'>iinii'  that  lii'lmr 
liio  t\\(>iiti('lli  i'i'nliir_>  liiis  xdiif  \rr\  far  into  histurv  i\\v>v  t  wn  nliii'(t>  will 
liavf  Ik'i'Ii  attaiiii'il. 

'I'lii'  lim»ty|>t'.  as  here  sIkiwii,  has  the  a|i|M'ar;im'(' nl  a  licavv  ami  iMiiiilicr- 
sniiii'  |)it'c('  ol'  iiiiii'liiiifrv.  It.  ai'tnally  is  >u  mily  win'ii  ihcic  air  -fvcial  nl 
tlii'Ui  |ilact'(l  ill  linr  —  tlii'ii  tlii'V  i;i\i'  tci  a  i'i'in|iiisiii^-r(M)m  lln'  a|i|M'araiirr 
ol'  a  inai'liiiii'  >hii]i.  'I'his  machiiH'.  instead  of  in'odiieiiij,'  siiii^le  tyiieol  llie 
ordinarv  eharacter,  easts  t\  |ie-nietiil  har>  or  sink's,  each  eoin|)lele  in  one  |nee.'. 
ami  having' on  tin'  uiiper  eih^e.  iiroperly  jnstilied.  t  he  t  \  |pe  (diiiraelers  to  |iriiii 
a  line. 

'I'hese  slii','s  present  t  he  a|i]iea.l"inee  ol  eoiii|Pose(l  lines  ol  ly  |ie.  and  >e,\  e 
the  same  |iiir|iose.  and  for  this  reason  are  called  •■  liniity|ies."  Ihe  liiioly|ie.^ 
are  |iroi|need  and  assi'inlded  automatiealiy  in  a  ,i,'alley,  side  by  side,  in  ])ro|ier 
ordi'r,  so  tliii  ihe\  i'<iiist  itute  a  ■•  I'nrni."  ans\veriii,t;'  the  same  |pur|Hises  and 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ordinarv   ••  loi'ins  "  eonsist  iie^' of  siir^ie  t  \  |ie>. 

Aftci-  lieiii';'  iiM-d,  the  linoty|ies  instead  of  lieiiii;-.  like  type  I'urms,  dist  ri 
hilled,  are  thrown  into  a  im'lal  pot  nf  the  maeliim'  to  ln'  reea>|  into  new 
fornix. 

'The  inaeliiiii'  eniitaiiis,  as  its  fnndanieiilal  I'lemeiits,  several  inimlreil  Kra- 
inairiees.  l''.aeli  matrix  eon^isis  of  a  Hat  plate  haxdie^-  in  one  ed'^-e  a  female 
letter,  or  matrix  proper,  and  in  the  upper  end  a  series  of  teeth,  whieli  aiv 
ii>ed  for  disti'ilmtiny;  to  thi'ir  proper  places  in  the  ma'^a/iiic  matrices  contain- 
ing different  h'tters.  Tiiere  are  in  the  machine  a  nnmlicr  of  matiices  of  each 
Idler,  and  aKo  malrices  repri'>cnl  im^  >pecial  characters,  and  spaces  or  (pia(l> 
of  dclinite  thicliiicss  jnr  use  in  talml.ir  and  ntiier  work  (d'  a  coiiiplicalcd 
nature. 

'I'he  maidiiiie  is  so  on^jani/cij  thai  on  niaiiipnlat  iie^'  tin'  lini^crdseys  it  will 
select-  matrices  in  the  onU'r  in  wliicii  their  characters  are  to  appear  in  print. 
and  assciiilile  them  side  by  side  with  wedge-slia|ie(l  spaces  at  siiitaMe  poinis 
ill  the  line. 

This  composed  line  forms  a  line  matrix,  or  in  other  words  a  line  of  female 
ty|ie.  ailapted  to  produce  a  line  id'  raiseil  printiiii;'  type  on  a  sliiij;.  which  iiia\ 
lie  forced  into  or  against  the  matrix  cliaraeters.  After  tin'  matrix  line  i-. 
<'oniposed  ilr  is  automatically  transferreil  to  the  face  of  the  mold,  into  wlii.  !i 
molti-n  metal  is  delivered  to  produce  the  slii'^  or  linotype,  after  which  iIm' 
matrices  are  distrihitfed  or  returned  to  the  mai^'a/.ino  to  lie  a.L,'aiii  <'om]iose(l  m 
new  rcdatioiis  for  suceeediie^'  lines. 

These  operations  are  perforineil  liy  meidianism.  as  shown  iti  the  outline 
here  preseiiti-d. 

.1  is  an  inclined  fixed  ma'.;a/.iiie.  eoiitiiiniiiL,'  (diannels  in  which  the  assort.  I 
matrices  are  ston'd.  and  through  which  they  slide,  enteriiej;  at  the  t(ip  and 
escapiie^' at  the  foot,  one  at  a.  time.  Kacli  (diannel  is  ]irovided  at  the  low-r 
end  with  an  escapement  device,  />'.  coiiiieeted  hy  a  rod,  ('.  with  a  tiie^er  cliii- 
aotov  of  the  matrices  in  the  correspondiiiL;-  channel.     There  is  a  key  for  cai  a 


i}"'% 


'"  ri:Miiiy 


i 


.Vil.S 


t.lii'  ihimIhiI  mil  1)1 
liapcr  utliri's  111  t,lu,-> 
it,  iiii>  ilrivfii  all   llir 

I   s\vii.v    is   ii  11'"'"""" 
uhji'fls   ill   view.  —  III- 

1 


,ivsiiiiii'  tlial    liclipiv 
Ll'ii'M'  Iwti  (ili.i>'i't>   ^^'11 

I'  ii  liciivy  iiU'l  imiuiImt 
II  tlicrc  iii'i'  .-I'Vfial  111 
^-niiiiu   till'  appriiraiin 
iii^,'  siii^'lf  t.Vl"'  "'    ''"■ 
1  coiiiltli'l''  ill  "iif  inirr. 
ypt'  chiirai'li'is  tn  I'liu' 


UK'S  III 


l\   IM'S. 


ty|n'.  anil  serve 
Tlie  lilinlyiie^. 


Sll 


If  1)V  siile.  Ill  pii 


llie  same    iiiirp"Si's  ami 


isistiie^  i> 
like  tv 


r  slle^lt'  '>  I' 


le   |iiriii>.  I 


i>l  n 


Id    Im' 


l'i'ea>l     lllln    lie 


several  II 


iniilreil  lii'a- 


iin-  in  Dili'  ed'.-e  a  leiiiaji' 
ies  111'  teelh.  wliieli  aiv 
;a/,iiie  iiiatriees  eiiiilain 
ilier  lit'  iiiatiiees  nl'  earli 
■rs.  ami  sjiaees  nr  (|iiail-. 
k   ot   a  ciiiiiiillealeil 


will 


the  tiu^er-kevs  it 


ill 


le  to  apjiear  in  iiriiit. 


iiaees  a 


t  siiilalile  1 


IDllll 


WDi'ils  a  line  dT  leiii; 
liii'h  in 


(111  a  stii'4.  \\ 


ter 


the   matrix    line 


llie  iiuilil.  intn  will'  li 


liitVlie.  a 


Iter  whieli  tli' 


|ii  lie  a;_cain  eDiniioseil  i 
^liiiwu   in  till'  mitlii 


Is  1 


11  whieli  the  assmt. 

iteriinj;  at  tin'  tD)!  a:. 

liviiviileil  at  the  Idv,- 

(',  with  a  Ine^-er  eli  i 

trhere  is  a  key  i'«ir  ea. 


1, 


L 


w 


m 


msi 


IFF 


:i!| 


iltll! ' 

4 


! :  li! 


f';: 


i:if' 


f".  « 


ill  !: 


Ck 


■M''. 


M 


i  III 


i; 


III ., , 


11 


sifl 

ISI 

I'i  : 

,   il 

iii,i:  :' 

is 

1:1  ,.\ 

■19 

l|ii   ;     ll 

ill 

ill 

H'':  : 

ill  !    .1   ! 


lil?"^ 


m^  i    I 


!  ir* 


'/•///•;   .IA'7'  ritKSimVATIVK 


M\ 


flianicttT,  and  also  keys  lor  (|ua(ls  stoivd  in  (he  niai,'a/int'.  I'lif  Uc\s  air 
acliiatcd  liy  tin-  opcraldr  in  llic  (ndcr  in  wliicii  llicir  li'Uns  arc  In  a|i|.i'ar  in 
|iriiit.  As  a  kcv  is  (ic|)ifsscil.  it,  uiHMalcs  liu'  ctiiivsiMindinLj  f,sca|icnirnt,  /.. 
wliifli  allows  a  matrix  lo  lall  out  ol'  tlic  Mia-a/iiif  liiron-ii  (m,.  ol  tlic  ci'iiin 
ncls.  /•;.  to  the  inclin.-d  Iravclin-  i.cit,  /■',  wlndi  serves  lo  carrv  tlic  niiilricrs 
down  in  snc(;cssion  into  llic  asscndilcr  ^tick,  r/.  in  w  liich  Ihc.v  arc  stored  .-.idc 
li\  side.  A  l)ox,  //.  conlains  a  niunhi'r  ol'  idon^;itcd  spaces.  /,  and  a  dis- 
,li;ir-in.--  device  conncetin-  willi  a  tiu-vr-kc\  lur.  ./.  liy  whi.di  the  spacvs  are 
[.rrniitted  to  fall  into  the  line  oC  luatrice.s  at  the  proper  pi>int,s  dnrini;  coni- 
po^itiun.      IL  will  he  perceived  that  the  operation  ul   tiie  various  keys  ivsult.s 


DISTNIBUTOR 


riiTiNC 


ill  tlie  selcntion  of  the  niiitiices  mid  sp;iccs,  ami  their  eojicction  in  :issenil)lcr. 
d.  until  it,  contains  ;iil  tlie  ch;ir;icters  to  lie  represcnicij  |i\  one  line  (d  print. 
ArierlJie  niiltrix  line  is  tlin.s  composed  ii  is  t  riinsrerred,  as  indiciitcd  liv  the 
dulled  lines,  to  the    tidiil    (d    :i   mold  or  shit  extending;'  throii'^ji  ;i  moid  wheel, 

A.  from  front  to  rear.     'I'liis  mold  is  of  the  c\;icl   si/e  and  slia| I'  the  slm;' 

rii|iMrcd.  'The  matrix  line  is  pressed  li'^hlly  a^ainsl.  iiiid  idosed  in  front  of, 
the  mold  for  the  lime  lieiie^-,  and  tlie  cli;iracters,  or  mnirices  proper,  luce  the 
mold  ('(dl  or  s|)ace.  Wdiile  the  line  is  in  phice  in  front  of  the  mold,  the 
Wed'^e  spMces  are  imslied  nptliroic^h  the  line.  ;iiid  in  this  iminner  e,\act  iiiid 
iiist:iiit;iiieous  '•  just  ilicat  ion  ""  is  secured.  IJeliindthi'  mold  there  is  a  imdl 
iii,:^'  pot.  M,  hciitcd  liv  a  tlame  IVom  ;i  i,';is  liurner,  and  coiitiiinin;^  a  (piantity 
<if  molten  nictiil.  'I"he  pot  liiis  ;i  perfor;iled  month  arraii'-icd  to  lit  a.i,'aiiisl  ;ind 
close  tile  rear  side  of  the  mold,  and  contains  a  Jump  plun,i;t'r.  mcrhiinically 

Ilctlllltcd. 


i 


ft'*J 


lll 


■;--^  ii 


u 


■if 


m 


H  i 

•i  *  i  1 .  |m 

ill 

'''  V 

Mk 

Wi^'m 

mPm 

OGli 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONhEliS   OF   THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 


ii!n.ii 


lillll 


l.il! 


After  the  matrix  line  is  in  jilacc,  the  iiluuLjer  falls  aiid  forces  metal  througli 
ihe  pot  iiioutli  into  the  mold.  a.Lfainst  and  into  the  characters  of  the  matrix 
line.  The  metal  instantly  solidifies  in  the  mold,  forming  the  slug  or  lino- 
tyiie,  having  on  its  edge  raised  ty[)e  characters  formed  by  the  matrices.  The 
mold  wheel  next  makes  a  partial  revolution,  turning  the  mold  from  the 
original  horizontal  to  a  vertical  position  in  front  of  the  ejector,  which  then 
advances  from  tlu;  rear  through  the  mold,  pushing  the  slug  out  of  the  latter 
into  the  receiving  galley,  at  the  front. 

A  vibrating  arm  advances  the  slugs  laterally  in  the  galley,  and  thus  as- 
sembles them  sitle  by  side  in  column  or  ])age-form  ready  for  use.  In  order 
to  insure  absolute  accuracy  in  tiie  heiglit  and  thickness  of  the  slugs,  knives 
are  arranged  to  act  \\\m\\  them  during  their  c.irse  to  the  galley. 

\ftcr  the  matrices  in  tlii'  line  have  served  their  jjurpose  in  front  of  tlu; 
mold,  tiiey  are  returiu'd  to  the  magazine  to  l)e  again  discliarged  and  used  in 
the  following  manner.  The  line  is  lifted  from  the  mold  ami  shifted  later- 
ally until  the  teeth  at  the  top  engage  the  tei'tli  of  bar,  It.  'I'his  bar  then 
rises  as  shown  by  dotted  liiu^s.  lifting  the  nuitrices  to  the  distributor  at  tin 
top  of  the  machine,  but  leaving  the  spaces,  I,  behind  to  be  shifted  laterally 
to  I  he  magazine  or  holder.  //,  from  which  they  "vere  di.seharged.  Kacli 
matrix  has  distributfir  teeth  in  its  to]i.  arranged  in  a  s])ecial  order  or  nuni- 
iter.  according  to  the  character  it  contains.  In  other  words,  a  matrix  contain- 
ing any  given  character  differs  in  tli<>  number  or  relation  of  its  teeth  from 
a  matrix  containing  any  other  cliaracter.  This  ditference  is  relied  upon  In 
si'cure  ]iro])er  distribution.  A  distril)utor-bar,  7'.  in  a  single  jiiece.  is  fixed 
liorizontidly  over  the  upper  end  of  the  magazine,  and  is  formed  with  longi- 
tudinal ril)s  or  teeth,  ada[ited  to  engage  t\w  teeih  of  the  matrices  and  lioM 
the  latter  in  suspension  as  they  are  carried  along  the  l)ar  over  the  mouths  or 
entrances  of  the  channels. 

'l"he  teeth  of  the  bar  are  cut  away  to  vary  their  nundjer  or  arrangement  at 
different  points  in  its  length,  so  that  there  is  a  sjiecial  arrangement  over  tlie 
mouth  of  each  channel.  Th.e  matrices  are  puslied  upon  the  bar  at  the  end, 
and  made  to  slide  slowly  along  it  while  susi)ended  therefrom.  Each  matrix 
remains  in  engagement,  and  travels  over  the  mouth  of  the  channels,  until  it 
arrives  at  the  rerpiired  point,  where,  for  the  first  time,  its  teeth  bear  such 
relation  to  those  of  the  bar  that  it  is  permitted  to  disengage  and  fall  into  iis 
channel. 

The  travel  of  the  matrices  is  secured  by  longitudinal  screws,  which  \w 
below  the  bar  in  position  to  engage  the  edges  of  the  matrices.  The  matrices 
pursue  a  circulatory  course  through  the  machine,  starting  from  the  bottom 
of  the  magazine  and  passing  thence  to  the  line  being  composed,  thence  to  the 
mold,  and  finally  back  to  the  top  of  the  magazine.  This  cin^dation  permits 
the  operations  of  composing  one  line,  casting  a  second,  and  distributing  a 
third,  to  be  carried  on  concurrently,  and  enables  the  machine  to  run  at  i 
sjieed  exceeding  that  at  which  any  operator  can  finger  the  keys. 

One  half  horse  power  is  generally  used  in  driving  a  machine,  .\bout  fiv(.' 
scpiare  feet  is  tlie  s]iace  occupied  by  the  machine;  it  weighs  JOLTt  pounds, 
and  ('(msuines  alxmt  fifteen  feet  of  illuminating  gas  each  hour  to  heat  X\\<' 
metal  pot.  Each  machine  will  do  comjilete  work  equal  to  that  of  five  iin  u 
by  hand.     The  simplicity  of  the  machine  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to  tic 


'/'  CENTURY 

forces  metal  through 
LriR'ters  of  the  matrix 
ling  the  slug  or  lino- 
l)y  the  matrices.  The 
;  the  inohl  from  th(3 
le  ejector,  which  tlieu 

shig  out  of  the  hitter 

e  gaUey,  aud  thus  as- 
uly  for  use.  In  order 
;s  "of  the  sUigs,  knives 

le  gaUey- 

urpose  in  front  of  the 
ischarged  and  used  in 
nohl  antl  shitted  latcr- 

lar,  li.  'I'lii^  ^""'  ♦'"'" 
I)  the  distrihulor  at  the 
.  to  be  shitted  laterally 
ere  discharged.  Hacli 
I  special  order  or  nuia- 
i-ords,  a  matrix  contaiu- 
ation  of  its  teeth  froiu 
•iMice  is  relied  uiion  to 
a  single  piece,  is  iixcd 
I  is  formed  with  long! 
the  matrices  and  lioM 
bar  over  the  mouths  ov 

mber  or  arrangement  at 
arrangement  over  tln^ 
|,ou  the  bar  at  the  end. 
jerefrom.  Each  matiis 
)f  the  channels,  until  it 
Ime,  its  teeth  bear  sufh 
lengage  and  fall  into  its 

llinal  screws,  which  W. 
[latrices.  The  matricrs 
(irting  from  the  bottom 
I'omposed,  thence  to  tli'' 
I'his  circulation  permits 
Mul,  and  distributing  i 
It'  nuicliine  to  run  at  .i 

the  keys. 

(a  machine,     .\bout  tiv 

|t  weighs  192')  poumlN 

each  hour  to  heat  tin- 

Lai  to  that  of  five  mm 

ling  resemblance  to  tl  <■ 


THE  ART  PRESERVATIVE 


S63 


typewriter,  and  this  is  opL'rated  successfully  by  young  gnls.  When  the  mat- 
UT  si't  by  tilt'  machine  is  placed  together,  tlie  page  presents  a  surface  e(iiial 
to  an  entire  new  set  ot  type,  or,  as  the  [irinters  say,  "  We  take  on  an  entire 
new  dress  every  day."' 

Tliat  is  a  prochu'tion  of  the  nineteenth  century.  How  conimoni)lace  it 
will  appear  when  tlie  achievements  of  the  twentieth  cciitury  arc  placed  on 
iccord. 

III.      KVKNTS     AS    TUKV    0(  (  1   i;. 

When  the  nineteenth  centiiry  opt'ued,  j,rrcat  events  were  occnrring  in  tlie 
world.  Napoleon  i'.onaparte  was  the  central  figure  in  the  eve  of  Knrope.  lb; 
had.  but  a  few  years  prtniously  (I7t)7),  gone  through  tlu'  most  brilliint  cam- 
paign known,  lie  hail  crossed  the  Alps,  deieated  the  Austrians  at  .Montenotte 
and  .Millesimo,  defeated  the;  Sardinians  at  Ceva  and  .Abnulovi.  and  eoncpiered 
Lombardy,  —  all  in  a  few  weeks.  The  year  following  he  had  coniinered 
i:gypt.  and  in  ISdO  liad  become  the  first  con.sul  and  the  ruler  of  France,  to  lie 
declared  Kmperor  four  years  later. 

'I'hen  followed,  in  rajiid  succession,  the  events  which  caused  the  world  to 
look  upon  >.'apoh'on  as  the  ])robable  coming  nder  of  the  univers*;.  It  was 
in  1<S(>.">  that  he  began  tlu;  war  of  aggrandizcnieht.  He  crossed  llie  Ilhine, 
compelling  the  Austrian  army  to  surrender  at  Ulni ;  he  entered  Vienna  and 
routed  the  Knssian  and  Austrian  ai'inics  at  Ansterlitz.  This  was  followed 
'oy  his  move  to  make  hinis(df  master  of  Southern  ami  Central  Kurojii-.  He 
established  his  brother  dosejih  as  King  of  Majiles;  his  brother  Louis  as  King 
ot  Ib)llaiid:  his  stepson  Eugene  as  \'ie(>roy  of  Italy;  and  his  biother-in-law, 
.loa(diim  .Murat,  as  Cirand  Duke  of  IJerg.  The  following  year  he  defeated 
the  Prussians  and  entered  IW'rliu. 

It  was  not  until  his  abdication  at  Fontainebleau,  in  ISl  I,  that  Europe  and 
.\nierica  breathed  freely.  His  tinal  overthrow  at  Wat(;rloo  in  ISlo  renK)ved 
him  from  the  stage  as  an  active  jiarticipant  in  the  world's  history  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

In  the  United  States,  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  marked  by 
the  death  of  Washington,  while  ISItd.  ISOI,  ISOL'  saw  us  make  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  EraiU'c,  renujve  the  national  capital  from  riiihuUdphia  to  Wash- 
iuLiton.  I).  C,  declare  war  against  Tri}ioli,  purchase  Louisiana  from  France, 
and  enter  upon  the  disputes  with  (ireat  iiritaiu  which  culminated  in  a 
declaration  of  war  with  the  nwther  country,  in  .Fune  of  1812. 

While  these  events  at  honu;  and  abroad  were  making  history,  long  [leriods 
of  tinu'  elapsed  between  their  occurrence  and  their  being  given  to  the  ]ieo])le. 
There  was  no  telegrajdiic  comnuuiication  which  flashed  messages  around  the 
globe.  It  was  a  wait  until  the  mails  brought  the  news.  'Two  months,  jiro- 
hably,  elapsed  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo  ere  this  country  was  furnished 
with  the  story  which  meant  so  much  to  the  ])eace  of  lCnro](e. 

What  a  change  in  this  resjiect  was  wrought  between  the  downfall  of 
\ai)oleon  Bonaparte  in  ISla  and  the  downfall  of  his  nephew.  liouis  Xapo- 
Icon.  in  1870!  On  the  fateful  second  of  September.  1870.  when  the  Kmperor 
of  France,  Napoleon  III.,  surrendered  to  the  Fmjieror  William  of  I'russia, 
on  the  field  of  Sedan,  the  news  was  flashed  \u  .Vmerica  in  less  than  two 
hours.  On  that  hot.  sultry  day  eager  crowds  sn.rronmh'il  the  bulletin  boards 
ol  the  newspapers,  on  which  were  displayed   tlu;   facts  connected  witii  the 


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564 


TlilUMPHS  AND    WONDFUtS   OF  THE  A/A'"  CENTURY 


ovt'itlirow  of  the  Napuleonic;  dyiuisty.  The  difference  in  time  made  it  pos- 
siltlc  i'or  us  liere  to  know  all  that  had  been  done  by  the  two  emperors  and  b}' 
liismarck  an  honr  ahead  of  their  actual  happening.  For  days  before  that 
the  crowds  had  surged  around  the  newspaper  offices,  for  days  afterward  they 
dill  the  same,  and  facts  were  given  with  a  rapidity  which  showed  liow  won- 
derful had  been  the  scientific  stride  between  iSlo  and  1S70. 

Had  any  one  in  1.S15  predicted  the  possibility  of  such  scenes,  he  would 
have  been  put  down  as  a  tit  sid)ject  for  a  writ  of  ilr  liouttiro  hn/iiirendo. 
Such,  too,  v/ould  have  been  the  comment  on  the  one  who  then  would  have 
suggested  the  likelihood  of  a  newspaper  in  this  c(juntry  reaching  a  circulation 
of  a  million  copies  daily,  —  and  yet  such  has  become  an  accomplished  fact. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  (juarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  had  been 
no  2)i"actical  advance  in  the  rapid  transmission  of  news.  This  was  the  period 
when  th(!  ])ress  lacked  the  facility  to  rai)idly  furnish  the  people  with  the 
events  which  were  occurring  in  all  directions.  >«'ewsi)apers  still  depended 
np(m  the  mails.  I  Tome  events  were  many  weeks  reaching  sections  venio  ■; 
from  their  happening.  In  this  respect  tliere  had  been  some  littl  niprovc- 
ment  at  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  century.  That  was  the  tune  when 
.the  electrical  current  was  being  brought  into  operation  in  the  transmission 
of  signals  from  which  messages  were  being  recorded,  and  these  were  being 
utilized  for  tlie  sending  of  information  at  short  distances.  Scientific  men 
were  even  talking  of  the  possil;ility  of  connecting  distant  points  on  the  coast, 
and  whispering  their  hope  for  an  Atlantic  cable.  In  1<S,"),S  that  wonderful 
event  came  to  pass.  The  old  world  and  the  new  were  C(jnnected  by  cable 
from  Valencia  I'ay.  in  Ireland,  to  Newfoundland,  in  North  America,  and  mes- 
sages of  greeting  jiassed  between  (^)ueen  Victoria  and  President  IJuclianan. 
The  break  which  followed  soon  after  tlie  opening  of  this  cable  stimulated 
men  of  genius  and  men  of  capital  to  furtlier  efforts,  and  tlie  governments  u\' 
the  United  States  and  (ireat  Britain  came  forward  witli  generous  aid.  Tlie 
laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable  by  the  (ireat  Eastern  in  l-SCU,  and  its  successful 
o]ieratioii  in  ISdC).  opened  the  doors  for  the  possil)ilities  of  the  press  of  to-day. 
and  the  realization  of  such  scenes  as  were  witnessed  in  this  coiintr}'  on  Sep- 
tember L';  1«7(). 

I'x'tween  that  memorable  year,  l(S()(i,  and  this.  1S09.  how  wonderful  has; 
been  the  ailvaiice  in  tiie  transmission  of  information  from  all  quarters  of 
the  globe.  From  the  Transvaal  IJepublic.  in  Scmth  Africa ;  from  the  desert 
home  of  the  Dcrvisli  in  the  Soudan;  from  the  domain  of  Turkey's  Sultan. 
in  Armenia;  from  the  Holy  Land;  from  the  Oriental  eminres  of  China  and 
Japan:  from  the  snow-clad  land  of  the  Czar  in  Siberia;  from  the  l>osphoni< 
to  the  Hnglish  Channel  ;  from  Valencia  across  tlie  Atlantic;  from  Victoria 
Land  in  North  .Vmerica  to  Patagonia  in  South  .Vnierica  ;  from  Elaine  ti' 
iMexico;  from  tlu!  Atlantic  to  the  I'acitic;  there  are  each  day  transmitt(Hl  all 
occurrences  of  interest  transpiring.  —  and  these  encompass  peace  and  war, 
joy  and  soi'row,  science  and  art.  education  and  trade.  —  events  which  arou-^c 
the  ]iassioiis  and  ((uicken  the  pulse  of  hmnanity. 

This  is  done  throngh  the  medium  of  an  organization  known  as  the  Asso- 
ciated Press.  Tiiis  wonderful  combination  has  nearly  forty  thousand  mill  • 
of  wire  from  the  different  telegraph  com]janies.  for  which  there  is  ]>aid  ^ 
fixed  price  per  mile.     This,  however,  does  not  incluiU'  its  cable  service.  \\f 


.  I  !• 


ie!$''»^'< 


ItY 


THE  ART  PRESERVATIVE 


uUo 


laile  it  pos- 
•ors  and  by 
before  that 
vward  they 
I  how  wou- 

3,  he  would 

inquircndo. 

would  have 

I  civculatiou 
died  fact, 
ire  had  beeu 
s  the  period 
de  with  the 

II  depended 
ions  vemi,  ■; 
tl  ni\)rov('- 
e  tune  when 
transmission 
>  were  being 
jientitic  men 

on  the  coast, 
at  wonderful 
■ted  by  cable 
•iea,  !ind  mes- 
it  lluchanau. 
le  stimulated 
vernments  nf 
)US  aid.     Tlie 
its  successful 
•ess  of  to-day. 
iintry  on  Sep- 

•onderful  has 
(piarters  nf 

,m  the  desert 
<,.y's  Sultan. 
)r"('hina  ami 
10  Uosphoni- 
from  Victoria 
om  IMaine  !■' 
ransmitted  aV' 
■ace  and  war. 
which  arou'^c 

as  the  Assc- 
Kmsand  mil' 
here  is  i>aid  ■■ 
le  service,  tin 


charges  fov  which  are  according  to  the  number  of  words  transmitted.  The 
service  of  this  organization  costs  a  million  and  a  half  a  year,  divided  among 
several  hundred  of  the  great  newspapers  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
recent  conflict  between  Spain  and  the  United  States  its  expenditure  for  war 
news  alone  was  nearly  l^oUO.dOO.  This  can  readily  he  iniderstood  when  the 
reader  is  informed  that  the  cable  rate  from  .Manila  was  S-f.o"  a  word.  Thus, 
a  dispatch  filling  less  than  a  ipiarter  of  a  column  of  the  average  daily  paper 
cost  .1j>1000.  The  rate  from  i'orto  IJico,  at  tlie  outhreak  of  hostilities,  was 
.*«1.'J()  a  word,  and  it  often  happened  tliat  a  single  dispatcli  covering  the 
movements  of  a  body  of  troops  in  that  island,  witli  ](ossibly  a  pen  picture 
of  a  skirmish  with  the  Spaiuards,  would  cost  ijjilJOOO  in  gold.  The  Santiago 
toll  was  $1.10  a  word  ;  and  whole  pages  of  newspapers  were  printed  at  tliat 
rate. 

VV'hat  a  gigantic  institution  it  has  become  for  the  rapid  dissemination  of 
news  events  ! 

In  that  war  between  Spain  and  the  United  States,  General  Toral,  the 
Spanish  commander,  surrendered  Santiago  on  July  14,  at  2.10  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon.  At  L'.L'o  o'clock  the  message  announcing  the  fact  was  received  iu 
I'ldladelphia.  On  the  iL'tli  of  August  following,  at  4.L'o  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, the  Peace  Trotocol  was  signed  in  Waslungton  by  the  French  AnU)as- 
sador  Cambon  and  Secretary  of  State  Day,  and  at  4.L'7  o'clock  —  four  miiuites 
later  —  the  information  was  in  the  Xew  York  office  of  the  Associated  I'ress. 
Hundreds  of  such  instances  of  this  rapid  transnussion  of  news  coidd  be 
recorded  in  this  last  year  of  the  nineteenth  century, —  facts  never  even 
dreanunl  of  when  Benjamin  Franklin  chained  the  electric  current  in  tlie 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  journey  of  a  piece  (d'  news  from  the  far  East  to  tlie  far  West  is  some- 
tliing  worth  noting.  The  trip  covers  thousands  nf  miles  out  of  a  direct 
route.  As  for  instance,  when  Admiral  Dewey  annihilated  the  Spanish  Heet 
in  the  Bay  of  Manila,  on  May  1,  bS'.KS,  the  fact  was  cabled  to  Hong  Kong, 
Cliiiia.  There  an  operator  transmitted  it  northward  to  lfelam})()in  Ivussia. 
right  on  tin*  border  line  of  Manchooria,  from  wliich  place  it  was  sent  across 
IJussia  to  Tomsk,  thence  to  St.  Betersburg.  From  the  Uu.ssian  caiiital  it 
zigzagged  to  Berne,  in  Switzerland ;  thence  to  I'aris  ;  thence  across  the  chan- 
nel to  Benzance.  and  finally  to  Valencia,  to  be  put  on  the  cable  for  America, 
In  two  hours  from  the  time  the  ojierator  in  Ib)ng  Kong  started  his  disi)atcli, 
it  was  being  hurried  across  the  American  continent —  north,  west,  east,  south 
—  for  distribution  in  the  newspaper  offices. 

When  a  party  of  ^Mohammedans  attacked  a  Cliristian  mission  in  Calcutta, 
a  telegrapli  ojierator  disjiatched  the  news  to  liombay,  whence  it  was  trans- 
mitted to  Aden.  The  next  jioint  readied  was  Suez,  from  which  it  was  sent 
to  Malta.  It  was  next  sent  to  liislion.  From  there  it  was  given  to  Baris. 
From  Malta  it  was  also  cabled  to  I'enzance,  thence  to  Valencia,  and  finally  to 
the  United  States. 

When  that  Manila  piece  of  news  from  Admiral  Dewey  readied  tlie  Bacitic 
iMiast  in  the  rnite<l  States,  tlie  date  of  its  being  started  was  yet  several  limirs 
I'diind  the  time  of  its  arrival.  The  attack  on  the  Spanish  Heet  was  made 
"11  Sunday,  May  1.  Manila  time.  The  fact  was  not  sent  out  by  Dewey  .until 
the  following  mornimr,   .May  2  (still  Manila  timej.     Jt  was  started  on  its 


fli^ 


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566 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDEllS   OF  THE  XI X'"  CENTURY 


westward  course  that  iiiorniiij?  (May  2)  at  ten  o'clock,  liy  the  route  taken 
to  Valencia  with  the  relays,  two  hours  were  consumed.  This  broui^dit  it  to 
London  about  three  o'clock  on  tliat  niorniuf^  of  May  '2,  owin,i,'  to  the  dii'l'er- 
ence  in  time.  Tnivelinu;  westward  across  the  Atlantic  ocean  in  advance  id 
the  sun,  it  reached  }s'ew  Vork  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  niijht  of  May  1.  l!ut 
little  time  was  lost  in  retransmission  to  the  racitic  (Miast.  which  point  it 
reached  about  six  o'clock  on  that  Sunilay  eveinng  of  May  1 — fourteen  hours 
previous,  by  the  day  of  the  month,  to  its  being  started  from  Manila. 

In  this  work  of  sending  out  news  not  a  moment  is  lost  that  can  l)e  avoided. 
The  aid  of  the  typewriter  enables  the  operator  to  keep  pace  with  the  sending 
operator,  and  his  pace  has  been  increased  in  the  past  few  years  i)y  the  intio- 
duction  of  a  code  .system.  Here  is  a  specimen  of  the  code  system  as  used  by 
the  operator  in  sending  out  a  news  item  :  — 

"Madrid.  .March  17  — T  Qu  liegent  h  sined  t  Treaty  of  Teaoe  btn  Sjm  iS:  t 
Uni  Stas.  T  treaty  wb  frwded  to  t  French  And)sdr,  Jules  C'ambon,  at  Washn, 
fo  e.\g  w  t  one  sined  by  I'r  McKinley.  No  decree  q  .sj  wb  pud  d  '  OfHcial 
(.Jazette." 

'•  (Jfl  rlns  btn  t  LJ  govts  wi  nw  b  promtly  rnnd.  Ix  rmrd  .")  Mir  to  t  I'ni 
Stas  wb  Snor.  Don  J.  Hrunetti.  Duke  d'Arcos,  fair  Spnh  Mir  to  ^Mex,  wos 
•\vif  is  an  Anin.' 

When  this  seemingly  incomprehensible  conglomeration  of  letters  leaves 
the  hand  of  the  receiving  operator  it  reads  as  follows  :  — 

'•  Madrid,  March  17  —  The  (^>ueen  Kegent  has  signed  the  Treaty  of  I'eace 
between  Sjjain  and  the  I'nited  States..  The  treaty  will  be  forwarded  to  the 
French  .\nd)assador,  . I  ides  (.'and)on,  at  Washington,  for  exchange  with  the 
one  signed  by  President  .McKinley.  No  decree  on  the  sid)ject  will  be  pui)- 
lished  in  the  'Otticial  Gazette.' 

'•OfHcial  relations  between  the  two  governments  will  now  be  ]n'onTi)tly 
renewed.  It  is  rumored  that  the  Minister  to  the  United  States  will  bo  Sefior 
Don.).  Urunetti.  Duke  d'Arcos,  former  Spanish  Minister  to  Mexico,  whose 
wife  is  an  American." 

The  London  ''Times''  recently  lias  been  experimenting  with  a  scheme 
whereby  reporters  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament  operate  the  typesetting 
jnachines  in  the  London  office  by  the  wire  from  their  (piarters  in  rarliament. 

It  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  this  practice  comes  into  use  in  tlic 
reporting  of  all  legislative  proceedings. 

In  .some  of  the  New  Vork  newspaper  offices,  the  receiving  oi)erator  sits  a' 
a  typesetting  machine  and  puts  into  type  the  messages  which  come  over  the 
wires. 

How  rapidly  we  have  advanced  in  this  direction  in  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  is  thus  shown.  \N'liat  will  be  done  by  our  successors  ii; 
the  first  half  of  the  twentieth  century,  no  man  can  at  this  time  satisfactorily 
predict. 

IV.     'rYIM>M.\KIN<i.    STKHKOTVl'INO,    PICTUUK-MAKIN*!. 

The  manufacture  cf  the  small  metal  jiieces  called  type  has  undergone  littl-' 
change  in  this  nineteenth  century.  That  which  has  been  dime  has  been  in 
the  way  of  producing  artistic  designs,  so  arranged  that  combinations  can  h" 
formed  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  an  aid  to  rapid  workmanship.    The  machine!- 


*^ 


THE  ART  I'ltESEllVATIVE 


507 


letters  leiivt's 


in  use  has  lost  its  cnulity,  tlic  ])i'()()u(,'ti()ii  lias  Ih'cii  iiicivascd,  and  the  Hni.sli 
hccome  more  jiert'ocrt.  Tlie  settiii;^'  of  type  hy  luacliiiicry  lias  hei'ii  a  serious 
blow  to  this  industry,  and  tin-  time  will  eoiue  wlii-u  it  will  he  devoted  entirely 
to  the  making  oi'  job  or  fancy  types. 

lienjamin  Franklin  attempted  to  make  metal  type  in  this  country,  but  la- 
did  not  succeed.  It  was  not  until  17'.K)  that  tyiie-makini^-  was  commenced 
here. 

.\s  ill  many  other  departures  in  the  print inir  business,  the  city  of  riiila- 
(ielphia  took  the  lead.  lUniiey  and  KonaldsDn.  of  Kdinbur,i;li.  Scotland,  estab- 
lished the  first  foundry  in  this  country,  opeiatiui;  it  in  riiiiadelphia.  .\f'ter  a 
severe  strugj^le  and  with  some  aid  from  the  State,  a  business  was  estaiilished 
by  the  two  Scotchmen,  which  afterwards  became  known  as  the  .lohuson 
Foundry,  under  MacKellar.  Smiths  iS:  -Ionian,  which  is  still  in  existence. 
They  were  followed  by  David  IJruee.  also  a  Scotchman,  and  by  lISl,'}  foun- 
drit's  had  been  established  in  New  Wnk  and  other  large  cities. 

Since  that  time  improvements  havt;  been  introduced,  Iml  nothing  has  come 
i'orth  which  de.serves  to  be  ranked  with  the  printing-piess  or  the  typesetting 
machine. 

The  type  fovmder  wii!  tell  you  how  much  better  are  the  mat.'hiues  used  in 
ISltl)  than  those  which  jiroduced  type  in  l,S.-)0.  I!ut  he  cannot  point  out  any 
devio(!  connected  with  it  which  the  mechanical  world  can  designate  as  mar- 
velous, or  the  jieojile  at  large  regard  as  a  wonderful  invention.  Type  once 
was  rubbed  into  smoothness  by  boys.  Now  it  is  done  automatically  on  th" 
machine.  l>y  the  hand  process  about  four  hundred  types  an  hour  were  cast ; 
by  the  present  mechanism  a  speed  of  six  thousand  an  hour  has  becin  aiMpiired. 
I'litil  about  liSTo.  this  output  hardly  met  the  demand  ;  now  it  will  do  so. 
I'efore  many  years  it  will  be  far  in  excess  of  the  re(piiiemeiits. 

Stereotyping  is  the  art  of  making  jilates  cast  in  one  piece  of  type  metal 
from  the  surface  of  one  or  more  jtages  of  type.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  stereotyping  was  used  to  an  exceedingly  limited  extent. 
The  jirinters  were  jirejudiced  against  it  for  reasons  ]turely  selfish.  It  was 
not  until  1<S1,'»  that  it  was  introduced  into  the  I'nited  States,  and  only  a  few 
years  previously  Lord  Stanhope  intro(hice(l  it  Mito  the  Fnglish  ]irintiiig  busi- 
ness. "  The  Larger  Catechism  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  "  professes  on 
its  title-page  to  have  been  the  first  work  stereotyped  in  .\merica.  It  bears 
the  date  of  June,  lSl.3.  Now  the  jirocess  is  in  general  use  —  plaster,  clay, 
and  papier  nulch^  being  used. 

The  process  of  stereotyi)ing  originally  was  to  preserve  the  jniges,  so  that 
an  entire  edition  of  a  work  could  be  finished  without  re(iuiring  large  numbers 
of  type,  and  to  have  it  ready  for  future  editions.  For  newspajier  work  it 
came  into  vogue  to  save  the  rapid  wearing  out  of  the  type  by  the  imjiressions 
made. 

From  the  practical  introduction  of  stereotyjiing  in  this  country,  in  ISl;^, 
by  Robert  I'.ruce,  until  about  IsriO,  the  slow,  tedious,  and  troublesome  ]iro- 
cess  of  making  the  jilates  by  plaster  of  Paris  was  in  vogue.  That  was  done 
by  the  plaster  being  poured  over  the  face  of  the  type,  .^b)lten  lead  was  then 
run  into  the  cast,  after  which  the  ])late  was  finished.  The  time  thus  occu- 
pied caused  the  work  to  be  confined  to  books,  magazines,  and  weekly  is.-,ues 


If 

r  ■ 

H 

''"if 


m 


III 


-1 . 


m 


I 


Hit 


i  .1 


mi 

f 


:'1 


nc.s 


TllirMl'JiS   .LV/>    nOXDKHS   or   77//1    A7A'"   CKS'TUIiY 


of  snijill  joiiriiiils.  Wlicii  tlic  plalr  wiis  tiikcii  rnmi  tlic  ciist.  it  wiis  nmgli, 
imporl't'ct.  iiiid  iiiitit.  I'nr  use.  .NftMi,  whose  spfciiiltv  wiis  liiiisliing,  W(U'(i  diu- 
])l()yt'(l  to  maUc  tlic  plato  so  as  to  iiicct  tlif  i('(piii('iii('nts  of  the  printing 
press. 

It  was  just  at  the  opening  of  the  hist  half  of  tiie  nineteentii  eentury  that 
]iapiei'  iiiAcIk?  hegan  to  be  nsed  in  tlii:;  (ionntrv.  A  few  years  hefore  that 
time  it  had  been  brougiit  into  use  in  Ijoinhm  and  I'aris.  Its  introdiuftion 
into  tin'  I'liited  Stales  fonnd  tiie  printing  trade  ready  and  willing  to  a('ce|)t 
it,  and  bnt  a  few  years  i)assed  befon-  it  came  into  general  use  by  the  news- 
jiapers.  It  is  a  ])e<'uliar  eondtination.  The  paper  matrix  is  fornu'd  by  ]tastt! 
of  starch,  tlour,  alum,  and  watci'.  This  is  sprea<l  over  a.  thick  paper,  on 
which  are  |ilace(l  layers  of  liiu'  tissue  paper.  When  ready  for  use,  it  is  plai'cd 
on  the  iiuie  of  the  typ<>  and  a  deep  im[iression  secured  by  being  passed 
through  a  press.  Then  it  goes  into  a  steam  chest  to  be  dried,  from  there  it 
is  passed  into  the  casting  machine,  the  molten  metal  iioured  in.  and  a  few 
minutes  thereafter  the  platt^  is  rea<ly  for  the  press,  l-p  to  a  few  years  ago, 
the  impression  on  papici'  mache  was  secured  ity  iieing  beat.en  with  brushes 
jn'epared  for  that  use.  The  method  had  two  disailvantages,  —  consnm|)tion 
of  time  and  desti'U(^tion  of  type.  Tlu'  press  now  used  obviate.s  tliese  defects. 
The  old  way  took  about  twenty  minutes  to  produce. a  jilatc.  Now  it  is  done 
in  from  live  to  seven  minutes.  The  machinery  her(^  introducM'd  has  been  of 
benefit  to  tlu'  trade,  but  none  of  it  ranks  among  the  gicat  inventions  of  the 
century. 

The  making  of  electrotype  plates  had  its  origin  early  in  the  century,  when 
it  was  found  that  stereotype  plates  had  a  limit  as  to  durabilit.y.  Kleetro- 
jilating  suggested  to  tFosiah  .Vdams.  in  IS.'JU,  the  idea  ol'  a  (topper  surfa(;e  for 
the  stereotype  plate.  It  took  t.en  years  to  bring  it  into  practi(!al  use.  His 
first  siu'cessful  work  in  this  line  was  on  the  engravings  and  bonh-rs  for  a 
liibh>  issued  in  New  York.  It  was  found  to  be  particularly  ada]>ted  to  en- 
gravings, producing  a  surface  of  sidlicient  smoothness  to  allow  the  pressman 
to  make  a-  print  of  ex([uisit(!  lineness.  Tin;  im])rovemeids  introduced  tended 
only  toward  the  saving  of  tinm  and  the  excellence  of  tinish.  I'ra(!tically  the 
sanu'  process  is  used  now  that  was  emi>loyed  half  a  century  .ago.  An  impres- 
sion of  the  type  is  made  on  wax,  the  electri(^  current  is  secured  by  a  <leposit 
of  tine  graphite,  the  mold  is  placed  in  a  bath  containing  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate (d'  copper  and  is  made  j)art  of  the  electric  circuit-,  in  which  aJso  is 
introdiu'cd  a  zinc  elenu'iit  in  a  sulphuric  acid  solution.  The  current  (hiposits 
a  tilm  of  co]i])er  on  the  grajihite  surface  of  the  mold.  When  it  has  assumed 
a  sutHcient  thickness,  it  is  taken  from  the  bath,  the  wax  is  removed,  and  the 
cojtjicr  shell  trimmed.  It  is  then  backed  with  an  alloy  of  tyjie  metal.  The 
finishing  process  brings  the  jilate  to  the  jiroper  thii^knoss,  after  which  it  is 
blocked  to  the  height  recpured  for  printing.  That  is  the  process.  To  it  in 
the  last  ten  years  there  has  been  apjdicd  the  use  of  steam  machinery.  Tn  the 
old  days  the  making  of  electrotypes  re([nircd  from  ten  to  fifteen  hours.  Thev 
now  are  produced  in  from  two  to  three  hours. 


The  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnesses  the  disa])pearance  entirelv 
from  the  printing  establishment  of  the  once  generally  used  wood  engraviuL;-. 
The  ri.se  and  fall  of  this  once  splendid   art  is   practically   encompassed  in 


;  I « 


CKSTUHY 

(iiist.  it  was  rough, 
liiiisliinj,',  wcni  tniv- 
ils  ol'  thf  priuliui; 

.(•(Mitli  ('(Mitury  tliiit 
■  ycais  l»('t'(in!  lliat 
Its  iiilroiliurtioii 
1(1  williiij,'  to  a('cc|»fc 
;il  iisti  by  llif  news- 
is  ronncd  by  pastt! 
a,  tliick  paiicr,  on 
I'or  use,  it  is  placed 
(l  hy  heiiii,'  i)asse(l 
hied.  Iroiii  tliere  it 
jiired  ill.  and  a  lew 
Ui  a  lew  years  aj^'o, 
eaten  with  liruslies 
i^cs,  —  ('(insanipt  i<>n 
viates  these  delects. 
\\\  Now  it  is  done 
rodiieiMl  has  lu'en  nf 
it  inventions  of  the 

II  the  eentnry,  when 
l\ira1)ility.     Klectro- 
[a  eiilt|ier  surface  for 
ractical  use.      ills 
and  liorders  for  a 
ly  adapted  to  ca- 
llow tlie  pressman 
introduced  tend<'d 
1.     Practically  iiu' 
y  a>:;o.     An  inipres- 
cured  hy  a  deposit. 
I  solution  of  sul- 
,  in  which  also  is 
le  (Uirrent  deposits 
len  it  has  assunicil 
s  removed,  and  the 
f  tyi'c  metal.     The 
s,  after  which  it  is 
H'ocess.      To  it  ill 
machinery,    la  th'' 
fte«'n  hours.    The,\ 


ai)p('arance  entirel'- 

;(;d  wood  euLrravin.;. 

ly   encompassed  in 


1' 


arl 


;( 


it, 


77//V    ART  rnKSKHVATIVK 


509 


the  ]ieriod  of  tinu!  covered  hy  the  nineteenth  century.  Tliomas  IJewicik,  an 
JMij^lisiiman,  },'UV(i  wooil  eni,'raviiiy  an  artistic  impetus  hy  the  production  of 
illustrations  for  his  "Histories  of  Itritish  Quadrupeds,"  wliich  ajtpeared 
about  17'.)(>.  rp  to  that  period  the  work  was  crude.  The  hooks  and  maj;a- 
/ines  of  the  liist  deca(hi  (d'  the  (lentury  were  illustrated  in  a  way  then  re- 
l^ardtnl  as  lii};hly  artistiit.  The  application  of  the  liewi(;k  method  brought 
fortii  work  which  ranked  in  the  line  of  high  art.  Of  the  development  of  tills 
work  volumes  (Miuld  be  written.  To  simplify  the  situation  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  recall  how  thesci  i)iet,ures  were  made.  S(|uares  of  boxwood  were  used, 
nil  the  fa(!e  of  which  was  spread  a  prejiaration  of  water-cohir  ('hiiiese  white. 
( >n  this  surface  the  artist,  drew  liis  picture,  and  then  the  engraver's  art  was 
hrought  into  retpiisition  —  the  engraving  being  done  alongside  the  pencil 
lines. 

And  here  it-  was  that  the  artistic  instim^t  of  the  liandler  of  the  -'graver" 
,ip|ieared,  —  the  delicacy  of  touch  being  shown  in  tiie  shading  and  in  tlii^ 
linisli  of  the  lines.  IJy  this  method  there  have  been  produced  I'are  works  of 
■irt.  as  can  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  books  printed  in  the  tirst  half 
(if  the  century. 

The  time  taken  in  the  making  of  the  engr.'ivings,  however,  iirevented  the 
possibility  of  their  being  Used  by  the  newspapers  and  magazines  as  generally 
,is  was  desired.  'I'his  want  was  in  a,  measure  met  by  the  introdiietioii  of 
machine  •'grooving.''  'I'Ik^  cuts,  however,  could  not  lie  nstnl  to  jirint  from 
(lirectly  in  conse(pieiice  of  the  warping  of  th(>  boxwood,  and  it  was  lUices- 
sary  in  every  instance  to  mal<e  stereotype  or  elect  rotype  plates.  'I'hen,  too, 
came  the  realization  of  the  fact  that  the  re|ir()duction  of  portraits  needed 
sdiiiething  which  would  ]ireserve  features  and  expression.  In  thos(!  days 
some  of  tlu!  pictures  |iroduced  were  ludicrous  in  tlie  extreme,  and  it  becanui 
a  standing  joke  in  the  newspapers  that  the  liest  way  tf)  (Mst  ridicule  upon  a 
public  man  was  to  print  his  picture,  in  the  work  of  rejiroducing  scenes  the 
skill  of  the  artist  and  the  engraver  fre([uently  brought  forth  results  which 
were  marvels  of  excfdlenec.  J'or  a  number  of  years  tiie  wood  engraving 
business  flourished  in  this  particular  line,  despite  the  dissatisfaction  existing 
in  regard  to  portrait  w(U'k.  In  the  prodiK'tioii  oi  illustrations  for  fine  books, 
printed  on  good  paper  with  flat  presses  and  projierly  ''under-"'  or  '•overlaid,'' 
IIku'c  was  attained  a,  degree  of  jierfection  in  lines  and  shading  which  raised 
the  ])ictures  almost  to  the  rank  of  st^el  iind  co|iperpla.t,e  engravings.  Many 
of  tliose  engaged  in  the  work  (d'  drawing  and  cutting  were  possessed  of  a 
skill  which  would  hav(^  won  for  them  distinction  in  other  artistic,  lines. 

This,  practically,  was  the  eondition  of  the  jirotessiou  when  the  end  of  tlie 
lirst  half  of  the  nineteenth  (lentury  had  been  reached.  Kveii  then,  however, 
the  rpiestion  of  a  substitute  was  under  severer  consideration  in  scientitic,  as 
Mcll  as  artistic  circles.  l']xperinients  were  made  with  copper,  acids,  and  zinc, 
but  satisfactory  results  coidd  not  be  obtained.  It  was  not  until  l-SiJO  that  a 
siiceess^'ul  substitute  was  iirodiiced.  (iillot,  a  Frenchman,  brought  forth  a 
.system  of  etching.  ISy  this  means  a  photograjih  from  an  artist's  drawing 
Was  jilaced  above  a  plate  (d'  gelatine,  chemically  sensitized.  The  parts  (jf  the 
•^relatine  exposed  to  the  liglit  became  hard,  and  the  remainder  was  brrslied 
away  witli  warm  water.  Imoiii  this  ,iii  electrotype  could  be  made  directly. 
That  process  has  given  way  to  the  present  system  of  photographing  on  ziuc, 


I  :  I  b  « 


'il 

11 

m 


il 


""  lii'i 


'  'M, 


1  i.if, 

il 

570 


TlilUMI'llS   AM>    WOXltlCh'S   OF   THE   MX'"  C/wXTUIt) 


» '  •'      '    '11 


,  ^iit 


(p 


aiiil  the  iiso  of  iii'iil  hiitlis  tor  rtcliin^'.  (Mlicr  improvt'iiii'iits  —  |ti'iii('i|i;illv 
Mil'  use  of  the  scrci'ii  —  liavc  rcsiilti'd  in  tlir  |no(lii('(inii  of  lialf-foncs  wliidi 
;in'  lii.Ljlily  satisriictorv  in  ucwspaiicr  work.  Wy  this  niciiiis  llicri'  can  be  |inp- 
(liict'd  such  reproductions  as  j;ivc  tiic  Icaturcs  ol  persons  so  tliat  recoj^nilion 
is  as  easy  as  in  the  case  ol'  photo,t,'raphs.  With  tlie  aid  ot  dil't'ereid  si/cs  oj 
screens.  i)ack}j;rouuils  are  secured  whicli  add  materially  to  the  artistic  excel- 
lence of  the  pictures.  So  well  done  is  the  work  in  this  direction  that  the 
plates  can  he  used  on  the  curved  cylinders  of  the  iiu,i,'e  octuple  presses,  and 
enormous  editions  are  printed  from  them.  'I"he  peculiarity  of  this  ])rocess  is 
that  the  orij^inal  ean  he  reduced  or  enlart,'e(l  so  as  to  suit  any  width  (d'  col- 
umn or  paj^e  witho\it  all'ectiuL;  one  way  or  the  titlier  the  tiueness  of  the  work. 
I'eti  and  iid;  drawin,i,'s  made  hy  artists  are  photo^jra plied  and  liack.nroiinded 
with  the  utmost  accuracy  as  todesii^ii  and  detail.  It  has  liecn  found,  however, 
that  scenes  in  half-toiiis  do  not  ,i,Mve  as  much  satisfaction  as  do  port  raits,  and 
it  is  helieved  to  he  only  a  (piestion  of  time  when  there  is  a  return  to  line 
eu,i^i'a\  iu.i^s  so  far  as  the  newspapers  are  <'onceriied. 

When  one  compares  the  plioto,tira]ihie  reproductions  wliich  ajipear  in  tlic 
niaij;a/.iues  and  newspapers  of  to-day  with  those  of  even  ten  years  a,tj;o.  then' 
is  seen  an  advancement  which  tells  a  wonderful  story  of  the  rapid  march  ol 
artistic  taste.  The  outline  jiicture  —  excellent,  of  its  kind  —  has  the  a]ipear 
unce  of  orudity  almost  "^rotcsipie  when  jdaced  beside  the  life-like  lialf-tonc 
reproduction  of  ])liotojj;raphic  art. 

Wood  eu;j;ravinij;  has  been  relcf^ated  to  the  days  of  the  hand-jtress,  the 
mail  news-carrier  and  the  plaster  of  Paris  process  of  stereotypint;.  Inventive 
Lcenius  not  only  has  advanced  for  the  printiiij;  press  ami  its  adjuncts;  it  has 
also  laid  a  heavy  hand  on  art,  causim;'  it  to  ])ause  and  consider  how  soon  thr 
pencil  and.  the  brush  will  be  supersedeil  entirely  by  the  rhythmic  motion  ni 
the  mauhiue. 

Thomas  ,J.  Linuskv, 


•f        p 


PmH  '■ 


ri:NTUity 


'II 


[ii-i .  I 


lONAS    ,].    LlNltSK.Y. 


TIIK  CKNTIIUY'S   IMMXJIIKSS  IN    MINKS   AND  MINING 

WiiKN  we  niiisidtT  lidw  l;ir;,'i'|y  llir  ili.-,c(»vri  v  iiml  cxiilnint inn  nl'  AiiicriiM 
Alls  line  In  till'  sciircll  r<ir  lilillfs.  tliiil  tin-  |iiiTinils  liict;i|>  lili;^'lit  lie  tniiinl 
:,)  |r|>it'liisli  tlic  (li'|i|clcc|  l|i|i>iiiics  (i|  |',Mrn|ic;ill  lliniiarclis  ;  iunl  wlicii  \\r 
imtf  tliill.  iis  II  rcsilit  n\'  tllis  Sfiucli.  tlic  wnild's  iililiuill  |i|ni|iict  inn  of  1,'niil 
.Hill  silviT  liinl  innciisfd  in  IIh-  tiirrc  luiniiri'il  yi'iiis  Inilnwiiii;  ilic  iliscnvcrv 
Mnni  S.\."iOS.O()(».  in  ir.(>t».  In  S|.S.'.t;tr..(M)M  III  llir  iH-i^'illliin-  nl  llii'  Iiinftrrnlll 
(■.■ntiiiT.  we  view  willi  -uriHix'  tin'  litllf  |pi(M^'n's.s  iiiiidf  duiin^'  lliis  pci^ind  in 
ihc  iii'l  nl'  niinin'4. 

Al  till'  ln'^^inninu'  "d  IIh'  iucsimii  ct'iitiirv.  we  lind  in  iim'  IIic  siinic  '^rn- 
>  iiil  nictlidds  lliaf.  wtTf  I'nllnwfd  in  tlii'  tinic  id'  ('nlninltns.  'I'lir  vi-rv  tiisl 
uprrntinii  —  llir  scaridi  I'nr  veins — wiis  (dtfiitiiin's  mndiirti'd  nt'lcr  llic  niiin 
ml'  nl'  llir  Miildlc  Ai,'i's  :  I'nr  in  rrvi-c's  '•  .Mincriiln,i,'iii  ( 'ni'nni)ii'nsis."  wiiicli 
miis  III  iiiivc  JM'i'n  nnr  nt  liic  Ifiidinu'  wmks  nn  nnnin;^'  (d'  tlic  liisl  (•cii- 
IIIIV.  lIltTf  ncciirs.  Iininli'^'  nllicl-  lili'llinils.  II  Icip^lliy  trriilisc  (in  •■  llnw  In 
i>isc.ivi'r  Mini's  iiy  llir  SnIc  N'irtnr  nj  tin-  llii/i'l-lrt'i'."  i'liwdiT,  iilllmiiLjli 
;l  liiid  lii'i'ii  iiiMMilcd  I'nr  ci'iiliiiics.  liiiij  Iti't'ii  sn  littli'  i'ni|ilnyi'd  in  niiniii^ 
tliiit  il  WHS  cnnsidcrt'd  nirri'ly  iis  ii  last  irsorl.  In  a  dcscriiitinii  nl'  niiniiii,' 
iiictlinds.  anntliiT  wmk  says:  •• 'I'lii-  sol't  vi-in  is  .t,'riii'riilly  diii;  with  the 
sjiadr  and  turned  nut  intn  wnmieii  tmys;  inil  tlie  hard  veins  are  Uiincked 
nut  with  II  .!^ad  and  a  liiiniiiier.  It'  the  nie  is  sn  Imril  as  tn  lie  inea|i:ilile 
nl  lii('akiii}f  it.  in  this  manner,  they  usually  sni'ten  ilwilh  lire.  I'.iil  astill 
iiinre  exjH'ditiniis  nietlmd  is  the  workiii,t;  with  '^iinjinwder.  ,1  sum//  i/inni/!/i/ 
iif  jiitin/i'i'  i/ors  i/rriif  tli'niijs  f/ii's  iriii/." 

In  ISOO  the  coal  miner  wiis  wnrkinj;  hy  the  nuked  li,i,dit  nl'  the  tallnw  di|p. 
Ciist-irnii  rails  had  lieen  intrndiieed  Imt  a  tew  yeiirs,  and  rails  nl'  wrniiyht 
irnii,  which  enuld  he  lieiit  to  I'nllnw  the  curves  nl  the  dritts,  were  unheard 
III.  The  cars  \\"\v  |iiished  iilme.^  the  levels  hy  hoys.  \\  atei'  |inwer.  where 
it  cnuld  he  nhtaiiicd  and  a|i|ilied  liy  nieaii>  nl  the  nvershnt  wheid,  was  in 
l^'ciieriil  use  I'oi-  |iiim]iiii^,  Imistiiij,',  and  ventilating;.  I'lit  Irniii  many  a  niiiie 
the  (ire  was  raised  liy  wnmen.  who  imlled  the  lnicket  up  '•  hy  walkiiiLj  away 
with  the  end  of  the  rnjie  "  whieli  jiassed  Ifnm  them  nver  a  sheave  and 
tlieiice  down  tlie  shall.  In  ]ilace.s  tlie  ore  was  still  carried  u|i  the  steep 
iiicliiios  to  the  siirl'ace  on  the  hacks  of  wnnieii  and  ,i,'irls.  N'eiitilatinii.  when 
iKit  se(!ure(l  by  natural  means,  was  ohtained  liy  liellows  operated  liy  men  or 
iiiccluiiiically.  A  mine  which  had  heen  worked  to  a  depth  of  one  thonsiind 
het,  was  extraordinary.  'I'iioiij^di  steam  power,  apjilied  in  the  form  of  what 
was  known  as  tlie  atmospheric  eii'^dne.  a  device  utilizing'  for  suction  the 
viicmim  formed  liy  the  coiidcnsHtinn  id'  steam  in  a  chamher,  hiid  heen  used 
for  years  in  draining  mines,  the  steam  en<,'ine.  as  invented  liy  Watt,  had  lieeii 
iiitrodiieed  for  lioistinj,^  in  only  a  few  places.  The  jiowei  was  aiiplied  to  turn 
;i  luiij,'  crank  arm.  which  rotated  the  dnim. 


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57'J 


TUIIMI'IIS   AM)    \VO.\l)i:ns    OF   THE  A7A'"   CIISTUHY 


At  till'  l)c;,'iiiiiiii:^'  (if  lilt'  cciitiirv  tlic  iiiincs  (tf  ("oniwiill,  wliicli  were  tlu' 
f^rt'iilt'st  imMliiccrs  in  (iicat  I>rit;iiii,  wen-  tiiriiiii^j;  nut,  nlMHit  ."■«,( )(»(».((( 10  |i(>uiiil.s 
of  till  1111(1  Id.oiMt.dOO  |i(iiiii(l.s  of  coiiiicr  ii  vciir,  wliilt'  tlio  wholu  L'liited  KiiiK- 
iloiii  was  fiiriiisliiiit,'  only  170.(1(1(1  tons  of  iron.  South  Aiiu'rica  was  the 
.vtrcatcst  |ii'(iilii('t'r  of  ^,'ol(l  and  silver,  wttiidfrfiilly  rich  iiiiiit's  of  the  latter 
liaviiii;  lieen  found  in  I'eni  and  Chile.  Iliinil)uldt  phiees  the  iiroduetion  of 
tilt!  whole  South  .Xnierieaii  eontiiient  for  the  vear  IJSOO  at  ()l(J,(ll.'r>  pounds  of 
silver  and  IMJOO  |ioiintls  of  },'oltl. 

The  I'liiteil  States  at  that  tinif  had  pi-at'tically  no  mining,'  within  its  hor- 
derrt.  Some  small  niiucs  of  iron,  Icatl,  und  eopper,  whieh  had  lieeii  tiponeil  to 
supply  till'  (leinaiids  created  l>y  the  IJevolutioii.  wert!  protlncin^'  spasmodi- 
cally ;  hut  even  as  hitti  as  ISL'I,  William  Keatinj,',  in  an  athlress  before  the 
Amiii'iofui  l'hilost)|>hical  Society,  said.  ••  I'poii  the  whole  we  tliink  we  may 
he  warranted  in  saying'  that  there  arc  as  yet  no  mines  in  activity  in  the 
l'liited  States.  Coal,  in  most  places,  is  taken  from  the  surface,  or  tlu,n'  from 
the  foot  of  a  hill.  'I'lie  lead  mines  (d'  .Missouri  are  rich  and  almndant,  hul- 
the  mining  is  a  mere  pilferiiiL;  (d'  tlit!  richest  spots." 

In  iSOl  the  Cornish  puiiipinj,'  system  was  introduced.  .V  long  rod.  exteiul- 
ing  from  the  surface  to  the  liottoiii  td'  the  sliait.  operates  simiiltaiieoiisly  ;i 
series  (d  iniiiips  placed,  one  above  the  other,  ai  intervals  of  about  two  hiiii 
dri'tl  and  hfty  feet.  The  lowest,  one  lifts  tin;  water  from  the  pump  and 
delivers  it  into  a  tank  from  which  the  next  one  ilraws  its  supjily,  and  this  in 
turn  forces  it  up  to  a  higher  tank.  With  this  improveil  means  of  drainage 
mines  be',^au  to  be  sunk  ileeper.  a  depth  id'  three  thousand  feet  having  been 
rciKdietl  with  this  method  (d'  pumping.  'I'he  manufacture  of  iron  pumps, 
wliitdi  liad  begun  to  rc|ilace  wooden  ones  toward  the  end  id'  the  eighteeiitli 
ctiutury.  decreased  the  aiiiouut  of  repairs  necessary  on  the  pumps,  and  aidcil 
in  making  possiiile  better  arrangeiiieiit  of  underground  W(U'k. 

It  was  at  abtuit  this  time,  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  that  the 
method  of  opening  ground  by  shafts,  levels,  and  raises,  which  we  refer  to  as 
•■  blocking  out  ore,"  began  to  be  more  generally  adopLod,  displacing  the 
former  motle  of  following  down  the  ore  by  a  series  td'  irregular,  isolated  ex- 
cavations. With  it  came  overhead  stoping.  in  wliicli,  after  the  shaft  has 
been  sunk,  the  level  driven  and  timbered,  and  a  raisi^  matle,  tlio  miner  begins 
breaking  down  the  oro  frtun  over  his  head,  allowing  it  to  run  down  into 
chutes.  From  these  it  is  drawn  out  into  cars  pushed  along  the  tracks  in  the 
level.  Tilt'  waste  is  allowetl  to  accumulate  on  top  of  the  stiills,  tu-  timber-;, 
forming  the  top  td'  the  level  above  rel'erred  to,  antl  serves  as  a  platform  upon 
which  the  miner  stands  in  l);-eal:ing  down  more  ore. 

The  invention  of  the  safl't^   lamp,  in  1S1.">,  is  probably  the  most  imiiortant 
event  of  the  early  jiait  of  the  ceutury.      Previous  to  this  the  miners  iired  tln' 
gas  in  the  "rooms  "with  their  caiitlles,  which  were  raised  toward  the  roii 
with  the  aid  of  a  long  poh'.  the  miners  lying  fiat  on  the  floor  of  the  level  to 
escajie  the  blaze,  and  sometimes  putting  on  wet  jackets  to  .avoitl  being  scorched 
As  tirst  invented  by  Davy,  the  safety  lamp  consisted  merely  td'  a  cylinder  '■'' 
v>-ire  gauze  surrounding  the  Hame,  much  as  the  flame  is  surrounded  by  a  gl;' 
globe  in  the  modern  lantern,  except  that  the  iliaineter  of  the  cylinth'r  did  u  • 
exceed  two  intdies.     'I'liis  was  based  upon  the  thetu'V  that  the  gas  set  on  lii 
bv  the  light  would  burn  insitle  the  gauze  without  heating  it  hut  enougli 


CESTUllY 

nil,  wliicli  wfvc  tilt" 
lit  r>,( )(»••.(«><>  iiiiuiiils 
vhdln  rnitiMl  Kiii^'- 
I  Aiiu'rifii  \v;is  the 
mines  oi'  tlu'  latttT 
s  tlic  liriHllll'tinll  of 
t  (ll)l,<»L'."i  iiouiids  uf 

liiif,'  witliiii  its  bor- 
hiul  bt't'ii  oiieiu'd  lo 
)nHliifiiiK  siiasiiiotli- 
i  iiddrt'ss  hclorc  tlic 
e  wt!  think  we  may 
s  in  uc'tivitv  m  the 
surtaee.  ov  (hi^'  from 
li  and  ahnndant.  hut, 

A  Iou.l;'  V(jd.  cxti'iul- 
A'S  simultaiu'iiiisly  ;i 

<  of  about  two  liuu 
from  tht!  luiiiip  iiiiil 

<  suiiply,  and  this  in 
d  nwans  of  dniinii'^v 
md  fi'ut  having'  bt'cn 
tnrc  of  iron   iiiini|>s. 

id  (if  the  i'if;ht('cnth 
If  immiis.  and  aidfil 
■ork. 

■lit  century,  that  the 
wliich  we  refer  to  ;is 
ile(h  disidaeinij;  tln' 
•reLrnhir.  isohited  ex- 
after  the  shaft  ha-^ 
de.  the  miner  be,s;in-^ 
It  to  run  down  intn 
linij  thi!  tracks  in  th'- 
lie  stalls,  or  timbers. 


as  a 


lilatform  n 


OOII 


tlio  most  important 
Itlic  miners  iired  tli'' 
d  toward  the  roi'i' 
floor  of  the  h'vel  !■> 
void  being'  seonlnil 
rely  of  a  cylinih-r  "i' 
irrounded  by  a  ula--' 
Ithe  eyliiiiler  diil  H"' 
lit  the  i^-as  set  on  Hi 
liiii'  it  hut  enoiiii'li 


77//V    VESrUltY'S   I'liOaltESS   IS   MISKS   A\h   .U/A/AV,' 


57:» 


,^'nite  tile  yas  outside.  The  prineiide  was  correct,  and  the  lamp  worked  satis- 
iactorily  when  carefully  used  uiidei'  proper  conditions.  It  was  soon  found, 
linwcver,  tliat  in  a  stroiii;'  air  current.  (M'  if  swuui;  at  a  more  rapid  speed  than 
.ix  feet  per  second  in  an  explosive  mixture,  the  snrnmndiiiL;  \i:\s  would  lie 
:,'nited.  As  a  man  walkiu;.,'  iiiiturally  on  the  .-uilace  moves  at  a  rate  of 
.letween  live  and  six  feet  per  secoml,  it  will  lie  easily  seen  that  even  were 
,he  Hpeed  (roiisideralily  diminished  underi^round.  —  and  any  one  who  has  tried 
lo  follow  a  mine  foreman  throu;.;h  mine  woil<iu!.;>  knows  the  speed  slackening,' 
!s  sli!,dit,  —  a  \ei'y  slight  swing  of  the  arm  would  bring  tiie  rate  of  movement 
uf  the  lantern  up  to  the  danger  point.  ,\iiother  and  a  very  uin-xpeeted  factor 
m  causing  explosions  with  the  new  lamp  also  developed;  and  thai  was  the 
,Meat  (.'arelessiiess  of  the  men  who  used  it.  Armed  with  this  device,  and 
dcliKh'd  by  the  (piietly  burning  tlanie,  the  miner  would  seat   himstdf  upon  a 


Sl.NKlNC.     lllUKTlN(i,    A.M>   Mol'IN(i    Wim    THI-;    I  .N(.l-.li>OI,l.->l-.l{IU-.A.N  r    lllill.I.v 

]iile  of  coal,  draw  forth  his  pipe  and  fill  it.  and  deliberately  open  the  gauze  to 
li^ht  it.  As  a  eousiMpieiiee.  for  a  time  after  the  introduction  of  the  safety- 
laiiiji.  the  number  of  accidents  from  explosions  increased,  This  latter  ditH- 
lulty.  the  reeklessness  of  the  miners,  was  presently  overcome  by  having  the 
lamiis  locked,  and  by  depriving  the  men  of  all  matches  lud'ore  admitting 
lliem  to  the  mine.  An  improved  laniji.  introduceil  by  Clanny.  wherein  the 
lower  ]iart  of  the  cylinder  was  replaced  by  glass,  partially  iiroteeled  the 
llaine  from  strong  air  currents,  and  also  gave  a  better  light.  J.ater.  .Miiseler 
added  an  interior  sheet  iron  (diimney.  which  divides  the  air  current  so  that  « 
the  hot  air  does  not  strike  directly  against  the  gau/e.  anil  the  lamp  as  thus 
improved  is  vei'v  largely  used,  especially  in  I'aii'ope. 

in  1.S.">1  the  safety  fuse  was  invented,  a  tiain  of  powder  having  been  used 
before  this  for  tiring  the  charges.  The  same  year  a  ])atent  was  grant<»d  to 
Aloses  Shaw  of  New  ^'ork  for  an  eleetiical  device  to  tire  .several  charges 
at  once.  It  was  at  about  this  time,  too,  that  the  man-engine  was  invented  in 
(lermany.     Some  miner,  noticing  the  slow  and  steady  uji  and  (hiwn  motion  of 


I  i   I 

.1 


'I  ir 


Ml 


rTTr 


I  ::u 


111  ii 


i'l 


'.r   ;i 


«  I     .: 


Mil  I 


|f»»  ■M  '  f 


*'  1) 


'.Hf 


H4^ 


.->74         TIIUJMPIIS   AM)    ]\()\1)J:J!S   OF   -nil':   MX'"   CENTURY 

tilt' hnii,'  rods  whicli  n|i('r:iti'(l  llic  piiiii|)s  in  t  lie  ('oiiiisli  system,  liiul  coiicfivcd 
tlir  idfii  dl'  iiiiiliiii;'  sifps  (HI  to  tlifin  at  iutrrvals.  and  fidiiiij  uj)  and  down. 
As  mint's  i;r('\v  dfcpri'  and  tin'  timr  and  lalior  rciiuircd  i'or  tin'  men  to  get 
down  to  tlu'ir  work  iucrfascd,  a  siiccial  ciii^diK',  titilizin;^  an  iniiii'ovcmciit  '<[' 
tliis  device,  was  employi'il  for  I'aJsini;'  and  loweriiij;' men.  'I'his  '•  inan-eni;ine  " 
consisted  oi'  two  iiarallel  lieanis,  moviiiij  slowly  \\\>  and  down  the  slial't  with 
a  iei'i|ii'ocatiiiur  motion,  the  leiij;lli  (d'  tlu'  stroke  lieini;-  about  twtdve  feet. 
I'poii  these  lieams  small  plati'ofins  were  nailed  at  distances  e(|iial  to  tlie 
l('U'4:th  (d'  the  stroke.  'I"he  miner  wishini^-  to  descend  stepped  upon  the  top 
plail'orm  <d'  one  lieam  as  it  started  on  its  d(»wn  stroke.  \\  the  end  ol'  this 
stroke  he  I'ound  himstdi'  tW(dve  I'eet  down  the  shal't.  on  a  level  with  the 
second  ]>hitl'orm  of  tiie  other  lieam.  whi(di  had  in  the  mean  linu'  been  coming 
up.  and  he  ste|pped  across  on  to  this,  whicdi  now'  bo;,Mn  its  down  stroke.  'I'hus 
by  constantly  steppiin^  from  oiu,'  rod  tu  the  other  at  the  completion  t)l'  eacii 


{I 

iN(ii:i;soi,i.si;i;(.KANr  niiM.i:x  sri'.AM-Ac'rrA'ri'.n  air  coxrntF.'^son. 

down  stroke,  he  was  conveyed  to  the  bottom.  I'.y  rev(M'sini;'  the  orocess  he 
was  raised  to  the  surface. 

In  .n'eneral.  mining-  |iro;.^ress  was  slow  up  to  the  niiddle  of  the  ceiduiy. 
'I'lie  jirodnction  of  tiie  baser  metals,  here  and  abroad,  increased  ,i,n'adually 
with  the  demands  ol  the  me(diainc  arts,  but  it  was  not  nidil  the  nuddic  of 
the  century  that  this  i'actiu'.  joined  with  the  improved  methods  of  transpoita- 
tion.  and  of  nH'tallnr,Lry.  ij;ave  to  niinini:;  that  imiieins  whi(di.  thon.nli  throu-li 
alternate  reeurrini,'  waves  of  prosperity  and  stat^nation,  carried  it  forwaid 
until  the  iunnial  expenditure  fiu' teclnncal  skill.  nia(dnnery.  and  supplies  umiI 
in  the  industry  is  estimated  to-day  at  one  thousand  million  dollars. 

The  iirst  minin;,'  e.vcitement  in  the  rniteil  States  occurred  in  lS2',t.  I^l- 
lowinj;  the  discovery  of  '^oh\  in  the  South  ;  but  tliese  fields  soon  declined  m 
imjiortance  witlicmt  resultins.;  in  any  improvemeids  to  minint;'  methods  and 
machinery. 

The  next  minin.L,'  fever  resulted  from  the  iiuiUfj;iirution  of  work  uixm  the 
cop|)er  properties  at  Keweeimw  I'oint,  ]\ricli.,  in  184.1.     This  caused  the  \v  t 


CENTURY 

,-sl('ir.,  hail  coiHM'ivfd 

ritliiii,'  u|)  ami  tlowii. 

lor  till-  mt'u  ti>  i;t'1 

;•  an  iiiiiinivfiut'iit  hI 

This  '•  iiiaii-ciiiAinc '" 
down  the  shaft  witli 
;  aliiait-  twelve  feet. 
itaiiees  eijual  to  tiie 
le]ilie(l  UlioH  the  top 
At  tlie  end  id'  this 

on  a,  h'vel  wit.li  tin' 
an  time  been  coiuin- 
s  down  stroke.  Thii- 
(•  eomjiletion  of  earii 


t    (  OMPliF'^SOU. 

('rsin;4  the  proeess  ln' 

ddle   of  the  eenliiiv. 

inereased  j,n'aiinall\ 

until  the  middle  d 

■  thoils  of  fvanspoilii 

lieh.  tliout-h  throuuli 

1.  oiirried  it    forwai'i 

TV.  and  su]ti)lies  >isi  il 

ion  dollars. 

piMirrcd  in  1SL".>.  ImI- 
dds  soon  deelined  :ii 
mining'  methods  and 

:)n  of  work  upon  tli<' 
Tins  caused  thi'  lii>t 


•/■///•;  cEXTiin's  j>ii()<n{i:ss  /.v  mixes    ixn  M/xixa      .".-> 

.iiinini,'-stoek  s]ieenlat  ion  in  tins  eoinitrv,  and  it  is  interestini;-  to  note  tliat 
lie  eenturv  idoses  with  a  repetition  of  tiiis  same  fever,  founded  upon  almost 
lie  same  nii'und.  ^'et  the  eonditions  have  ehaui^'ed  wonderlidly.  Tpou  the 
hen  liarren  jieninsula.  whitened  with  (he  tents  of  s  eenlalors  and  neolot^dsts. 
las  .i^rown  up  a  multitude  of  towns,  tilled  with  thousands  of  people  whose 
ahors  are  performed  at  a  depth  of  lu'arlv  a  mile  under  i,'ron ml.  'I'honsands 
nore  transport  the  nvo.  to  the  ndlls.  separate  the  copper  from  the  roek.  and 
ur  timher  for  the  mines;  while  yet  other  thousund.s  prepare  food  and  eloth- 
nu  and  shidter  for  all  these.  Duriui;-  IS'.I.S,  Iht!  eo|>per  mines  al.«out  l-ake 
■;uperi(U'  produced  nearly  l(il»,0(l(),(Hlo  pounds  of  copper,  and  paid  in  divi- 
, lends  .1ii(Ull(M>(»>. 


TIIK    sKUiilOANT    UO(  K    DUII.I,. 

This  dis.'ict  s  tnc  only  one  in  the  raited  States  where  the  mau-en^'ino 
has  tieen  u  <i!  ;  l)nt  as  the  shai'ts  were  sunk  deejicr  ami  lU'eper.  it  was  tound 
tiial  evi  11  t)  is  nu'thod  was  not  .<uilieiently  rapid,  and  the  men  are  now  low- 
iieil  into  lie  min<'S  liy  ea,t,'es  or  skips.  ^  '  ■.•je"  is  simply  the  miners' 
name  for  lu  ordinary  elevator  when  used  uiiiterj,n'ound.  and  has  ih'vcdoped 
from  the  i.  U'ket  in  use  at  the  i)e,i;'innin;j;  of  the  century.  .\  '-skijr'is  a  ear 
especially  (^esif^ned  for  use  on  an  imdine.  Th-  roadway  upon  which  the  ski|) 
runs  is  sii  planned,  at  the  top  of  ihe  shaft,  that  the  rear  whi'ids  run  upon  a 
liack  raised  aliove  the  one  o\-er  which  the  ir  mt  wheels  pass,  so  that  the  I'car 
liii!  is  (devatcil  at;.!  iln  skip  is  linnipeii  •nilomaiically.  .\t  tlio  I>e  I'.ecrs 
iliamond  mines  in  South  .\frica  <ive  tvi.  of  ti.'sc  skips  whieh  hold  nearly  live 
tuns  of  rock  each.      .*t  the  bottom  of  t  ne  shaft  are  ciintes  containinir  the 


m 


■H 


•4  m 
■  J 


n 


t*lS 


FN 


.m- 


! 

■I, 

I! 

'' 

1 

4 

,11. 

.M  ■■.,1 

■■ :  h 

1 

(1  f  1' '  1 

If 

!1 

!=^! 

11.1  ' 

il 

1 

''1 

iii- 

'^1 

; 

i! 

"Ito^ 


676         TRIUMPHS   AXh    n'ONDI'JJlS   OF   Tnii   XIX'"  CENTUItV 

I'dcU,  and  when  tlic  skip  is  in  jiositioii  a  jiiaii  pulls  a  lever,  ailowinj;  the  ore 
t(j  run  inlo  it.  Aiinllier  pull  closes  tlie  chute,  a  V)uttou  is  touclied  w  hidi 
rin;.,'s  a  i)cll  in  the  eni^ine-ronni.  and  tlie  ski|i  starts  up  the  sliai't.  At  the  tup 
it  duiiips  itself  and  returns  to  lie  tilled  ai^ain.  In  the  mean  tinu'  the  other 
skip  has  been  tilled  and  is  L;oin'^'  up  while  tiie  first  is  coiuiui,'  down.  With 
these  two  ski[)S.  making  niuetv-two  irijis  an  hour,  over  lour  thousand  tons  ol 
rock  have  lieen  hoisted  in  less  than  twelve  hours.  I'roiu  a  depth  oT  JL'oO  feet. 
To  handle  these  eiinrnious  (plant ities  tremendous  lioistiiig  engines  are 
ustid.  At  the  ("aluniot  and  TIeela  mines  is  a  ])air  of  qnadritplc  expansion 
engines  winch  will  lift  cages,  carryiu'^-  six  tons  of  oi'e.  a  mile  in  a  miiuite  and 
a  half.  The  ".Modoc"  hoist,  liuilt  for  the  Anaconda  .Mining  ('oinpany  of 
liutte.  .Montana,  is  the  largest  h<iist  in  the  world.  It  is  a  di  n!,!('  compound 
beam  engine,  and  is  designed  to  be  used  in  siidiing  to  u  di'ptli  oi  00(10  feel. 


IN(.I.I!SOI.I.  si:ii(;|;ANI'    s  ri.AM  r)l!I  V|:N    AMI   (  ((MIM!i;ssoil. 

This  machine  weighs  foui'  liun(i.ed  tons,  and  has  seven  separate  snlxudinii' 
engines  for  ust;  in  operating  il.  'I'hiidv  id'  it  I  .\n  engine  so  ponderous  t.'i;" 
smaller  engines  an-  necessary  to  ;ip]ily  tli(>  clutches  (hat  set  the  rec'  mi 
motion;  otiicr  eie^iiies  set  the  brakes,  ami  another  re\erses  the  action  i 
need  lie.  .\ll  these  are  coiitrnlled  liy  le\('i's  operated  from  the  engiiieiT 
])latb)rm.  the  '-runner"  having  one  biot  and  seven  hand  levers  t  •  hanille 
liesides  these  there  are  two  indicat(U'  discs,  directly  in  i'roid.  reipiiring  coi  ■ 
staid",  attention,  for  t  hese  show  the  exact  position  o\  the  <Mge  in  the  sh.ii!. 
N'et  such  wonderful  skill  have  the  runners  in  the  control  of  tlrse  verilal  ic 
tl\ing  inachines  iliat  they  instantly  inter])ret  the  complicated  signals.  ;  nd 
droj)  the  cage  with  su(di  exactness  that,  the  ear  of  ore  is  run  from  the  ti.n  I; 
in  the  level  t(i  thi'  track  on  the  cage,  almost  without  a.  jar. 

Nor  is  the  hoist  the  oidy  large  machine  necessary  in  the  e(pii|inieid  of  il 
modern  mining  plant,  for  in  sinking  lo  gnsit  ilepths  vast  (piantities  oi  wai' 
ha\c  to  lie  removed,  'I'lieChapiii  .Mining  Company,  at  iron  .Mountain.  M!i'i 
iiave  one  (d'  the  large-t  pumping  eu'^ines  in  the  world.     Thi-  "iigiiie  is  !o  •;. ' 


'   CESTURY 

,-('i\  iiUowiui,'  till'  on; 
11  is  touclii'tl  whii'li 
r  shiilt.      At  llif  top 

UtMll    tillH'   lilt'  olllt'V 

(iiuiui;-  iloWH.  Wit.li 
i)\ir  thimsand  tons  n| 
depth  of  llT'O  tfft. 
i()istiii;j;  (.■ugiurs  arc 
luadruplc  oxpaiision 
mile  in  a  luiimtc  and 
Minini;-  Company  of 
s  a  di  id;'('  compound 
a  d.'iilh  of  (>0(K)  feet. 


t 


1^ 


KKSSOK. 

separate  suUordinjt' 

lie  so  ])ondi'rous   1  i;' 

Itliat    set   till'   ivr'     Ml 

'vcrsi's   tlif   ad  ill',    i 

from  the  cip^ir.'"'! 
lud    level's    I  ■    liatldlr 

front.  KMpiiiin--  >■( 


|ie   <'a|4e    in    tlie   s 
if  til'  se  veri 


lial 
tal/l 


iilieateil 


■iuxnals.  Ml' 


is  n 


111  from  till 


tlM' 


the  e(iuipiiient  of  il 
■-t  (piantities 


i!  will' 


I  roll 

lih:. 


M.iuntain.  >1 
"iiLjine  is  !n" 


.   % 


m 


iii  ■',^11, 


,;  it 


VA 


i^lMii 


Hi 


i  III  \" 


k'- 


I,  ,1 


.  111! 
ill 


II 


■ill 


i|i|! 


I?*  5 

Mi 

■,i 


iri     'I 


i: 

ii'! 
i.  ■, 

II 

(.1, 

i 

■iv:  ■ 

h 

i..!);i] 

■I  ■ 

l„i    .' 

i 

i;-1U| 

1^*1 


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(I, I 


ti. 


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it 


57H  TltlUMI'lIS   AND    WOXI>liIiS   OF  TUIC  A/A'"   CKyTUIlY 

(111  tiic  siirlui'c.  drivim;'  the  piiiuiis  iiltor  tlic  Coriiisli  style.  t!i(iiit;li  it  would  In- 
(litliciilt  ti)  sfc  iiHicli  1)1'  tlu!  imiiiii  of  lISOl  in  this  in;i,y;iiiticciit  niiicliiiif.  With 
;i  ti'ii-I'dot  sli'okc  it-  conveys  the  |H)\ver  to  the  pniiips  thi'oii,i;li  ii  wiilUinj^  lieiiiu 
wei<,'hiiit,'  :i  linndreil  tons.  In  an  hour  it  will  raise  nearly  L'OO.OOd  _t,rjdlons  oi 
WMter  li'oni  a  de|ith  of  ;i  i|iiailer  of  a  mile. 

Iiuii'^iiie  the  niiiier  of  l.SdO  ••  softeiiin;,'  by  tire  "' sn'Mcieiit  ore  to  su|i|)l\  ;i 
iiioderii  hoist.  l''or  the  mines  which  now  turn  out  L'OOO  tons  ;i  dav  c;in  li\'  im 
means  he  counted  on  one's  Jint,'ers.  and  L'<MH>  tons  nieiins  more  thiin  ;i,  fool 
deep  over  ii  whole  city  block,  liefore  the  middle  (d'  the  ceiiliiry  the  use  oi 
iwwder  and  drill  luui  lart^ely  increased,  and  in  ISlTi  an  attempt-  was  made 
to  aid  the  man  iiehind  the  drill  with  a  ma(diiiit(  which  swniit,' a  liamnier  li\ 
steam  power.  In  I.SCm  a  machine  was  invented  nsiii};'  compressed  air  in  ,i 
cylinder,  and  tiiis  was  gradually  improved  until  it  became  a  success  in  ISdj. 
in  the  .Mont  Ceiiis  tu-uiel.  As  linally  employed,  the  power  drill  is  ]iracticall\ 
a  small  engine,  the  drill  being  attached  to  tlie  jiiston  rod  and  moved  rapidl\ 


iNiii;ifsoi,i.-si;ii(:i:ANT  stkaioiit  i.i.nI';  ami  i(i.Mrnr.ssoi{. 

back  and  forth  liy  com])ress»'d  air  or  .steam.  The  inacliiiu^  lias  throe  fuin- 
lious:  to  strike  the  blow,  turn  tlio  drill,  and  advance  it,  as  tlie  hole  is  drivi n 
deeper  and  deeper. 

Soon  after  the  machine  drill  became  a  success  dynamite  was  iiivonted.  ami 
these  two  have  been  the  greatest  factors  in  bringing  about  that  rapid  develoji- 
inent  and  pioduction  wliieli  is  the  most  pronouiu^'d  attribute  of  modern  iiiin- 
ing.  Dynamite  alone  has  doubled  the  amount  of  ore  wliicdi  can  be  extradnl 
from  a  face  in  a  given  time.  Le  Neve  Foster,  in  his  work  on  mining,  gives 
the  rate  of  advance  in  driving  a  tunnel  by  lire  setting  at  two  i'athom>  \»'\ 
month.  ('om|pare  with  this  the  Niagara  Falls  tunnel,  driven  with  pow.r 
drills  and  high  explosives.  '.\\'2  feet  in  four  weeks. 

It  is  probably  to  the  power  drill  more  than  to  anything  else  that  we  inv 
indebted  for  the  development  of  the  air  compi'cssor:  the  exhiiust  froin  a 
steam  drill  and  the  heat  emitted  from  the  pipes  being  very  disagrecaiMC 
underground.  .\s  early  as  ISdU  a  Welsh  engineer  had  attempted  to  Kin  a 
blast  by  means  (d'  a  water  |iower  a  mile  and  a  half  distant,  luit  it  was  "t 
tintil  lS(i.~>  thai  machines  were  operated  to  any  extent  by  compressed  v. 
The  great  ditliculty  had  been  the  loss  ot  etliciency.  owing  to  the  ehaia  i- 
spaces  and  the  heating  of  the  air.     in  driving  the  .Mont  Cenis  tun  lel     'it 


/"   CKNTUllY 


THE  CEyrunrs  rnof.nijss  ix  mixes  a\d  MiNixa      r,79 


11(1  and  luovi'tl  lapiill.N 


(MruKssou. 


iiicliiiit'  lias  [\\vov  tun 
it,  as  the  holt'  is  driv. 


ii'i  jitT  ci'iit    (if  tln'  powfi' (lcv('l(i|ic(l  was  availalilc,  and   ii|i  to  l.SSO  the  ctli- 

:t'iii\y   was  cxlrciiicly  low;  init    to-dav  as  hij,di  as  S(»  per  cciil  is   ohtaiiicd. 

'  Ik!  ail"  coiiiiircssor  is  simply  a    Idicc   |piiiiip  with   iiii^fuioiis  devices  to  over- 

,iiine  the  loss  oi Ciieii^y.     i''(ir  (ndiuai'V  use  tiie  air  is  coiiiipressed  to  a  picssurt^ 

1  troiM  (lO  to  SO  pounds   per  s(piare  iiicii.     Tins   is  done  in  a   sin^^de  e\  liiider 

ir  low  pressures,  hut.  tor  hii^ii    pressures  two  eylindeis  ai'e  used,      {''rdui  the 

...lupressor  the  air  is  conducted  to  a  reservoir,  Iroiii  whiidi  it-  is  pijied  to  the 

.achiue  whi(di  it,  is  to  run. 

( »iie  (d'  the  advautai^-es  of  air-driven  machines  under  i^round  is  that  the 
,  xhaust  furnishes  fresh  air  to  the  miners  and  cools  the  atmospliere.  The 
i.->ult  has  been  that-  in  metal  mines,  where  theif  are  no  uoxions  i^ases 
I  capiiiL?  from  the  ground,  the  exhaust  irom  the  air-drills.  to,t,'ether  with  the 
iMtural  air  currents,  has  su]iplicd  sullicient  ventHation.  In  the  coal  mines, 
however,  it    has  heen   ne(;essary  to  employ  other  means.     After  it  was  found 


ii 


i     : 


m 


iN"oKi{s(ii,r,-siaaiKANr  mi-i.Kx  stkamduiven  aiii  <  ompkcssok. 


Iiniitc  was  invented,  ainl 

bout  that  rapid  devclo].- 

Ittribute  of  modern  unn- 

whi(di  ean  be  extrad'  '1 

W(U'k  on  iuiuiu;4'.  l;'^''^ 

|in','  at  two  fathoms  pi  r 

■1,  driven   with   \n>\\rv 

vthiu!,'  else  that  we  :'ii' 


liad  attempted  t( 


|eut    by  compressed 

iwini:  to  the  ch  ar; 

|.Mont  Cenis  tnn  lel 


ill, It.  even  with  tlie  safety-lam]».  jjjas  would  be  exjiloded  if  a  lar^e  amount  of 
I!  had  accunndated.  more  attention  was  jiaid  to  ventilation.  Levels  and 
-liiifts  were  divided  to  pi'oduee  a  natural  current;  the  size  of  the  drifts  was 
(■;ii-cfully  lij;'iir(.'d  in  order  to  r(\i;-ulate  it  ;  doors  wei'e  ]iut  in  to  comjiel  it  to 
fnllow  the  faces;  devices  were  adopted  to  split  iv.  a  jiart  uniie^  to  one  room, 
I  lie  remainder  to  ;i  secoml;  and  boxes  were  built  to  cairy  one  current  across 
iiiiollier.  Karly  in  the  century  hand  fans  run  by  a  \i  heel  and  pinion  had 
lircii  employeil  for  forcin;.;'  the  air  down  the  shaft,  but  ii  \\a.>  soon  found  that 
liir  circuhition  produced  in  this  way  was  inferior  to  the  result  of  e(iuetion. 
l,;M,;e  furuaees  were  then  constructed  at  the  hoitoni  of  the  upcast  shafts,  in 
oilier  to  cause  a  strong'  iipward  cui'icnt.  Av^ain.  hii'^e  ;iir  pumps,  run  by 
iii.H  liinery,  weri'  tried  for  exhaustiun'  the  aii'.  I'.y  ]S'>i)  exhanst  fans  were 
i'"iiiin;.f  into  use.  and  these,  occasionally  replaced   hy  blowers,  also  \\>{'t\   for 

i\ii;iustin<;f,  are  now  j^fcnerally  employed.     'I'he  (Juilial.  which   has  1 n   the 

iii"-t  ]irominent  of  the  fans,  has  been  made  as  lari^e  as  foity-six  feet  in 
il;:iineter.     The  ( 'apell,  which   is  an   improved    form   of   the  (luilial.  has  six 


'r'i 


I'-';' 

Ml' 


,!  rUii 


i    i;Jl.!.j                   ;;, 

ill  If 

580         TRir.MI'lls   AM)    WOXD/cnS   OF   Till-:   MX'"   I'KSTUIiY 

(Mirvt'd  veins,  or  hladt's,  iiinl  is  iiiiidc  i'niiii  cij^lit  Icct,  to  lii'tci'ii  Icct  in  (liiiinc 
tiT.  It  is  driven  (piite  nipidlv.  UKikinj;  Iriini  one  Inindred  ;ind  eiglitv  In  tlire 
Inmdved  revohitions.  mid  liavini,'  :i  ciiiiaeilv  td'  I'mni  tme  liundicd  tlionsand 
1,(1  tiiree  Inindred  tlmnsaiid  eiiliil  I'ei't  nf  air,  per  niiinile.  Tlie  result,  oi'  \\\\> 
tlioidui^li  ventilation  is  that  the  ijas  is  renniNed  irmn  the  mine  almost  mn 
rapidlv  as  it  enters,  and  ol'ten  the  sal'ety-iami)  is  no  lon,L,'er  nei'ded  1)\  the 
eoiiiiiioii  niiiii'r.  Nevertlieless.  it,  has  liv  no  means  become  useless,  sine 
a>  an  mdieator  of  the  |ireseiiee  id'  i;;as  it  is  iiivalnahle.  'I'lie  aetioiiid'  tin 
dit't'erent  lamps  in  the  presence  of  gas  varies,  lint  in  '^'eiieral  the  si/.e  ot 
the  tlanie  increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  amount  m| 
gas  mixed  with  the  air.  Kach  morning,  iudore  the  men  go  to  woiU.  tlir 
tire  boss  takes  his  safelydanip  and  makes  the  round  of  the  mine.  When  he 
goes  into  a  room  he  \val(dies  the  tiame,  and  if  it  Imrns  np  to  tin'  point  wliic 
indicates  that  it  would  not  lie  safe  tn  enter  with  a  naked  light,  he  rnake^ 
a  mark  on  the  wall  which  serves  as  a  danger  line  bevond  wliiidi  the  men  dn 
not,  go. 

.\notlier  machiiu'.  whicli.  like  the  fan.  lias  liecn  developed  bv  llie  demands 
o\  the  coal  mines,  is  the  coal-cntting  machine.  I'robably  the  lot  of  no  man 
was  as  hard  as  that  (d  the  coal-digger  at  the  beginning  (d'  the  century.  Allfi 
lie  had  perbu'ined  the  dangerous  task  id'  exploding  the  accumulated  gast^. 
'  v\as  (d'ten  lorced  to  work  all  day  lying  in  the  mosf  constrainetl  att  itudi 
.\pplicd  in  this  manner,  his  power  was  largely  wasted,  and  mnidi  us(dess  du^t 
•iiid  --mail  coal  was   produced.     'I'lic  first  effort  at  riditd'  was  a  machine  whuli 

dat  i..c  miuei'.  strikinu  a  blow  with  a  pick  wmked  by  a  lever,  and  mak- 
ing a-  iiigh  as  seveniy  blows  a  minute.  These  have  been  gcncriiUy  replai  r(l 
by  cpnie  another  type  (d'  marhine.  one  which  dcjiends  on  flie  action  id'  eitlur 
a  I'otai'x  bar.  a  rotai'y  wheel,  or  a  (diain  cuttei'.  These  nundiines  arc  opeialed 
li\  cither  air  or  clc<'t  licity.  The  .lid'frey  rotary  bar  cutler  will  umlerent  a 
Mock  of  coal  tliirty-idnc  in,  lies  by  lilty four  iiu'hes  in  six  minutes.  Tlic 
(diain-cutier  is  an  endless  chain  carrying  cutting  knives  ;iud  trav(ding  Imii- 
/ontally.  It  is  (daiined  that  these  ma(diincs  will  efi'eef  a  saving  of  about  li'ii 
cents  a  ton  in  the  cost  ol'  mining. 

When  in  IS|S  ihe  tiiiding  of  gold  in  Califonna  was  reported,  followed  in 
iSol  In  the  discovery  of  the  .\ustralian  ti(dds,  large  nuiubers  of  men  wric 
attracted  to  the  placer  mines,  who  later,  as  the  jilacers  became  exliaustc(|. 
turned  thidr  attention  to  vein  mining.  Noi' diil  hydraidie  mining  ifsidl' i.iil 
to  progress.  When  the  placers  were  first  discovered,  the  miner,  sfainling  in 
the  shallow  stream.  wa>lied  the  graved,  a  jianful  at  a  time,  and  secured  fioia 
tiflecn  to  twenty-live  (hdlars  a  day.  .\s  the  placers  became  poorer  he  bmit 
sluices,  and.  shoveling  in  his  gravid,  turned  the  stream  in  to  wash  oil  the 
light  ro(d<.  wdiile  the  heavy  gold  was  caught  in  the  interstices  Ix'twccn  Ihc 
blocks  with  which  lie  had  jiaved  thebottdiii.  If  the  gi'ound  became  cla\  .v. 
he  brought  part  of  the  water  through  a  hose  and  used  it  to  break  up  tin' 
lumps  in  his  sluice  box.  Then  as  he  gradually  removed  the  graved  an.i  ilic 
banks  about  him  became  higher,  he  liirncd  his  hose  toward  the  bank  cd 
brought  more  water  from  a  higher  levid.  until,  to  (piote  Howie,  "a  fort\ -iu'li 
wrought-iron  pipi'  has  been  substituted  for  canvas  hose  and  a  stoveiiipr,  n'ld 
an  inch  stream  reidai'cd  by  a  river  of  water  disidiargi'd  through  a  niin'  i  -li 
no/./le  uiidor  a  four-humlred-i'oot  pressure."     \\\  this  moans,  at  North  Id i- 


'"   CESrUUY 

>  liftvcii  I't't't  ill  diaiiu' 
■I'd  ;iii(l  «'iKlity  to  tlircr 
)iio  IiuikIiimI  tlimisiiiiii 
t.c.      'riic  result,  of  t lu- 
ll   the   mint'  ;iliin»t   :i^ 

IdlllitT  IH'Cllcij  li\  tilc 
liccoliii'  useless,  siiicr 
le.  'I'lie  ai't  lull  ol  llir 
M  <^M'iiei'al  the  si/.e  nl 
ase  ill  the  aiiioiint  "I 
men  Lji'  t"  wniU.  till' 
r  tlie  lllilie.  When  lir 
;  U|i  to  llie  [idiut  wllirli 
naked  lit^lil.  ln'  makt"- 
(111(1  wliicli  the  men  d" 

ehiped  liy  llie  demand-; 
l)aliiv  tlie  lilt,  of  no  iii;iii 
•  ol'  the  cenlury.  .\il<  r 
l,he  acciiiiiulated  .uasrs. 
st;  constrained  attitudr 
.  and  niiieh  useless  du--t 
d'  was  a  ma(dune  wlm  li 
•d  by  a  lever,  and  mak 
iieen  i;-enerally  replanil 

on  the  action  td'  eilln  r 
iiKudiines  are  oiieialcd 

cutler  will   uiidereiil   ;i 


ill   six  minutes. 


I 


Ives  a 


lid    traveliii;_r  linii 


I'll 


It  a  saviiiL!;  ol'  about  t 

^   reported,  I'ollowed 

numbers  of  men  wiic 

I'crs  became  exhaiisii'il. 


Ill 


aulic  miniii!. 


Use 


the  nil 


ner.  standiie^'  n 


jiiiie.  and   secured  fif:  i 

jbecaiiie  lioort'r  he  bnul 

nil  in   to  wash  oil   tin' 

Interstices   between   i'k' 

;rouiiil  became  clav '  \. 

mI   it    to  breaU   up  li^' 


'■ravel  aii'i  mh 


■ed    tl 
toward   the  bank 


Ic   llowie 


"  a.  f(U't  v-i!  •  li 


|e  ami  a  stove|ii|" 
Id  thnmi^di  a  niiu 
iR'ans,  at  North  !'. 


t\ 


i':il 


In 
ii 
I 


( 


'/M 


nH'2 


TuirMi'iis  AM)  ]\(>xn/ci!s  OF  riiK  xix'ii  cEsrvnY 


licld,   Cal..    lu'iirly  ii  niillioii  y;irils  of  ;^fnivrl.  mMtiiiiiiir,'  hut    two  iiiid   iiiii 
iciillis  ct'iils  per  ciiltic  viinl.  was  iiinvcd  in  a  siii,i,di'  srasmi.  ami  at  a  |ni)tit. 

As  lilt'  liaiiks  lircainc  iMiortT.  tlic  miiii'i's  tiinicil  tlicir  attciitiuii  to  llic  I'ivc 
lirils.  Ill  New  Zcalaiiil,  in  lln-  I'arly  da\s.  lliry  wcnkcil  tJic  lianUs  as  t'a 
(idwii  into  the  river  as  tlii'v  foiild  rciudi  uitli  a  >|)(M)n  dicdi;!'.  'I'licii  a  dnid^r 
was  made  rt'scnihliiit;'  a  laildt'r  id'  hindicls,  fontinnallv  rcMilviii!;'.  and  n|»'i 
atcd  hy  wlii'cis  driven  liy  the  eiiireiit.  When  tlie  river  i;( it  low  liie  eiirren 
lii'eaiiie  too  weak,  and  a  steam  eiij^ine  was  siihstitiiled.  'i'lieii  a  levolvin 
screen  was  put  on  to  so]);irate  the  lar.^e  rocks  Iroiu  the  line  saml.  and  ^'radi 
ally  till'  inoderii  dipjier  drodijje  has  been  evolved,  with  its  puiiips,  screei 
distiiliutois.  and  tables  and  sluices,  liaiidliii;;-  L'tMIO  yards  ol'  j,navel  a  day  a 
a  tMist  (d'  three  cents  a.  yard. 

Ill  iS.'iK  the  Coni.-tock  lode  in  Nevada  was  diseoVered.  and  it  is  lo  tliis  di> 
Irict  that  we  owe  the  "sipiare  set"  method  ol'  t  iniheriii'^.  so  largely  in  vol;u 
in  wide  veins  to-day.  Some  of  the  •' lionanzas."  that  is.  |  'kets  id'  rich  ori 
were  of  enornioiis  si/e.  l'"or  example,  one  loiiiid  in  the  "(ioiild  and  Curry 
was  |(I0  I'eet  loii.u'.  <^"  l«'t't  wide,  and  l(>()  fee!  doPp.  As  the  walls  were  no 
sullicient'.y  solid  to  >taiid  unsupported,  ami  a  siii,L,de  sti(d\  of  timber  was  to' 
short  to  reaidi  across,  splicini,'  was  tried.  It  was  soon  I'ouiid  that  this  weak 
oiied  tlu>  timber  too  nimdi,  and  the  hum  hod  ol'  sipiare  ••  sett  iii^ "'  was  inventeij 
This  consists  in  rramiiit^  timbers  to,!:;etlier  in  rectani,Milar  sets.  liaviii<^  a  S(piaii 
base  (d'  I'oiir  pieces,  usually  six  I'ect-  loiiir,  placeil  liori/oiitally  as  sills.  Inli 
tlies(!  are  rraiiied  posts,  surmounted  by  a  cap  of  four  additional  timbers  wliirl 
liecoiiic  the  base  lor  the  next  set.  The  limbers  j-.re  usually  tw(dve  iiiclie 
sipiare.  and  cost  on  the  Comstoek  about  .SI<>  a  set.  I'^rom  1S7<>  to  IS'.M  then 
is  said  to  have  been  used  up  on  the  I'omstock  L'0(>,()0()  acres  of  forest,  valiici 
at  .<;-l."),(tO(>.(KK». 

The  amount  of  timber  which  is  consumed  under  ground  in  a  siiifj;]e  vi'.ii 
must  be  enormous.  Mr.  (".  \V.  (loodale  estimates  that  in  I'.iitte  alone,  ii 
ISO.I.  .'>7..")0().(M)()  feet,  eipial  to  ,".7.")(t  carloads,  were  used  in  the  mines.  A- 
tlie  timber  decays  in  from  five  to  lifteeii  years,  and  has  to  be,  replaced,  elToit- 
are  constantly  directed  toward  decreasiiiLj  tlie  large  e.xjiense  wliich  is  tliu- 
continually  recurring.  In  shafts  ami  levels  for  pei'maiieut  use  iron  is  ;iii 
economical  substitute.  Wherever  possible,  new  methods  of  mining  are  beni.; 
introduced.  Thus  in  the  Lake  Superior  iron  regions,  the  mine  d(>velo])iie!it 
is  i)laimed  along  lines  almost  unheard  of  ten  years  ago.  In  the  lirst  phicH 
the  gravel  which  overlies  the  ore  is  strip]ied  oi'f,  even  if  it  is  iil'ty  feet  tlml;. 
'I'his  is  done  with  steam  shovcds,  whiidi  load  the  gravel  u]ioii  cars.  TlirM- 
are  then  pulled  away  by  one  locomotive  while  a  second  jdaces  new  "(MU|itii-" 
in  position  to  be  tilled.  One  shovel  will  load  from  \T){\  to  17r»  cars  a  d:iy; 
that  is.  will  take  from  ."iodO  to  loOO  tons  of  dirt  from  the  sides  of  the  pit  iiml 
]iut  it  Upon  the  cars.  This  method  obviates  the  u.so  of  timber  for  holdiiii;  up 
the  surface. 

.\frer  the  overlying  gravel  is  removed,  should  the  conditions  be  favtM'alilr. 
the  ore  is  taken  out  with  a  shovel.  If  this  cannot  he  done,  some  iiieiihid 
de|ieiidiiig  on  rock-tilling  is  adopted.  At  the  Auburn  mine,  after  stripr  ii,' 
and  ilriving  the  lev(ds,  raises  are  made  to  the  surface  at  intervals  of  ali"iit 
tifty  feet,  the  ore  broken  down  around  them,  starting  :it  the  surface,  iiiil 
dropjied  dt)wn  through  them.     This  leaves  openings  in  the  shape  (d'  inveh'il 


V"   CHSTriiV 


UU'. 


but   two  mill  mil 


isoii,  iiuil  ill  ii  l>ri 


.111. 


ir  ;i 


tlciitiiiii  to  tin'  r\\*-v 


(licdi^c 


till 


'riicii  a  ilnitl^'c 


lUt'd   thf    liiuiks  as 


ilviir. 


,\\  icvnlviii;^.  iind  i>i.cr- 
Acr  j4<it   li'W  '!"'  •••iiTi'iit 
ted.     'IMh'Ii   a  n'V( 
lir  line  s;iuil.  ami  ^'railu 
vitli    its   jdiiiiiis,  screen, 
•iinls  nl'  i^riavel  a  day  ;ii 


re( 
rill '4.  SI 


I,  and  it,  is  to  tliis  di>- 

laii^ely  ill  vuiiiU' 

t    is.  1     -kets  I'l'  vieli  "1I-. 

the  "(iould  and  Curry  " 

As  the  walls  were  in'l 

stiidv  1)1'  timlter  was  tnu 

i'oiiiid  that,  this  weiik 

•set till!.;"''  was  iiivente'l. 

lar  sets,  liavini;  a  sqii;!!" 


on 


.rizimtally  as  sills.  Im 
;iddit,ii>iial  tiuiliers  whir 
Iv  twelve   iiii'hi 


ve  usiKi 


From  ISTOti.  IS'.II  thn. 
)()  aeres  of  forest,  valiu  i 


•rrouiid  in  a  siiu 


de  vr:ir 


that  in   l>iitte  alone,   iii 

used  ill  the  mines.      A- 

las  to  lit!  ri'iilaeed.  olTnil- 

i'  exiiense  wliieh  is  thu- 

'rinaiicnt  use  iron  is  ,ii 


ods  of  niininj;  an 


h 


■!  a  HO. 


the  mine  din-{'lo]iin.;il 
In  the  first  pliKi' 
■n  if  it  is  fifty  I'eot  tlnrk. 
jravid  u]ioii  ears. 


IlI'M' 


lid  iilaces 


now  "emptii'- 


\r,{)  to  li.>  oars  a  Mmv; 

the  sides  of  tlie  liit  iiii'l 

if  timlier  for  holdinu  ii]' 


conditions  be  favor: 
it  be  done,  some  nn 


I  '.,<'{ 


iru  mi 


ace 


lie,  after  strippiu,' 

It -lit 


at  intervals  of 
|tin;4  at  tlie  surfac 
ill  the  shai 


le  o 


f    111V> 


>      i 


i 


>w 


ji 

,4 


'M   ;i. 


ww^ 


I 


II.  I  h.; 


l:' 


581  TIiniMl'IlS   AM)    WOMt/'JliS    OF   TIIH   XIX'"  CliSTUItY 

('(iiit's,  haviii!,'  their  hascs  iit   the  surriicf.     Additional   raises  are  then  niatU' 
liall'way  between  liie  otiieis.  and  the  I'emainiiiL;'  inaierial  extraiited. 

At  the  I'"ayal  mine  tliey  take  nut  nuinis  t\\enly-l(Mir  I'eet  \.'i(l()  hy  three 
hundred  I'eet,  Innj;',  with  a,  twenty-lcnr-i'iMit  pillar  between  tiieni.  'I'iiese 
I'lMinis  lire  rairied  \\\\  tVoni  the  tiist  level  to  the  siirtaee.  and  tilled  with  ^'ravel 
wiiicli  is  run  in  Imui  almve.  'I'lieii  the  pillars  are  nuned  hy  •  slieini;  and 
eavin.;;"  that  is.  hy  iiiunini;- diit'ts  alnni^  t  he  sides  ol'  the  pillai'  and  eavini^' 
the  ore  down  limu  the  lodi'.  Altei'  reiudviii!^  this  ure  another  drill  is 
run,  the  foot  caved,  and  aimlher  slice  taken  dlt'.  It  is  claimed  the  saviui,' 
in  timber  by  iisin;;'  this  method  amounts  to  ten  ciMits  on  each  ton  of  ore 
mined. 

All  of  these,  and  many  other  inventions,  have  conslantly  ti'iided  to  de- 
ci'case  niiniii','  costs.  \v\  the  industry  is  carried  on  to-day  in  so  many  oiit-cd- 
t he-way  places,  aini  iiiHler  sncii  varying'  conditions,  that  the  cost  jier  ton  ot 
tlie  ore  mined  vacillates  lictwceii  wi(h'  extremes.  .\s  an  exam|ile  of  what 
can  be  accomjilislicd.  working'  on  a  larijre  scale,  and  where  supplies  are  easily 
and  (piickly  obtained,  the  .\tlantic  mine,  in  .Michi'^an.  may  lie  mentioned. 
'I'liis  mine  prodiiccii.  in  i.S'.IS.  ,'!7(>.(MI0  tons  ot  ore.  at  a  cost  of  sixty-six  cents 
per  ton. 

"\\'ith  all  tliese  wonderi'id  advances  in  min(-  mechaincs.  ein^incerine'.  vcnti- 
hilion,  and  li_nhlinj,f,  have  come  the  foundation  and  development  of  minima 
sehddls.  the  rise  of  technical  societies.  a,nd  a  i^eneral  .governmental  recoL^ni- 
lion  of  the  im])ortance  of  the  industry.  It  is  not  so  very  far  back  in  tln' 
] U'cced i n '.^-  century  that  we  lind  aiiioniL;'  the  statutes  of  l']n,u;laml  the  follow 
\\\\i:  "Stealing'  ore  out  of  mines  is  no  lai'i'cny,  except  only  those  id'  black 
lead,  the  slealin;^'  ore  out  oi'  which  is  felony  without  bcnelit  of  clert^y."  it 
would  be  iutercstiuLr  to  know  the  name  of  the  <.rentlemaii  who  owned  the 
black-lead  mine.  for.  in  modern  parlance,  he  certaiidy  ••had  a  lUiU."  ]!\ 
is."!,'!  minin,^-  Ic.u'islation  had  so  far  progressed  in  ]Mi,i;laiid  that  laws  were 
enacted  rcLitdatiii;^'  the  employnuMit  oi'  children  under  ifidund.  In  this  coun- 
try, in  IS.'KI.  a  state  ueoloi^ical  survey  was  iuaunurateil  by  Arassaohusetts, 
and  this  institution  lias  since  been  copied  by  many  States.  'I'lie  majority  ol 
the  States  where  miuini,'  is  cairied  on  have  nassed  laws  toiidiu,!,'  to  increase 
the  safety  of  men  workiii,ij;  under  j^rouml. 

.Vbroad,  carefully  lU'cpared  codes  describe  the  inetliod  of  lease  or  sale  of 
miuiiiL;'  rights,  and  deline  the  ri<;lits  of  owners  of  ground.  In  this  countr\ 
the  first  le,Ljislation  of  this  character  was  in  1S(>7,  when  the  i^overnment  miih 
•  ■ral  bcarin,t;'  lauds  were  withdrawn  from  sale  and  (U'dercd  leased.  In  IS.'ll 
the  miners  refused  to  ])ay  the  royalty,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  illegal 
entries,  anil  in  iSITthe  lauds  were  opened  to  sale.  It  was  not  until  iSdCi. 
after  tifteen  years  of  self-government  among  the  miners  of  the  West,  that 
Congress  earnestly  undertook  to  regulate  the  acquisition  of  mining  titles  on 
the  public  domain.  Leagues  beyoml  the  towns,  miles  from  the  nearest  roads, 
hurrying  from  the  scene  of  one  excitement  to  another,  pushed  by  the  crowd 
of  constantly  arriving  adventurers,  with  surveyors  unobtainable  and  eourt- 
not  accessible,  ahnost  without  tinu'  to  measure,  and  in  a  region  .ibsolutcl\ 
nidocatable,  it  had  been  impossible  for  the  miner  of  the  West  to  secure  j 
legal  title  to  his  land  as  contemplated  by  the  act  of  1S47.  Accordingly,  ihei' 
had  grown  up  tin;  custom  which  gave  to  the  discoverer  of  a  lode  the  right  !■ 


7EMZ 


n 


'  CESTUltY 


Tin-J  <7;.v77  7.'}'.s  i'i:o(ini:ss  is  mises  asd  Misisa      585 

;t  ciM'tiiiii   Ifii-t.li  of  it,  ;iii<l  it  WHS  this  ri-jlit  which  \v;is   ivc(i,i,Mii/iMl  l>y  Coii- 
.i,'r('ss.  and  lircMiiir  the  iiasis  ol  tlii'  law  nf  isCiC. 

So  far  (Mir  storv  has  l.n-ii  <.t  iii(.,'rrss.  l)iit  wiial  shall  W(!  say  ol  the  ai'tioii 
(i|  CoiiLTiTss.  which,  ill  1.S7L'.  aliro-jatcil  this  law  ami  swlistitiitcd  U^v  it  tiu" 
ipiolitic  lirccdci'  (,|  liti;^'aiinii  called  the  law  of  the  apex  '.'  'I'o  iiudic  Dr.  Itay- 
inmid:  •• 'riic  h'adiii.i,'  cliaraclciistic  diltVrs  Ifom  ;dl  pivviniis  iiiiiiiiij,'  laws  (d' 
this  (If  any  other  cdiniliy.  'IJic  did  ri-hl  (d'  discovery,  which  was  the  liasis 
"f  tlui  uuiicr's  title  ddwii  t(.  Is?:.',  lias  dwindled  under  the  pivsent  law  to  a 
iKiiiiiiial  iuii.ortaiice.  it,  is  true  tJiat  the  discovery  (d  the  lode  within  tlus 
claim  is  made  a  |irero(iiiisit('  to  location.  I'.iit,  the  rij,dit  to  i(dlow  the  lode  ill 
(U'lith  heyoiul  tlit!  side  lines  df  the  clniii  (ie|.cnds  no  longer  u|Min  liaviic^  dis- 
covered it.  but  on  haviii'^'  in(dude(l  ns  top.  or  apex,  in  tlie  surl'ace  survey." 
Should  the  miner  he  so  lortunale  as  to  hfivi;  a  vein  which  outcrops  plainly  on 


'■^i 


i^  i 


I 


'•il 


;laiid  that  laws  were 
(iiiiid.  Ill  this  ooiiii- 
d  liv    Massaohuseits. 


,-s  tendiii''-  to  increase 


\{\  of  lease  or  sale  ol 
1.  In  this  count i\ 
le  e-ovcrnmi'iit  miii- 
(I  leased.  In  1n;;I 
Lu'c  nunilier  (d'  illeuid 
|r  was  not  until  ISCiCi. 
^  ot  the  West,  that 


nil  the  iii'iirest  roads. 

pushed  by  the  erowii 
IhtaiiKilile  iind  court- 
re^qoii  absolutely 
Ihe  West  to   secure  ;i 

.     Aeeordiiiii;ly.  >heii 

)!'  a  lode  the  riuht  t' 


'nil:  I'dwiai  I'l.wr   \r  .ii;i:omi:  i-mik.   \.  y. 

(Injicr-cill  Scrp/;iiit  lliiplcx  <',,rli--  ( '.iihIimi-Iii:,'  Air  ( 'cuiiiirc^sor,) 

the  surface,  ho  may  stake  out  the  ','r(piind  without  ditliculty.  so  th:it  the  vein 
crosses  the  end  lines.  Hut  if  his  vein  does  not  ap]>ear  on  the  surlace.  and  ho 
fails  to  j,'U(^ss  its  direction  C(U'rectly.  and  finds,  on  developin.Ej,  tliat  it  does 
imt  cross  the  end  lines  (d  ids  idaim.  he  is  suddenly  cut  olf  I'mm  all  extra- 
lateral  ri<,dits.  ( >r  should  he.  in  Iayiii<,'  out  Ids  lines  aloiii,'  the  roie^li.  precipi- 
tous mountain-side,  tail  to  make  hi-^  end  lines  jiarallel.  he  aL;ain  finds  his 
ri<,dits  limited.  N(m- 'has  this  law  been  made  clearer  by  court  decisions.  buC 
iMlher  it  has  been  coiiiplicate(|. 

Certainly  this  is  a  peculiar  condition  of  .affairs.  Tin  century  whiidi  has 
witnessed  an  advance  from  the  liaz(d  md  to  the  diamond  drill,  from  the  spade 
tti  the  steam  shovel,  fron  fire  <(>iteiiiii'_'  t<i  dynamite  shatteriiiL;' :  a  century 
ihiriiit^  wlii(di  a  (diimsy  car  piislicii  over  east-iroii  rails  by  a  boy  has  i^rown  to 
;i  caMe  train,  and  a  twodiundrc(l-pouiid  Ixicket  i-aised  iiv  women  has  (lev(d- 
iipe(l  into  a  six-ton  sidf-dumiiiii',''  >kip  Imi-teil  by  (dectricity;  a  century  produc- 
tive of  new  devices  w1ii(di  tiiniKd  nmuntains.  cross  ravines,  or  sink  tliroim-U 
i|uicksands  with  eijual  etise  ;  a  century  which  has  seen  the  touch  of  a  button 


I 


^. 


ll  t 


til 


\l 


w 


it 


m 


■  I.:  i"i 


pn 


F 


fifto 


rinuMi'iis  .\.\i>  \\'o\ni:i!s  or  rin-:  xix'"  ciiNrunY 


ami  till'  turn  n|  ;i  wliccl  linii!,'  |Hi\v(<r  from  flinty  miU's  auay  ti>  li.;lit  and 
drain  Hif  luiiM'.  as  ucll  as  oiicrati'  tin'  drills  and  imist;  such  a  <'i'ntiirv  (doses 
wifli  a  law  ill  Inrcc  in  tin'  ^^Mcatt'st  niiniiii,' cdiiiitry  in  the  world  whiidi  makt's 
liti,;,Mti(iii  niit'  (if  till'  cxiu'ctcd  sta^'cs  ol  iiiiin'  di'Vflo|iiiiciit. 

At  till'  l)t',i,'iiiiiinj,'  of  tlin  I't'iitiiry  tlic  miiiin^r  en;,'iiii'rr  advisi'd  wlii'iv  to 
sink,  the  inaiiinT  of  working,',  mid  tin'  iiii'tlind  of  dcaliii!,'  with  tlic  water: 
to-day  III'  imist  not  only  he  a  mining,  idvil,  and  hydraulir  expert,  Imt  a  iiie- 
chaiiieal  and  eleet-rieal  eni^dneer.  a  ehemist,  and  a  lawyer. 

Till!  time  was  when  he  who  leseled  forests,  liiiilt  liiiiiself  ii  Inuiie.  and 
l)roiij,'ht  the  land  under  eiiUivatioii.  was  ri'j^arded  as  the  true  nioneer  of  civil- 
ization. Ill  later  times  the  mi,  er  fairly  divides  this  hoii'  Mrsuiii},'  a 
hazardous  oeeiiiiation.  he  has  invaded  most  oiit-id- the  -  wa ,  .oid  desolate 
plai'i'S,  creatiii;,' untold  wealth,  foiiiidin;,' towns  .ind  Slates,  and  invitin',' vast 
and  sulistaiitial  populations.  \\y  his  industry  and  eiiterprisu  ho  lias  not  only 
reveah>d  the  seventy-seven  non-nietallie  nmlerj^round  jiroduots  whieli  in  the 
rnit.od  States  alone,  in  l.S«.«>.  had  a  value  api)roximatiii,i,'  .'$r.()(l.(»()(MM>l».  hut 
the  twelvo  metals  —  prerious  and  useful  —  whose  valuo  in  the  .same  year 
approximated  .'SL'7(>.(>(M».(i(l0.  .\roiinil  his  j,'old  miiu!S  —  deep  and  jdaeer  — 
have  jjrrown  Calilornia,  Nevada,  the  Dakotas.  (Jolorado.  and  even  Alaska; 
while  enii>ires  have  spruiij,'  iiji  at  the  sound  of  his  pick  and  the  introiliietinn 
of  his  niii,dity  niaehinery  in  .Vustralasia  and  South  .Afriea.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  silver  he  has  eoiitrilmted  wealth,  iiopnlatioii.  and  iiistitution.s  to  Col- 
orado. Nevaila,  I'tali.  Montana,  and  Arizona.  His  iron  and  cojijier  mines 
have  t  laiisi'onued  the  harreii  coasts  of  the  (Jrcat  Jiakes.  The  quicksilver 
niiiies  of  Southern  ('alifornia  hrouj^ht  San  .lose  and  other  towns  to  wealth 
and  importance.  In  the  hist(U'y  of  l' reka  and  Leadville.  Col.  'e  have  the 
romance  of  Ixiili  the  gold  and  lead  mine.  .\iid  so.  wliethe  miner  un- 
earths the  (M'cs.  the  coals,  the  wonderful  variety  of  buried  '  ..ds  which 
nature  has  provided  for  the  use  and  comfort  of  mankind,  lio  so  freipiently 
liccomes  the  source  of  wealth,  jiopulatioii.  and  jiermanent  civic  ori,'anizatioii 
JI.S  to  give  him  high  rank  among  the  "true  pioneers  of  civilization." 

(iKoltoK   A.    1*A(  KAlil). 


CKNTUHY 


iNUT    IMiOCillKSS   OK   TIIK   CKNTIHIY 


iiid,  lie  so  frciiufiitlv 
■nt  civic  (ii'i;aiii/ati(iii 


ii;    A.    l'A(  KAIU). 


I.      I'AINIlMi. 

Ar  iin  |)i'ii(i(l  since  liic  l>i'ii;iiss;iiicc  lias  tiicii'  Imtii  >w\\  marked  iho'^tcss 
ill  certain  walks  nf  ait.  as  diiriii;,'  the  pericid  nl  rccdiistiuel  inn  in  the  pipliti- 
<'al.  social,  cconiiniic.  and  a'stlietic  world  inunediattdv  inllowin.,'  llie  h'icncli 
Uevolntion  ol  IT'.tS.  'I'ln- armies  of  l'"rancc.  letnrnin'^'  liom  the  (•<ini|uest,  ot 
JMirope,  hronLclit,  iiome  to  I'aris  tlic  tn  asiircs  ot  art  ravished  i'rom  tiie  ^Mcat 
capital  cities.  'I'lic  vast  |tnltlic  <^'allerics  ami  nnmcrons  private  eidlections 
cslahlislied  under  the  lirst,  Knipiro  contained  accuniiilatioiis  dl  pietiires, 
marliles,  bronzes,  tapestries,  decorations,  and  hric-ii-hrac  l)ron>,'lit  trom  Italy, 
from  (lerniany,  from  the  I,ow  ( 'omdrics.  from  Spain,  and  even  Iroin  linssia 
and  lxi,'ypt.  of  exteiil  and  valne  nnparalleled  in  the  lii>tory  of  the  human  race. 
'I'liese  treasures  wi're  dispersed  under  the  Itesloration  and  returned  tn  theii' 
i'ormer  owners ;  hut.  in  the  meantime,  their  edueat  ional  iidlucnce  upon  the 
people  ol  l''raiicc,  and  esjjccially  of  i'aris.  had  proilu 1  profound  and  perma- 
nent impressions  whi(di  ahide  to  tiiis  day.  To  this  practical  education  af- 
Inrded  liy  the  models  and  examples  ul  all  that  is  uolili'  and  exalted,  gathered 
from  the  L;alleries  and  safe  depusits  cd'  the  civil i/ed  wnrld.  I''rancc  is  piimarily 
indebted  Ini'  that  cultured  skill  and  that  relinement  ol  '^nod  taste  whicii  have 
eualiled  hei'  to  take  ami  holil  hei'  acknciwled;;cd  jMisition  as  the  leading  nation 
in  the  realm  (d'  art  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

At  the  he^^dnnin,!,'  of  tic  century  the  art  (d'  I''rance  was  resting,'  itn'rt  in  the 
bonds  of  (dassic  tradition,  .\cadrmic  cnuventionality  held  almost  undisputed 
sway;  only  a  few  painters  of  portraits,  as.  for  example.  Maihinm  Vi,i,'('e-I,(d)run, 
Isabey,  and  (leiMU'ative  artists  like  (ireuze.  veuturim,'  beyond  tiie  limits  of  the 
liard  and  fast  rules  ])rescribeil  by  s(diolastic  jiedants.  The  oidy  s\d»jccts 
ro<,'arded  as  h',<,'ifi"iate  for  artistic  treatment  were  illustrations  (d'  mytholoiry 
orof  (ireck  or  Homan  literature.  Sacred  pictures  ilhistratini,'  the  I'.iblical 
narratives  ami  lives  of  the  saints  were  ]iermitted  tor  (dnirch  adornment  and 
hu'  reli^dous  purposes:  l)ut  historic  and  story -t(dlin,;,'  ]>iciures  of  the  unh;r 
now  known  as  i,'enre  were  classic  in  subject  and  academic  in  treatment.  ICven 
in  portraitui'c,  where  a  likeness  was  the  main  consideration,  military  lieroes 
were  represented  in  (Ireidv  armor  and  distim,Miished  civilians  were  invested 
with  tlie  di},Miity  of  tlu'  Uoman  tof^a. 

'I"he  hif^h  ]iriest  (d'  ancient  pajjan  worshi]p  in  France  duriuu'  the  first  (piar- 
Ter  of  tlie  century  was-Iacques  I.onis  David  ( 17  IS-lSL'.'n.  David  was  a  master 
(d'  such  real  power  that  he  was  court  ])ainter  to  Louis  .W'i..  director  of  l''ine 
Arts  undtsr  tin!  Uepublic,  and  a^Min  court  painter  to  the  Kinperor  X;ip(deon. 
His  j^reat  worl<.  "'I'lieOath  id'  the  Iloratii."  now  in  tlie  Louvre,  first  exhili- 
itod  ill  17S1.  was  uiiivci'sally  admired  and  is  still  highly  esteemed.  'I'his  was 
followed  b\'  a  trium]dial  ]u-occssion  of  (dassic  coiiijiositions.  the  most  notable 
of  which   were  "  The   liape  of  the  Sabines,"  usually  considered  to  be  his 


m 

m 


I'  I 


FT 


I 


v- 


Ml 


^i      -I' 

If    5  .11 


U'v. 


r! 


B| 


. '  '^ 


';      i 

1 
)■     1 

,   .1 1 1 

1, 

'■i  ' 

1 

H 

;i1 


1^1 


ji: 


I 


388  TliJUMI'llS   AM)    WOXniJIlS   OF   TIIIC  A7.Y'"   CENTURY 

iiiiist('r|iit'c('.  ••  riif  Pcatli  nf  Sucnitcs."  ••  I'aris  and  Helen. "  ami  "  Hrutiis  and 
His  Sdus,"  all  (il  wliirli  have  lieen  reiu'ediiceil  many  times  in  prints.  David 
was  inllueiiceil.  lale  in  his  eareer.  liy  tiie  nniiantie  reaction,  as  shown  hy  his 
•'Napoleon  Cidssiuj,'  the  Alps"  and  iiis  •■  l-'loatini;'  Mai'tyr,"  imt  lie  ehani- 
pioiied  classic  art  all  his  lite,  his  last  words  expn'ssin_i;'  an  aspiration  to  paint 
1  he  head  oi   lieoni<l:is. 

The  downfall  oi  ihe  classic  dominion  in  l-'ranee  was  hronnht  ahont  by  the 
revolt,  of  (l.'ricault  and  l>ehe-roiN.  aliout  ISL'O.  .lean  l.onis  (i('riean]t  (1791- 
ISl'l)  was  declared  l>y  \'iardot  to  have  revealed  an  era  wiien  liberty  in  art 
was  revived  lo;.,'ether  with  political  liberty,  joinin.i;-  the  ,u:ener;d  movement  ol' 
till'  human  ,-piril  iu  the  march  of  pi'ojj^ress  'oward  independence.  His  epoch- 
markint,'  picture.  •• 'I'he  Haft  of  the  Medusa."  in  the  Salon  id'  tSl',».  created  an 
inteuM'  exciiemeni  not  only  in  artistic  circles,  where  it  opened  the  battle 
bet  ween  romance  and  classic  tradit  ion.  imt  aUo  amoiiL;  the  |!eople.  instead 
(d'  (Ireek  heroes.  posiiiL;-  like  anti(pie  statues,  this  thriUiii;;'  jpicturc  p(U'trayed 
a  LTidiip  id  i'feiich  sailors,  peiishiiie'  amid  the  horrors  (d'  shi|iwreck  and 
starvation,  the  subject  beim^'  a  scene  in  the  awfid  tra'^edy  incident  to  the 
loss  of  the  frigate  Meilusa  in  ISld.  a  calanuty  whii'h  the  nation  wa.s  then 
niouriniiLC  with  unspeakable  ;^iitd'.  Women  wept  and  stroiii;  men  ]ialed 
bid'ore  tills  terrible  illtist  rat  inn  of  human  a;^<inies  endured  unto  death,  but 
the  acaileiiiicians  aiia^keil  the  \\(M-k  and  the  artist  with  almost  saxa^e  fury, 
(it'cicault.  a  i^ciuus.  sensitive  and  nervous.  (|iiailin,L;'  Ixd'ore  the  stiu'iu  which 
beat  n|inn  him.  tied  t^o  lOiiLdand.  but.  iiiniii!^'  in  e\ile.  returned  lnuue,  only  to 
die.  ci-.>!ied  and  broken  hearted. 

Ferdinand  \'ictor  I^ULivne  l>el,icroi\  { 1  7'.>S-1S(;;!)  was  a  man  id'  firmer  fibre 
than  his  friend  and  fellow-stuileiit.  and  his  was  the  sttnuiu  hand  to  take  uji 
the  e;|Mi.  ,,f  battle  when  (ii'iicaidl  lell  in  llie  iiL;ht.  I''(M'  daring'  to  depart 
from  the  classic  traditiotis.  the^e  two  yoiiii;^  painters  id'  the  common|ilace 
subjects  of  every-day  hunian  tra'^edv  and  romantic  drama  were  savai^ely  de- 
nounced by  the  ai  ademieiaiis  as  traitors,  as  cliarlatans.  .is  assassins  seel<iiu^ 
to  murder  art.  'I'he  persecution  killed  (Ii'iicault.  but  Dtdacroix  laui^died  at 
it.  .\s  'I'hi'i.phile  Souvcsti'e  said  of  him:  ••  The  blindness  id'  ii;iioraiice,  the 
intris^iies  and  clamors  of  envy,  have  not  arrested  him  lor  an  instant  in  his 
valiant  and  glorious  course."  I'v  the  splendor  ol  his  L;eniiis  and  the  virility 
of  his  woik.  as  shown  in  his  ureat  iiictures.  '-The  Ibide  id'  .\bydos."  •'The 
'I'wo  i'oscari."'  ■•  The  .\iiienile  Honorable."  and  the  ma;.,Miilieent  series  of 
Oriental  studies  by  which  he  is  best  known,  he  established  the  nuiiantic 
school  on  a  firm  basis  and  attracted  tn  it  nearly  all  the  talented  and  ]iromis- 
ing  youn;^:  painters  of  I'aiis. 

.\moim'  these  students  and  unknown  paititers  were  many  whose  names 
subseipieiitly  became  famous,  as  Horace  N'eriiet.  I'anl  l>elaroclie,  I>aron  (iros. 
.\ry  Scheffer.  .Mexandre  Hecamps.  —  artists  whose  noble  productions  }j;ave  to 
the  romantic  school  its  finest  triumphs.  In  tin  mean  time,  classic  art  was 
ably  and  effectively  supported  iiy  the  distiii'jfiiished  labors  of  !>omt'niipie 
liiLircs.  pupil  and  successor  of  Daviii.  (luillanme  ( luillon-I.ethiJ'ie.  ilippolyte 
Klaiidrin.  and  dean  I'.aptiste  Ket,'nanll.  The  .\cailemy.  I liouyh  defeated,  still 
lives,  and  modern  Invers  of  art  lind  that,  especially  in  decorative  desit,'n, 
tlit>re  is  much  to  admire  in  classic  subjects. 

.M'ter  the  revolt  of  the  romanticists  the  most   important  movement  in  the 


<::js 


!*•' 


m 


i'l! 


rKSTURY 

:iikI  "  H  nit  lis  and 
ill  in-inrs.  Diivid 
1.  iis  shown  l)_v  his 
r,"'  iiiit  hf  cham- 
ispinitiim  to  |iaiiit 

iiit^ht  about  liy  tlic 
s  (u'Ticault  (1791- 
iicii  lihcrty  in  art 
icral  movciiit'iit  of 
Iciict'.  His  ('iM)ch- 
.r  ISl'.t.  fivatcd  an 
oin'iicil  the  liallli' 
■  |ifojih'.  liistt'ad 
pictnii'  iiort raved 
1)1  shiiiwrcciv  and 
!y  incidciit  to  the 
i'  nation  was  then 
■^troiiL;'  iiH'ii  iiah'd 
■d  unto  death,  hut 
hiio>t  savage  i'liry. 
•e  tlie  storm  wliicii 
■lied  home,  only  to 

nan  ol    liniiei'  tihre 
1-  liaiid  to  take  up 
darin,;;'  to  de|iart. 
the  eoiiinionplaee 
were  savai^ely  de- 
assassins   seekiiiiij 
aeroix    laiiLtlied   at. 
;  ol'  i'^noraiiee,  the 
an   instant  in   his 
us  and  tlie  virility 
ol'   .\hy<U)s,"'  "'riie 
;-nilieenf    series   of 
hed   the  romantic 
|ented  and  proiuis- 

;iny  whoso  names 
•oehe.  I'laidii  <iros, 
roduetions  ix^i^'''  t" 
u.'.  classic  art  was 
us  of  !>oiii('ni<iui' 
'tliit'ie.  llipiiolytc 
u-h  (h'feated,  still 
Ih'coralive  desii,'ii, 


uiovi'iiUMit  in  tlie 


ART  rnoauKss  of  the  vi:srri:Y 


589 


world  of  art  rlso  tool;  place  in  l-'rancc,  and  is  known  as  the  ••  IJevolntioii  of 
fS.'MK"  To  understand  tiiis  movement  it  is  necessary  to  consider  i  h"  state  of 
art  in  Kugland,  as  the  ••men  of  1S,".(»"  in  l''raiice  dtuived  their  iiispirati(Mi 
from  .loliii  I'.aistalile.  an  Kn^lish  laii(isca|)e  painter.  At  the  liei;inniin;-  of 
the  contuvy   iho  two  ginsit  artists  of  Kiiglaud   weit-  Sir    havid   Wilkii'  and 


•nil'.  iioi.Y  \vomi;n   \r  ■rm.  iomh. 

J.  M.  W.  Turner.  David  Wilkie  flTS.".  iSJh  was  a  portrait.  Iiistoric  and 
j;-eiire  painter,  and  no  l'",nuli-h  arti-t  no  to  his  time  IkcI  rvrr  attaine(l  mk-Ii 
wide  popularity  a^  heeiiinveil.  His  picture-;  ;ire  all  known  the  worhi  over, 
as  witness  such  titles  a-;  ••'rhe  Kent  l>ay."  ••  \'illauv  Tolil  ician-."  ••'i'lie  IMind 
Fiddler,"  '•  Kin-  Allrcl  in  lie  Ncatlienl",-  Cotta-e."  •• -I'lie  Nilla-e  I'c^tival." 
••  Keadin;^' the  Will."  "'i'lie  ClirNra  rensioiieis.'"  •' I'.lind  Man's  I'.iitt,'"  - 'rii.- 
\'il!a'.,'e  School.'"  and  •••lohu  Kno\  prcacliiie^-.'" 
Joseph  Malloril  William   Turner  il77o   IS.M)  wa-  one  ol   the  most  remark- 


li 

II 


1/  h\ 


I 


,0 


in 


prn^ 


I 


lit 


.!:,. 


'.jl 


II, 


'U 


ii    I 


I 


■1' 

"''i^i            J 

■ :        9 

aOO         TliirMI'IIS   AND    \V0M)EIIS   OF   THE   XJ\"'  CESriltY 

iililr  iirtists  tli;it  ever  lived  ;  :i  most  ori^'iiial  .ifciiiiis,  '•  witliout  ancestors  and 
willioiit  heirs.""  lie  was  a  laii(isca|pe  paiiitei' anil  a  nmst.  earnest  and  iaitlilul 
student  <d'  nature,  as  slmwn  by  ids  wondei'lui  illustrations,  in  iijack  and 
winte.  Ill'  the  scenery  of  l'"-n,i,dand  and  W'ak's.  In  his  |paintin,i;s.  iiowever.  he 
inter|irete(l  rather  than  portrayed  nature.  invesiiuL;  his  sulijeets  witii  the 
.t^randeur  and  ,i,dorv  <d'  his  iniaf,dnation.  His  |)ictures  were  ".i^'olden  dreams,"" 
revealing  the  heauty.  the  majesty,  the  sadness,  an<l  the  terror  inspiied  hy 
nature,  not.  I'rom  oiiserved  details  •■  hut  imm  the  image  or  ideal  in  his  own 
mind.""  (  M'  ids  many  masterworks  mention  can  oidy  he  made  here  (d'  '-('ross- 
ing  the  IWdok,"  "  Dido  in  ( 'aitiiage.""  •'  I'aleslriua.'"  •■  The  (iolden  liougii,"' 
■llannilial  Crossing  the  .\l|is,""  "The  Slave  Shi]i.""  ••  Uattle  cd'  the  Nile," 
"  l>urial  (d'  Sir  |)avid  Wilkie  at  Sea,""  and  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all.  '• 'i'he 
I'"ighting  Ti'meraire."' 

Turner  created  no  school  and  lidt  no  successor,  lint  he  mad<'  a  distinct  im- 
pression on  the  art  cd'  I'lngland  i>y  stimulating  an  active  interest  in  laiidscaiie 
painting.  I'atiick  Nasmyth,  .\ugustus  Wall  ('.  '  tt.  .loliii  Linncll.  and  a 
score  o I  artists  turned  to  the  study  of  rural  si  .cry.  with  the  result  that 
they  succeeded  in  estalilishing  what  is  known  as  tiie  N(M'wi(di  s(diool  of  land- 
scape art.  |!y  iar  the  most  imjiortant  name  in  the  annals  <d'  this  pciiod. 
alter 'I'ui'iicr's.  is  that  (d  .lidiii  Constable  ( 1 77(l-lS.'>7).  Co  stable  |ircsent.-. 
til.'  contrast  (d'  diametric  opposition  to  'i'urnci'.  His  pictures,  so  far  from 
being  "golden  di'canis,""  are  nuu'c  like  cast-iron  realities.  When  Turner  was 
an  idealist.  Constable  was  an  uucomoronnsing  realist.  If  the  (uie  painted 
poetry,  the  other  painted  prose,  and  often  very  rugged,  plain  pi'ose  iiuleed. 
While  Turner  subordinated  fact  to  fancy,  illuminating  his  subjects  with  the 
glow  (d'  his  Icrvid  imagination.  Constable  devoutly  stood  ludore  nature  in 
tlie  attitude  (d'  a  worshipei',  and  l'aithfidl\  lab(ucd  to  represent  as  trutli- 
f\dly  as  his  powers  permitted  exactly  wli.it  he  beheld.  In  eontnist  with  liie 
shining  can\ascs  (d'  his  brilliaid  ('(uitemporary.  Constable's  pictures  seenicil 
<iark.  dull,  ami   heavy  to  the    liritish    piddie,  and  the  original   genius  (d'  the 

conscientious    artist    was    not    i ignizecl.      His    greatest    works.    ■•Dedliam 

Vale.""  "The  White  Horse."'  "The  Hay  Cart,"'  "Stratford  Mill,"'  "Salisbury 
<'athedral."'  "The  IJaiidiow."  ami  others  were  exhibited  in  succession  during 
the  seeiiml  decad«'C(d'  the  century,  liefore  an  indifferent  public,  only  his  fel- 
hiw  artists  and  a  few  connoisseurs  caring  for  them,  tiie  painter  mcanwlnle 
starving  in  lu'glect. 

In  ISL'I  two  (d'  his  pictures  were  shown  in  I'aris.  and  were  then  instantly 
understood  and  appreciated.  They  created  a  jirofound  impression  and.  as 
has  been  justly  said,  inaugurateil  tiie  scm-oikI  rev<dution  cd'  the  century  in  tlie 
realm  (dart.  Hy  this  revolution  tin*  artists  were  driv<'n  out  id'  tiieir  studio-^ 
ami  out  of  the  city,  to  study  natui'c  in  tlie  spirit  of  iiiimble  sinceiity  shown 
liy  .lohn  Constable,  .\mong  the  young  students  who  went  fortii  to  encounter 
lioverty.  Iiardship.  and  the  se\erest  toil  were  the  "UH'Ii  of  iS.'tO."  tiie  lounder> 
(d'  tiie  Uarlii/on  scliool  of  painting.  Millet.  Itousseaii.  J>ia/.  Corot.  Troymi. 
Daubigny.  and  Diipre  ieit  I'aris  and  the  ways  that  then  led  to  success,  and 
sacriticed  tiiemselves  to  what  they  saw  to  be  the  triitii  in  art.  Tiiey  cairic! 
tiie  study  of  out-door  naturi;  furtiicr  than  ever  bel'ore  ;  created  tiie  standard 
(d' modern  iamlseape  art.  and  attained  immorlai  fame,  tiiougli  not  until  their 
leader  and  jirototype  iiad  ])erisiied  in  poverty. 


!!!^i  ;|ii|i"  ■■'•' 


M 


riisrruY 

liout  aiict'stnrs  ;iii(l 
'ariit'st  and  tiiitlil'iil 
ions,  ill  iilack  aii<l 
iitiii.n's.  liowcvcr.  lie 


^lll)  ccts    \vi 


ih   Ih 


'  ■•  unldcM  clicaiiis," 
tenor  itispiicil  liy 
(ir  iilral  ill  liis  dw  ii 
idc  here  oi'  "  ( 'ross- 
w  (Idldcii  l'>(iiii:li." 
atllf   (iT   tlir    Nili'." 


ilfst   I)!'  al 


'I'll 


iaad<'  a  disliiict  iiii- 
ntcri'st  ill  laiidsca|»' 

(liiii  l.iuiK'll.  and  a 
,-itli   till'   result    tliat, 


•i<di 


iials 


seliool  (il    lam 


dl'  tins    |ieiiiiu. 

('(I    stable    ineselit.". 

ietiii'es.  so  iai'   Iriini 

\>lien  Tiiiner  was 

11'  ti 


le  one  painted 


ipjaiii   pi'dse  iiideeil. 

is  snlijei'ts  with  the 

1(1  lielore  nature   in 

re|ii'esent.  as  trnth- 
n  contrast  with  the 
e"s  pictures  seemed 
i,dnal  ,ijeniiis  ol'  the 
It  works.  ■•  l>e(lliani 
il  Mill."  "Salishnn 
In  siu'ce^sion  diirini; 

luihlic.  only  his  I'el- 
painter  meanwhile 


vere  tlieii  instantly 
imiire^sioii  and.  as 
Ir  the  century  in  the 
lout  of  their  studio^ 
llile  sincerity  shown 
It  forth  to  eiicoMiiter 
]l,s;;(»."  the  founder.-. 
|)ia/.  Corot.  'I'royoii. 
■d  t(i  succcs.s,  and 


art. 


hev  carrie 


Ivated  the  standard 
u<di  not  until  tlieii 


I 


'  i 


li 


^»:   !! 


'% 


\\  ii|.-i'i.i!~  o|.    i,o\  I,      I  lioi  (.1  i.ifi-,  \r 


I^fj 


lit 


mv- 


m 


u 


502 


TlilUMI'lIS  AXD    WONDERS   OF   THE   XIX'"  CEXTUHY 


:;l»> 


Jean  Kniii(;uis  .Millet  ( ISLVIS?"))  has  ht'oii  calltMl  the  j^qvatest  |iaiiiti'r  of 
the  iiiiu'tei'iith  century,  iiiid  liis  luasterpieec,  '-'riie  Aiigclus."  is  ivgardcd  hy 
inany  as  s(m;oiuI  only  to  the  "  Sistine  Madonna '"  of  Kajjliael  in  the  brief  eata- 
logne  of  the  world's  artistic^  treasures.  Jle  lived  the  life  of  a  jtoor  peasant 
in  the  rural  village  of  l!ari)i/on,  attracting  around  iiini.  latt^  in  life,  the  ablest 
of  the  "men  of  iS.'iO,"  and  [irodueing  there  those  works  which  have  placed 
liis  luune  first  on  the  annals  of  our  time:  "The  Sower,"  ••  U'aiting,''  '•  Shecji- 
.shearers."'  ••  Woman  Carding."  " 'I'he  (Jleanei's."  ••Shepherdess  and  Flock." 
ami  the  few  others  that  constitute  the  tale  of  his  exceedingly  careful  and 
long-considered  compositions. 

Theodore  Housseau  (1S1L'-1.S()7)  was  decdareil,  by  Eduiond  About,  to  be 
the  .Moses  who  led  tiie  landscape  ])ainters  of  Frariee  out  of  the  Egyptian 
bonilage  of  academit;  convention  into  the  jtromised  land  of  liberty,  where 
rivers  ran  water,  where  trees  were  roottid  in  the  ground,  and  where  animals 
lived,  moved,  and  had  tlieir  being.  As  late  as  1.S4S  the  Salon  rejected  iJous- 
seau's  noble  work.  '•The  .\lley  (d'  Chestnut  Trees,"  one  of  the  Hnest  laud- 
.scapes  ever  painted:  but  this  was  the  last  act  of  the  academic  tyrants,  tht; 
foolish  offense  against  the  great  master  causing  the  old  classic  pedants  to  be 
relegated  to  olilivion.  Housseau  took  up  his  residentre  in  l>arbi/on,  and  in 
the  forest  (d'  Fontaineblcau  and  the  adjoining  country  studied  those  rural 
and  jiastoral  scenes  that  have  given  him  his  place  ;is  one  of  the  first,  if  nut 
the  very  first,  of  landscajjc  painters.  Of  these  magnificent  e.\ami)les  of  laud- 
scape  art.  mention  can  only  be  made  here  oi  '•The  Village."  '•  .V  Pool  under 
Oaks."  '•  Fdge  of  th((  Forest  at  l>arbi/.on,"  "A  Forest  Interior."  "Water 
(^'ourse  at  Sologne,"  and  ••  IToar  Frost."  these  being  the  pictures  best  known 
to  the  public  through  reproductions  in  iila(d<  and  white. 

If  Turner  was  a  painter  of  ••  golden  dreams."  Corot  was  a  painter  <d'  silver 
dreams  ;  the  pearly  ha/e  (d'  early  morning,  the  pale  sky  and  misty  tree-forms 
of  a  gray  day.  and  the  soft,  low  tones  (d'  a  still,  (doudy  afternoon  .attnicting 
his  loving  devotion  and  commanding  the  conscientious  exercise  of  his  skill, 
♦fean  liaptiste  Camilh;  Corot  (17'.K)-1S7."))  was  certainly  one  of  the  hap])iest 
artists  that  ever  lived.  Like  the  other  '•men  (d'  IS.'ttt."  he  was  o^traci/.ed  by 
the  .\c;idciuy.  :ind  he  was  never  allowed  to  receive  the  first  medal  of  the 
SaU)n,  but  he  had  every  other  honor  and  compensation,  and,  late  in  life,  was 
given  a  magnificent  g(dd  ineilal  by  popidar  subscription.  I''or  nniny  yeai'^ 
he  could  not  sell  a  single  picture,  but.  bidng  fortunattdy  independent,  in  a 
modest  way.  he  coidinued  to  paint  the  subjects  whi(di,  as  he  said,  delighted 
his  heart,  and  to  treat  them,  as  lu'  ;igain  saiil.  ••  w  ith  truth  to  your  own 
instincts,  to  your  own  method  of  seeing,  with 'wluit  1  call  conscieldionsnes^ 
and  sincerity."  in  due  time  Corot  coufpiered  his  world  and.  in  the  hei^lll 
of  his  career,  was  earning  not  less  than  .S."i().(KK>  ;i  year  by  his  brush,  lie  wa- 
a  constant  visit(M'  at  Uarbizon.  maintaiui'd  a  (dose  intimacy  with  his  friend 
tliiM'e.  and  studii'd  in  the  vicinity  many  (d'  the  hundreds  of  landscapes  In 
industrious  and  tireless  hand  rejnieingly  produced. 

dules  I)u|iiV'  (1S1L'-1,SS;>)  and  Charles   l^'rancois  Daubigny  (1S17-1S7S)  ai. 
distinguished   niendiers  (d   the  ••  iS.'lO  "  group.  ea(di   standing  at  the  head  " 
the  department  of  landscme   art   to  which   he  was  especially  devoted.      N;i' 
cisse-Virgil   Diaz  de  la  l'en;i.  called   l>iaz  (  lS(i7-lS7r>).  another  id'  the  iiali 
nity.  was  not   technically  so  thoroughly  trained  as  his  fellows,  init  he  wa> 


"  cEyruiiY 


A'  j,M'eatt'st  piiinter  of 
^fflus."  is  ri'giinU'd  by 
hiu'l  ill  the  l)iiof  c:it;i- 
,itV  of  ;i  i)ooi-  peusiiiit, 
Uitc  in  litV,  till'  abU'st 
ks  which  hiivi'  phiccil 
'  ■■  Wiiitiiig.'"  '•  ShtM'ii- 
phcnh'ss  and  Fhu'li." 
cot'dingly  ciu'eful  and 

Kdmoud  About,  to  bi' 
nut  of  the  Iv^'Vittiaii 
and  of  liberty,   where 
11(1,  and  where  animals 
e  Salon  rejected  Uons- 
lue  of  the  linest  land- 
aeadeinic;  tyrants,  the 
d  classic  jiedants  to  be 
•('  in  l>arbi/.on.  and  in 
ry  studied  those  rural 
one  of  the  tirst,  if  not 
icent  examples  of  laiid- 
illage,"  '•  A  Pool  under 
■est  Interior."   "  AVater 
he  pictures  best  known 

e. 

was  a  painter  of  silver 
y  and  misty  tree-forms 
iy  afternoon  iittnictiiej, 
us  exercise  of  his  skill, 
ly  one  of  the  happiest 
'■  he  was  ostracized  l)y 
the  first  medal  of  tlir 
ill,  and,  late  in  life,  was 
tioii.     For  many  years 
iitely  iiKleiieiident,  in  ;i 
li.  ;is  he  said,  delisihteil 
Ith   tnitli   to  your  own 
call  (•(iiiscieiit ioiisiies^ 
rill  anil,  in  the  liei-h' 
bv  his  brush,     lie  \v;i- 


iimii'V  with  his  friem 


Ireds   of  landscapes  h 

il)i-,niy  (1S17-1S7S)  ;i 
aiidinij;  at  the  head 


peel 


all 


V  ilevo 


led.      N: 


aiiutlier  of  the  frati 
fellows,  but  he  wa> 


If 

1:1 

il 


m 


••»  i-i 


I  i  ;,li 


'■^ 


<  UKISTMAS    (HIMKS.       ( III. AMIKI  I.I.I).] 


I  ^mn 


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m. 


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1'     ^ 

ART  PROG n ESS   OF  THE   CENTURY 


003 


stronger  colorist  thiiii  iiny  of  tlicm  and  a  romanticist  of  tho  most  itronounwd 
type.  Constant  Troyon  (iXlO-lSIJo)  was  tin;  most  eminent  cattle-painter  oi" 
thecentnry.  He  came  on  the  scene  after  the  revolt  of  CJericanlt  was  accom- 
plished, but  was  in  full  sympathy  with  the  movement,  and  is  usually  ac- 
counted as  one  of  the  revolutionists.  So  also  with  .lean  Leon  Uerume  (1<S1.'4), 
an  artist  surviving  to  the  close  of  the  centurv. 

He  first  exhibited  in  1847.  but  he  took  up  the  line  of  Oriental  romance, 
following  Delacroix,  and  made  so  strong  an  impression  with  his  illustrations 
of  the  splendors  and  glories  of  the  Kast  that  his  influence  in  art  will  be  felt 
tor  generations  to  come.  After  attaining  fame  as  a  painter,  (Jerome  also 
develojx'd  marked  ability  as  a  sculptor. 

In  strict  chronological  order  the  birth  of  the  i)re-Kapliaelite  movement  in 


l! 


1! 


\i4 


(ilMOKK    (ilUI.S    l'I.AVIN(i    AT    CAM,.       (LKKiUTON.  ) 


art  preceded  the  ''revolution  of  jS.^.O."  as  the  event  actually  occurred  in 
iloine.  about  1SI'2.  The  movement  was  not  originally  known  i)y  the  name 
subsequently  given  it.  and  it  did  not  att;iiii  to  more  than  local  importance 
until  it  was  fully  develo]ted  in  Kiighuid.  about  IS.'id.  It  is  to  the  great  CJ<>r- 
nian  artist.  Teter  von  Cornelius  ( 17S.'!-lS(!7l.  that  the  honor  of  originating 
the  pre-llaphaelite  revolution  must  be  given.  In  iSll  Coriudius  went  to 
iJonu'  and  soon  became  the  master  spirit  of  the  '•  IJrotherhood  of  Vainters." 
pojndarly  called  '•  Xa/arites."  bunded  together  for  the  study  of  the  thirteenth- 
century  Italians.  Ciniabue  and  (iiotto.  and  their  successors  in  the  century 
Inljowing.  CJaddi.  Simoiu.  and  Orcagna.  This  Urotherhood  was  afterward 
imitated  by  Uossetti  in  TiOndon.  and  its  ])urposes  more  fully  developed:  but 
it  w;is  the  young  (lernian  enthusiasts  of  the  previous  generation  who  affected 
:i  revival  of  the  pure  reli'^Mous  sjiirit.  the  ilevoiit  simplicity,  and  the  nhsolute 
siiii>erity  of  the  Italian  artists  before  the  era  of  Uaphael. 
Conu'lius  returned  to  (Jermany  in  1  SIC*,  became  the  founder  of  what  is 
;18 


,(il' 


6M 


IIUIMI'IIS   AM)    WoMUCRS   of   the   MX' II   CEMUllY 


\M\ 


it;i. 


'    ij 


kiKiwii  as  till'  .Miiiiicli  scluidl  ot  ]i;iiiitiii,n',  iiiul  was  niadr  diri'dor  of  tlic  Ait 
1 1  i>l  it  lite  (if  tiiat  city,  lie  fxcrriscd  a  ciiiitiiilliiin'  in  Hue  nee  in  tlu'  t'voliitiini  nl 
iiiiiilt'i'ii  (it'i'iiiaii  art  ami.  iiuiin'ctly.  on  art  in  lOiii^laiid  and  in  .Viiicrii'a.  Ilis 
impil  and  siictM-ssor,  \\  illicliii  von  Kaiiliiarii  ( lS(»."i-lS7  I ).  iiii|iartL'd  vitality 
and  power  to  tlic  Muiiiidi  school,  altractiiii;-  to  his  classes  students  from  all 
(•ivili/.ed  count  lies.  PuriiiLC  the  secmid  and  thifd  iiuarters  (d'  this  centuiy. 
KaulljaLdi  rei.niied  as  the  tiist  artist  ol  (ieriuany  and  one  ot  the  first  in  the 
worhh 

Dante  (ialiriid  lo.ssetti  ( 1  SL'S- 1  SSL' )  i'oiinded  Ids  iire-llapliaelite  I'.rotlier- 
liood  in  I.ondon,  with  -lohn  Kveirtt  Millais  —  sulise(|Ueiit]y  president  (dthe 
iJoyal  .\cadeiiiy — and  William  llolnian  Hunt,  in  ISlS.  The  pre-i;a|p|iaelitc 
movement  ^ave  a  I'iidier  and  stronucr  colur  to  l']n!4'lish  paintin;,;  in  the  latter 
halt'  (d'  the  century,  and  also  awakened  yi'iieral  interot  in  I'arly  Christi.in 
art.  that  is,  the  art  oi'  the  Italian  h'l'naissaiiee.  Ileyond  this.  ItossettiV; 
new  departiiri'.  thoui^li  wididy  advertised  liy  -Ndin  iJuskiii.  Iiad  very  little 
liermaiieiit  effect.  .Millais  soon  hdt  the  jirotherhood  and  ]ir(»diieed  his 
master-works,  the  j;-reatest  histoiic-i^'enre  pictures  of  his  lime,  in  Km^land. 
afti'r  oiitliviii!.;  pre-liaphaelite  intlueuces. 

Little  known  outside  id'  Knuland.  that  movement  did  not  entir(dy  alisorh 
]'>ritish  art.  as  ])roved  by  such  a  man  as  (I.  F.  Watts,  a  mastered'  portraitiiie, 
who  made  studies  id'  many  (d'  the  most  notable  men  cd'  the  century  in 
Knulami.  Ix'sides  many  ima,!i,n native  works  of  .ifreat  interest.  Otiiers  were 
Jlolman  Ifiint.  with  his  jiowerfiil  ndii,n(uis  conceptions,  and  the  talented  Land- 
seer  family,  the  younun'st  niemher  id  whi(di.  Kdwin.  is  worldd'aiiioiis  for  his 
animal  pictures.  The  critic  and  |>hilosopher.  .lohn  IJuskin.  studied  art  and 
liecame  a  ]U(dicient  ilrau'^htsman.  altiiou,i;h  never  nsinj,'  his  skill  profession- 
ally. Ilis  literary  w(uks  on  art.  however,  liaxc  had  so  wide  an  influence 
that  it  seems  just  to  iiudude  him  in  the  list  of  eontrihutcus  to  art's  pro,i,Mf>s 
in  this  era.  His  criticdsni  of  the  fantastic  ])roductions  (d'  .lames  .McNeill 
AVhistler  hroULjht  forth  a  controversy  and  law  suit,  resiiltiiif,' in  a  verdict  of 
dama.v'es  of  one  i'artliin;.;'  to  the  iiijureil  artist,  and  enou,!:;h  advertising^-  i^ratis 
to  secure  his  fame.  The  ,y:enius  of  the  latter  for  acliievintf  artistic  effect- 
and  personal  notoriety  are  ei|iial  to  his  skill  in  a\didin,i^  iddivioii.  He  is  a 
imiciiif  and  interesting;  fi;4iire.  despite  his  ahnormal  vanity.  i'(U'  his  umpie- 
tionalde  talent  in  many  lines  of  art.  ami  is  .\meriean  by  birth.  Kn.t;lish  b\ 
adoption,  and  now  l-'remdi  by  buce  (d  (drcumstances.  Mdwin  Abbey  is  also 
an  adopted  son  id'  riiitaiu.  although  born  in  America.  He  is  better  known 
throu.^'h  illustrative  \\(M'I<  in  bhuds  and  white,  but  his  superb  deeorat'oii- 
in  the  I.oston  I'uiilic  Library  testify  to  his  i,M-eat  skill  as  a  colorist.  The 
most  illustrious  i^q'owth  id'  foreii^Mi  seed  on  Itritish  soil  has  been  Lorcn/ 
.Mnia  Tadema.  whose  wonderful  representations  (d'  (ire(d<  anil  JJomaii  lilc 
place  him  Imrs  ciiiirniirs  as  an  artist,  and  hold  before  our  eyes  a  mirror  ni 
ancient  days.  Sir  l-'rederick  Leii^iliton.  the  recently  deeeaseil  ])resiilent  I'l 
the  Ibiyal  .\cademy.  was  a  true  Ibitoii  and  a  leader  of  modern  art  in  I']nv 
laud,  as  also  was  .Mrs.  Kli/abeth  Thomiison  I'.ntler.  with  her  patriotic  wir 
]iictiires.  as  viijorous  as  any  man's  could  lie.  A  talented  youn.!^  artist,  wlios. 
untimely  death  cut  short  a  promising-  career,  was  Frederick  Walker,  wlm  i- 
said  to  have  been  the  oriuiiial  of  ••Little  IJillee  "  in  Du  .Manrier's  faiiinu- 
novel  of   student  life  in  the  Latin  <i>uarter,  "Trilby.''      That  masteipici  ■■ 


"  ci^yruiiY 


•  (lirc('li)r  ot  llii'  All 
•(■  ill  tin-  cvdluticii  (il 
11(1  ill  Aiiit'ii<';i.  His 
J),  iiupartfil  vitiility 
<cs  stiulciiis  Iniiii  111! 
•tiTs  of  this  (•(•iiluiA-. 
lUf  of  tlic  first  ill  till' 

•-IJnpliiii'litc  r.rotlicr- 
iitlv  iircsidciif  (if  ill'' 
'I'lic  iir('-i;;ilili:M'liti' 
lp;iiiitiii:4  ill  tlic  liittcr 
>t  ill  t'avly  Clii'isliaii 
yoiiil  tliis.  Jv(issftti"s 
skill,  liad  very  liftl<' 
m1  ami  ]ii'(i(liii'i'«l  liis 
lis  tiiuf,  ill  Kiij,Maiiil. 

id  iHit  entirely  absdiW 
master  of  portraiture, 
I'll  of   tlie  century   in 
iiterest.     Others  weiv 
mil  the  talented  Laml- 
i  world-famous  for  his 
uskiii.  studied  art  and 
il;  his  skill  jirofession- 
so   wide  an  iiitliieiice 
ors  to  art's  pro!j;ress 
;  of  .lames  McNeill 
iUiii;4  in  a  verdict  ol 
;li  advertising;  i^nili-^ 
'viiii,^  artistic  effect- 
;  oblivion.       He   is  a 
liiiity.  for  his  uii(|ue~- 
hy  liirth.  Hn.ulisli   l'\ 
I'ldwiii  Abbey  is  also 
lie  is  betler  know  ;i 
s    superb   decorat'oii- 
as  a  colorist.     'I'lir 
il    has   been    Loien 
Ireek  and  Jvoman   lil' 
our  eves  a  mirror  o; 


if  modern  art  in  ICn'- 
[itli   her  patriotic  w^ 
voun;4  artist,  wlm- 
llerick  Walker,  who 
ll)u  Maurier's  faiiio 

■'      That  musterpi'' 


I.AND-I.l.l;    AM)    HIS    KA\t)Ulll.>.       (UV    IIIMMJ.K.  I 


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COG 


TJilUMPIfS  AND    WONDERS   OF   TIIIC  A/A'"  CENTURY 


tiikt's  lis  into  tlu'  ait  iitinosi)li('r<'  of  I'liris,  and  we  readily  uiulerstaiid  why 
tlicre  is  tilt.'  ct'iitn*  of  the  artistic  circln. 

From  tlu'uot'  liave  liscn  most  of  tlic  ^,Mcat  miidtTii  naint's,  out'  of  the  great- 
est and  most  himorcd  bring  that  of  JJosa  Uoiilieiir,  who  has  received  all 
possilile  distinction  as  an  artist  and  reverence  as  a  woman.  Her  aniniiil 
l)ietiires,  es])ecially  horses  and  cattle,  are  known  the  world  over,  and  the 
story  of  her  early  struggle  for  study,  disguised  as.  a  hoy.  that  she  might 
work  iinniolested  where  a  girl  could  hardly  have  gone,  is  well  known,  yet 
she  never  renounced  an  atom  of  her  womanliness  in  adopting  masculine 
attire.  It  is  hard  to  avoid  dwelling  on  the  lives  and  works  of  the  modern 
masters,  but  we  must  pass  over  the  intermediate  jteriod  between  tlio  revolt 
of  IS.'iO  and  our  own  day,  touching  only  an  especially  shining  light  here 
and  there,  such  as  -Iiiles  I>rcton,  with  his  sturdy  peasants;  Leon  lloiniat, 
Alexandre  ("alianel,  and  C'arolus  Diiran,  with  their  elegant  distingin?  por- 
traiture. Besides  these  are  Edouard  iH'lailie  and  Alphonse  de  Neuville. 
showing  faithful  studies  of  soldier  life  and  action;  Eugene  Kromentin.  with 
his  ]iictiires(pu'  Arabs;  and  the  decorative  allegories  of  I'nvis  de  Chavannes. 
The  br'lliaiit  Spaniards,  Mariano  Fortuny  and  Don  F'rederick  ]\ladrazo,  are 
])ractically  Frenchmen  in  their  art,  although  each  is  distinctly  individual  in 
manner.  We  must  also  mention  ViluTt.  with  his  delightful  little  satires  on 
the  human  frailities  of  the  holy  fathers  of  the  Church,  and  Meissonier,  the 
master  of  excpiisite  iiuish  in  detail,  and  Vassini,  with  his  small  canvases 
crowded  with  Oriental  figures  glowing  with  color.  In  addition  to  the  great 
French  names  of  this  time  are  Defregger.  of  the  ]\Iunicli  School ;  Israels  of 
Amsterdam.  Schreyer  of  Frankfort,  whose  works  all  hold  that  (juality  dear 
to  the  ]H)])ular  heart,  but  despised  by  the  liigh  jiriests  of  lofty  criticism  now- 
adays, that  is,  they  have  a  story  to  tell,  and  they  tell  it. 

At  the  time  these  men  were  t(dling  their  artistic  tales  in  Euro))e.  such 
men  as  Washington  Aliston.  the  first  great  painter  in  this  country  ;  Thomas 
SiiHv.  whose  rare  works  in  portraiture  entitled  him  to  i)aint  the  (i)ueen  of 
England.  Victoria,  when  a  girl  ;  Henry  Inman.  also  a  great  jwrtrait  ])ainter  ; 
(ieorge  FuUei'.  a  jiaiuterof  poetic  dreams;  and  many  others  of  talent,  had  said 
their  say  'u  America.  Almost  with  the  begiiniing  of  the  new  country,  pub- 
lic interest  liad  been  roused  in  the  fine  arts  by  the  efforts  of  such  nu'ii  a^ 
(Jilbert  Stuart  and  the  I'eales.  Charles  and  licmbrandt.  who  bridged  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  together,  and  labored  to  advance  tin' 
cause  of  art.  Schools  and  academies,  with  inle(puite  galleries  for  exhibitinn 
pur|i()ses.  became  necessary;  and  such  institutions  as  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  the  Fine  Arts  and  the  National  Academy  of  I)esigu  in  New  York 
Avere  estaliiished.  The  latter  was  started  in  INOIJ.  ])ut  did  not  receive  its 
charter  until  ISOS;  so  tln'  i'ennsylvania  .\eademy,  which  was  incorporati'd  in 
IMiilailelidiia  in  ISUC).  was  really  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  <'ountry.  In  ISO?, 
the  minutes  bearing  the  date  of  ()ctol)er  S  record  as  follows:  ••  I'litil  lln' 
funds  of  the  institution  will  jidmit  u[  opening  a  school  on  a  more  extemliil 
])lan.  persons  of  good  character  shall  l)e  pei'mitted  to  make  drawings  frcui 
the  statues  and  busts  belonging  to  the  .Academy,"  thus  showing  the  humblr 
beginning  of  art  educ;ition  in  America.  Naturally,  for  nuiiiy  years  the  facili- 
ties for  learning  were  too  limited  to  supply  more  than  rudimentary  instrur- 
tion,  and  the  iiilgrimage   to    I'aris   was  a   lu'cessity   before  an   artist   couM 


lm*4c  ;'  ■ 


h; 


CENTURY 

ily  understand  why 

L's,  one  of  the  greiit- 
ho  has  received  all 
onian.     Her  animal 
,V(.rltl  over,  and  the 
M)\,  tliat  she  mi^dit 
is  well  known,  yet 
adopting  masculine 
rorks  of  the  modern 
il  between  the  revolt 
v  shining  light  here 
iants;    Leon  T.onnat, 
t'gani    distingin?  vor- 
l)honse  de  Neuville. 
rj'ue  Kromentin.  with 
I'uvis  de  C'havannes. 
cderick  Madrazo,  are 
stinetly  individual  in 
[htful  iivtle  satires  on 
I.  and  Meissoni(>r.  the 
il  liis  small  canvases 
1  addition  to  the  great 
ch  School ;  Israels  of 
liold  that  quality  dear 
f  loftv  criticism  now- 


ales  in  Eurojie.  s\icli 
country  ;  Thomas 
0  ].aint  the  t,>ueen  ot 
icat  i)ortrait  ])ainter  ; 
icrs  of  tah'nt,  had  stiid 
he  new  country,  i)id)- 
b'orts  (d'  such  men  ar> 
(It,  who  bridged  tlif 
lored  to  advance  \h>- 
lallcries  for  eNhil)ition 
Tcnnsvlvania  Aead- 


|)('sign  in 


New 


^'orl 


It  did  not  receive  its 
|h  was  incorporated  in 


lie  coil 
follows 


ntrv.    In  ISO? 


on  a  ni( 


I'ntil  11 
)vc  extendi 


in 


d«'  drawings 


fi'din 


showing  till'  hnnilil' 
liiany  years  the  fai'ili 
rudimentary  insinir 
dure   an   artist   coal 


fl 


'$ 


■ 


'i' 

;;¥ 

'llfl. 

i 

1       ,      '"' 

H 

*!, 

W'» 

i 

fVi 


^('Mi 


'f...  % 


m 


:;l 

i 

:  i 

i« 

t    II 
j.in 


,ij'l 


r>m 


TIHUMl'US  AM)    nv>A7>/;A'.S   O/'  77//v   A/A'"   CEMIUY 


I't'fl  (|ii;ilitinl  to  lauiicli  (Mil  piofcssioiially.  In  tlit'si-  latlci'  days  tluU  iirtMl 
11(1  l()iijj;cr  t'xi.sts,  t(»r  llic  .i^rcat  ai't.  sdiools  of  New  \'()i'U.  I'liiladdiiliia,  IJostdii, 
(.'liii'at,'(»,  and  St.  I.oiiis  can  amply  prdvidc  all  tliat  is  riMpiircd ;  but  tlin  cliariu 
of  tlii^  Latin  (Quarter  still  draws  as  a  niai^nrt  all  who  can  atford  to  ^'o  tlicrc. 

Ill  that  centre  is  a  constant  niinj,din!j;  of  ideas  from  all  sources  seekiii.y;  new 
forms  (d'  expression,  out  (d'  wlii(di  proceed  the  impulses  that  vilirate  throunh 
the  w(nl(l  of  current  art.  Naturally  en(iii,i,di  many  of  the  new  departures  are 
futile  experiments,  short  lived  and  not  surtioiently  important  to  discuss;  hut 
within  roei'iit  years  tlio  movtnui'iit  known  as  impressionism  has  heeii  so  wide- 
spread in  iuHuenee,  so  radical  in  method,  and  so  vital  in  result,  that  it  has 
doubtless  produced  a  permanent  elfect  on  art.  Like  its  [ireiletu'ssor,  the  re- 
naissance after  the  dark  a^cs,  this  iiioiimiii'iif  iiiodmie  was  iin  upheaval  ol 
all  forms  of  expression;  and  in  painting'  it  seemed  us  if  a  wave  of  da/zliiiLf 
color  had  burst  over  the  studios,  dreiudiiiiLf  tlm  canvases  with  rainbow  tints, 
tloodiiij.,'  the  exhibition  galleries  with  bewildering  brilliance.  The  unaccus- 
tomed eyu  was  overwludmed,  and  the  confused  and  wondering  public;  burst 
into  loud  outcry  against  the  in.sane  folly  of  these  mad  young  painters,  who 
showed  purple  and  green  gridirons,  speckled  with  green  and  streaked  with 
scarlet,  and  ealled  them  landscapes,  marines,  and  figure  studies  as  they  chose. 
Of  course  the  penduliini  swung  to  its  limit,  the  radicals  carrying  things  to 
extremes  after  t!ie  fashion  of  their  kind,  and  making  foolish  caricatures  of 
work  that  was  really  great.  ]»y  ih^grees,  however,  sober  sense  prevailed,  the 
new  iih'as  became  better  understood,  the  public  point  of  view  changed,  and 
it  was  seen  that  there  was  method  in  this  madness.  The  new  movement 
was  intended  simply  to  interpret  what  the  artist  saw  most  forcibly  expressed 
by  any  given  subject,  or,  as  the  name  implies,  to  record  liis  first  impression 
and  convey  the  iih'a  rather  by  suggestion  than  by  explicit  statement  and 
detail.  Applied  to  out-of-door  subjects,  these  princijiles  were  carried  out  iiy 
the  ji/t'in  (ilr  colorists.  as  they  were  styled,  from  their  efforts  to  suggest 
atmosphere  glowing  with  light,  a  feeling  of  space  and  sunshine.  Edouard 
iVlanet  was  the  leader  of  the  new  sidiool  in  figure  work,  and  (!laude  Monet  in 
landscape.  No  two  styles  C(mld  be  more  wicUdy  different  save  in  their  mu 
tual  abhorrence  (d'  detail;  the  first  chirk,  heavy,  and  sombre  in  color:  Ilic 
latter  luminous  and  jialiiitating,  every  conccdvable  tint  vibrating  into  hai- 
mony,  an  example  wliicdi  is  followed  in  this  country  by  Cliilde  llassam.  often 
successfully,  but  sometimes  with  extravagance.  After  reacdiing  extreme  high 
water  mark,  the  Hood  of  brilliance  has  somewhat  subsided,  and  latter-day 
]iaiiiters  do  not  find  it  necessary  to  observe  the  world  through  a  jirisin. 
While  returning  to  more  sober  statements  of  simple  truth,  withcmt  trying  t.i 
copy  a  kaleidosco|)e.  the  vision  men  have  had  of  ]iure  color  spark! iii'j:  wit' 
light  has  given  them  an  insight  into  .Mother  Nature's  nietlii'  '  thai  left    ; 

lasting   impression  upon  the   minds   and   manners  el     '■■        si   work'-.s  ni'i 
lifted  the  whole  tone  of  modern  painting.     Wlie  was  ])re))a"<'d  t" 

enjoy  truly  impressionistic  iiictiires  or  not,  the  fo.         i   them  in  a  cc      .tiini 
cjf  works  ill  the  old  manner  of  hard  outline  and        ivy  .sli,!  low  couid  iini 
fail  to  be  felt  like  a  beam  of  light  in  a  dark  room,     llowev     erne  might  pi  • 
test  against  the  invader,  the  old  friends  looked  dull  and  flai  after  a  time.  ; 
s])ite  of  thc^  most  determined  loyalty.     The  style  of  the  Hudson  IJiver  scdin' 
was  narrow  and   jpetty.   full  of  trifling  little  details,  the  color  often  lnii; 


Anr  rnounKss  of  the  ('Exmiy 


•>iti» 


forcod  iiml  llu'iitriciil  in  ct'lt'ct.  'I'lii-  strikiii.L,'  sccncrv  ot  tli;it  imhlc  slioiiiu 
iMsiiin'<l  tilt'  t'ttiirts  of  Amciiciiii  liiiiilscupi!  imiiitcrs  n|  tlif  two  (Iccadcs  trmu 
IS.'MI  ti)  I.S.")t».  Aslicr  li.  hiniiml  was  u  It'iitU'r  iimoiij,'  tln'iii,  iiinl  for  iimiiy 
years  I  lie  iiiaiiiicr  of  a  ^'t'licratioii  past  held  sway  until  tin-  new  nicthoil  fonM'd 
a  i>lar<'  for  itself.  It  was  an  amnsiiij,'  exin'iienee  in  foUowin.y;  exhibition  >  of 
late  years  to  see,  one  after  aiiotiier,  the  leaders,  lon^'  estalili.>hed  in  their  own 
liartienlar  methods,  linally  breaking  away  from  lifelong  haitils  and  (lomin;.,' 
into  line  with  the  new  movement,  sonn'  kee]>in;4  step  liravtdy  with  the  vi^'or- 
ons  newcomers,  sonn'  haltin^^f  alonj,'  with  pitifnl  iiltenipts  at  a  jannty  striile. 
The  slronj,'  men  neither  hniij,'  haek  in  snlky  indiffcrenee  nor  Hnnj,'  tliem.sclvos 
wildly  altont  in  exnherant  freedom,  hnt  kept  ipiietly  on  the  even  tenor  of 
their  way,  ahsorliin^'  what  was  Ix'st  in  the  new.  holdin.y;  fast  to  what  was 
best  in  tin;  old,  and  produeinj^  tlie  kind  (d'  work  that  is  imlepeudent  of 
schools  and  eras,  Imt,  intrinsically  ^'r(!at  in  itself.  In  Paris,  the  yonn^n-r 
workers  who  bcj^an  sending'  stran^'e  wild  landscape  and  iinnre  pictures  to  the 
exhibition  at  the  Salon  of  tin;  Chainjts  Klysdes,  the  most  important  annual 
exhibition  in  the  world,  were  inili},'iiantly  rejected  by  the  horrified  jnry  of 
selection.  Kqaally  indi},'nant  at  tiieir  treatment,  the  yonn^'  painters,  who  felt 
themselves  to  be  the  eomin,<^  men,  ^'atliored  their  rejected  treasnres  tonretlier 
in  an  imlependent  exhibition  (d'  their  own,  and  established  a  rival  salon  in 
the  C'hamp  de  .Mars,  which  has  conn'  to  hold  an  etpial  footing  in  the  world 
of  art  with  the  older  institntion. 

]{y  refcreiu'e  to  ••men"  \\v  do  not  at  .all  exobKh'  women,  for  there  is  no 
sex  in  art.  and  wonn-n  <d'  onr  time  paint  as  well  as  men.  holding  etpial  rank 
in  the  exhibitions,  eiiiial  places  on  tb<'  juries  of  selection,  and  receiving  e(|nal 
linnors  and  awards.  One  of  the  forenn)st  wonn'U  of  the  day  is  a  I'hiladel- 
phian.  Miss  Cecilia  Ucaux,  whose  portraiture  ranks  among  the  highest.  Miss 
Mary   D.  C'assatt   is  also  a   l'hila(h'lphian.  although  long  resident  in   Paris, 

and  highly  esteemed  tliere.     Iler  name  is  mentioiu'd  in  a  r< lit  notice  of  a 

Salon  exhibition  among  those  of  distinguished  men.  wiiicli  concluded  with 
the  words  "and  other  strong  men."  meaning  thereby  no  grain  of  disrespect 
to  the  woman,  but  only  honor  to  the  artist,  classifying  her  as  among  the  first 
painters  of  the  time.  Imi)ortant  exhibitions  nowadays  are  likely  to  contain 
strong  works  by  many  women,  such  as  ])ortraits  by  Mrs.  Sarah  StMrs  of  J'os- 
lon  or  Mrs.  Kosina  Knimet  Sherwood  of  New  Vork,  child  studies  by  Kllen  K. 
I'.aker.  or  animal  studies  by  :^^rs.  Helen  ('.  Ilovenden,  widow  of  the  late 
master  of  modern  genre,  'riiomas  Ilovenden,  whose  untimely  death  the  art- 
loving  jiublic!  of  this  country  has  not  ceased  to  mourn.  His  faithful  studies 
of  American  domestic  life  liave  touched  tlie  people,  who  are,  after  all,  the 
limd  art  critics,  despite  the  claims  of  those  who  feel  themselves  especially 
iiualitied  by  taste  and  training  to  tell  otiiers  wliat  they  must  and  must  not 
like.  Many  times  public  opinion  has  been  unduly  slow  in  sotting  the  seal  of 
its  ajiproval  on  worthy  works,  but  once  established  in  the  heart  of  the  popu- 
lace, immortality  is  assured,  and  that  place  belongs  preeminently  to  Thomas 
Hovenden,  as  proved  by  the  throngs  that  stood  liefore  his  picture  "  I'.reaking 


tlie  Home  Tie; 


at  th(!  World's  Fair  in  Chicago.     That  cosmoiiolitaii  eollcc 


tion  showed,  among  other  interesting  duvelopments,  a  strong  school  (jf  vigor- 


ous  voung 


N 


orseuH 


11.   liardv   vikings   of   art    from    Scandinavia. 


whom 


\ 


■.Hi'.] 


m 


V! 


I 


Anders  Zoru   was   the  leader,  with  a  variety  of  figure  subjects,  studicil  in- 


w 


'vA 


'X%- 


(;'*J 


m 

V 1  , 

111!        1' 

600         TJilL'MI'HS   AM)    WOMtlJliS    OF   Till-:   X/X'"   CESTURY 

doors  and  out,  with  wn  iiiicoiivciitioiiid  trct-doni  iiiid  diisli  as  iiisiiirin^  as 
the  hrct'zcS  of  Ids  native  tjords.  I'rinct'  Kiij^t'iii'.  tlic  liandsoiin'  popular  sec- 
ond son  ol'  tln'  l\iii,i;  of  Swfilcn.  was  no  mean  contrihntor  to  this  school. 
Frit/,  von  'IMiaidow  is  a  Norweudan  bv  hirth.  lint,  liein;(  well  recoi,'ni/ed  in 
I'" ranee  he  has  taken  up  ids  aliode  al  hieppe.  although  still  iindin;;  inspira- 
tion in  his  native  land,  lie  is  an  exponent  id'  the  theory  oi'  lone  in  pai'ilini:. 
as  it  is  technically  teiiiied.  'I'ids  reters  to  the  quality  ol'  harmony,  or  per- 
lect  halance  id  lii;hl  and  shaikh  anil  color.  It  does  not  depend  upon  the  \\v\ 
of  the  picture,  whether  lii^ht,  and  lirii;;ht.  or  dark  ami  sondire.  hut  consists  in 
keepin;.,'  the  relations  of  the  ilil'l'erenl  masses  1'  color  true  to  each  other,  the 
small  details  suhdued  to  their  proper  places,  yet  each  havim,'  its  correct  value 
in  the  whole. 

The  Scottdi  iiainters.  stimulated  no  douht  liy  the  success  ot  their  literary 
brethren,  have  established  the  (ilast;(iw  school  ol'  art.  most  orii^inal  in  its 
mi't hods,  ami  in  some  cases  hii,dily  peculiar  in  its  results,  but  w  itii  uiKpics- 
tioiiable  slrcui^th  in  its  more  sericms  and  less  I'antastic  work,  dohn  I-axeiw 
is  a  leader  amon;j;  these  men.  (lermany  prides  liersell'  on  one  ol'  the  i,'reatcsl. 
jiaintcrs  ol'  modem  times  in  the  person  ol'  .Vdolph  {''riedrieh  .Men/el.  a  t'rns- 
sian.  lioiii  I.Sl."»,  contemporary  with  .Meissoidcr.  .\s  the  latter  was  devoted 
to  the  JMnperor  ol'  the  I^'rcnch.  so  was  Men/el  to  his  hero.  I''redcrick  the 
(ireat,  and  their  vivid  portrayals  ol  their  respecti\t'  soverei;^rns  will  keep  the 
personality  ol'  these  couipierors  tresli  as  lonjj;  as  art  lasts.  I'\ii'  many  years 
.Mcn/.el  has  been  artist  laureate  to  the  court  at  l!erlin.  paiidinj,'  Ilohen/ol- 
lern  iamily  piutraits.  battle  pieces  and  scenes  of  court  splendor  in  tin'  most 
masterly  manner.  The  Iluui^arian.  Munkaesy.  has  Ikmui  widely  known  by 
his  hnj,'e  reIi.!4:ious  works,  lately  eshibitcd  in  this  »rounlry, —  •*  Christ  belore 
I'ilale"  and  the  •■  ( 'iiieitixion."  Mis  work  shows  yreat  power  and  much 
oriji^iuality  in  conception.  alihciuj,di  olten  somewhat  moi'biil,  a  not  unnatural 
condition,  as  the  nuloitunate  artist  has  become  hopelesslv  insane.  Tlie  o|(po- 
site  extrenu' oi'  expression  is  to  be  roun.l  in  the  LCori^i'ous  coloriuM;  and  superb 
compositions  ol'  Hans  Makart  of  Vienna,  notably  his  ••Coronation  id'  Catlie 
rine  Cormuo  at  \'eincc."'  .\  revival  of  intei'eit  in  reli!.^ious  subjects  has  re- 
cently appe.ircti.  possibly  stimulated  by  the  work  of  Mr.  .lames  Tissot,  ,i 
I'ari.sian.  who  has  j^iven  ten  years  to  the  piodiictiou  of  a  series  of  cai'elul 
studies  of  the  life  id'  Christ.  These  little  paint inys.  nninbeiiiit^  some  live 
hundreil  in  all,  are  the  residt  of  close  research  in  the  Ijnly  i,and  into  tic 
(•(Miditions  ol  lib'  and  customs  which  prevailed  at  the  time  ol'  Christ,  ami 
are  a  t  ribute  of  religious  devot  ion.  Whether  throui,di  this  inlineiiee  or  iini. 
I  •,i!.;nand'«ouverei  has  been  inspired  to  paint  a  luimber  of  stron;.;  seeiu's  of  bib 
lical  subjects,  t  Ao  coni'i'ptioiis  ot  the  Last  Supper  beiui^  \ery  powerlul.  A 
\oun.i,f  cdlored  man.  II.  < ».  Tannei\  has  achieved  success  on  siudlar  lines,  an 
••  .\n mine iat  ion  "'  recent  ly  slmw  n  '_;i\  iiig  e\  ideiiee  of  ileepand  ori'^iiiiil  thou.; lit 
('nriously  eii(iu'.4li.  the  women  painters  of  liisi  iniM  ion  do  not  seem  to  lie  yivcn 
to  reli;;ioiis  subjects,  ('lie  serious  lack  in  most  of  the  work  exhiiiiti'd  in 
recent  years  is  ilie  absence  of  any  imporlanee  in  subject.  The  artists  h.ivr 
been  so  concerned  to  express  what  they  saw  in  the  simplest  manmr.  tha' 
they  ha\e  carefully  avoidcii  seein'4  (M'  thiukin;^  about  anythiir.;  bin  i  he  >iiii 
plest  lhini;s  to  be  expressed.  While  some  powerful  Work  has  resulted,  ii  ha 
often  been  labor  Wdithy  of  a  better  cause,  lor  the  pictuii's  produced  have  h;h 


M' 


sruiiY 


ART  pi:o<;i:i:ss  or  Tin-:  cHXTiuy 


(iOI 


lis  nisiiiniij^  as 
nil'  iiopuliir  st'c- 
to  this  sfliool. 
1  r('ciii,Mii/i'(l  in 
liii(liii:4  insiiini- 

nllf   ill   [i.liMtillJ,'. 

iiiriiiniiy.  tn  pt-r- 

1(1    lll»ill   tllc  lv»'_V 

.  l)\il  ('(insists  in 
I  (Mcli  (PtlitT.  tin- 
its  (•(incci  v;iiiic 

(if  tlicir  litcrarv 
I  (iiiLriiKii  in  its 
ml  w  itli  nii(|ni's- 
.Idlm  Lavcry 
/  (it  tilt'  i,'rcatcrl. 
Mi'iizt'i,  a  I'nis- 
tcr  was  (Icvdtt'd 
1.    I'rcdcrit'k    tlic 
;ns  will  kt'i'ii  the 
l'\ir  many  yt'ais 
ntiinj;   Iltilit'ii/nl- 
idiir  in  tin-  must 
ridt'ly  known  l>y 
k  "  Christ  lu'lon' 
owcr  anil   nini'li 
iidt  iiniiatnval 
ic.     'riif  (i|>ii(i- 
ini,'  and  sii|ii'rli 
itimi  nl'  ( 'atiii' 
ubji'cts  has  rc- 
iiiii's  Tissdl.  a 
lies  (if  cai't'liil 
lili;^   siilllt'    liM' 
Land   intu  tin' 
dl'  Christ,  and 
tiacnci'  cr  nni. 
^  scrncs  (if  liili- 
•V  iidWi'ilnl.     A 
iiiilar   lines,  an 
riuiual  tiidif^ii' 
cm  Id  lie  !-;i\ ('" 
rk   cxhiiiitcd   in 
"lie  art  i-^ls  h,(\  > 
■>(   manm  r.  that 

•4     liul      I  ill'      'ill! 

ri'siillcd.  ii  iia 

illucfd  have   \\Af 


-a 


.1; 


III! 


little  to  tell  hcyond  the  skill  of  the  |iaintcr.  A  nnhly  iiaintcd  cahliat,'!'  licld. 
or  a  siipcibly  handled  stune  wall  with  the  tail  of  a  wdman's  skirt  disapiiear- 
ini;  ardiind  a  cdriier.  may  lie  masterly  paint inj;.  Imt  it  is  not  i,M'eat  art  ;  and 
it  is  to  1)0  hoped  th.iit  the  day  df  iiieaiiiii,i,dess  canvases  will  sdon  pass,  and 
the  cdniin:^'  painters  will  not  he  cdiitcnl  Id  discdiirse  Ltramlly  almut  nothiiiLC. 

Aiiidiit,'  the  leaders  of  eiirreiit  an  in  America,  the  ]»laee  of  lidiior  in  pur- 
traitiin,'  helonj^s  to  .Idlin  S.  Saincnl.  who  ea-ily  ranks  with  lidldini  a. id 
I'.eiiianiin  Constant  in  I'aris.  lie  is  clusely  folhiwed  liy  Kdmniid  ( '.  'I'arliell, 
.Idhn  II.  Alexander,  with  his  love  for  lon^'  tlowiiij,' j^raeeful  lines  of  drapery. 


\\   nil     «-iii!im;  (ik  visr^;,     im.m  \   imumv  ) 

IJdlxTt   X'oniioh.  and  William  M.  ('lla-^e.     .Idhn   McCliire  llamiltdii  has  made 
some  strikiii'^'  studies  n|    vcimc  nf   tlie  md--l    Muminent   peo|ile  nf  diir  lime. 

Illldlie;    them    (  ii^iiKtciiir    1    r,.|H      i.i'ci    \l||.        l-'.liliu    \'edder.  JmIiii    I  ,a  l'"a  I'^C 

Win  II.  i.dw.  Carr.ill  i'.eckuitli.  Aiiiiotl  'riiaycr.  and  K.  II.  I'dashtield  are 
li^iire  ]iaiiiters  wim^e  -^uiijects  nic  lic.pienlK  nl'  a  dccdijitivi'  dr  seiiii-iili- 
u  nil  is  cha  racier.  The  hiiici  is  iidled  jnr  hi^  literary  a--  well  a--  art  i'-lic  -iliilil  v. 
liedri,'e  II.  Iidii'^hldii,  thdii'^h  cailed  an  \iiiei:c:iii,  re:ill\  lieldn'4S  to  l''ii','land. 
\\  here  he  paints  inlerinr  ■,feiire  siilijecis  nsn.illv  dl  nlden  times.  .Idhn  Swan, 
ilie  animal  painter,  is  ;iKii  Mii'^livh,  The  iianies  cif  Mdiini  and  Sart;un  are 
'lisliii'4;iiished  in  liie  hi-lur'.  nf  Vinerican  art.  each  faniilN  lia\  iic^' I'diil  rilmled 
•''veral  Lreneiati"iis  ol  laleiiled  paiiileis.  The  elders  were  cMnt('iiip"rary 
villi  Mani(d  Iliinlinj,'tdn.  Ion-,'  [ire-ideiil  of  llie  National  Academy  ol  iK'sigii, 


'} 


m 


:]   i\ 


i\ 


if- 


hr'' 


fZ 


••If- ' 

I  ^ 

I 


<  = 


(iO'J 


TRIUMPHS   A\l>    MOM  Jims    OF   Till-:   XIX'"   CEyTLUY 


iuul  Ivistiiian  .IdliiLsoii,  whose  "Old  Konhickv  Munic"'  wns  famous.  William 
T.  J)aiiiiat.  Ilerlu'it  iH'iiinaii,  Krcdcrick  liritl,i,'Miaii.  and  K.  I^.  Wrt-ks  aif  ail 
stroin;'  li,t,nir('  paiiitcis.  tin-  last  two  hciiij;  t's|n'cially  j^ivuii  to  Orifiilal  sidt- 
jccts.  \\  iiislow  lloiiuT  includes  tij,nircs  with  his  mariuo  studies,  olieii  pre- 
gentiiii,'  s^Toups  oi'  peasiiiits  on  a  stormy  shore,  while  Alexander  Harrison  and 
\V.  T.  liiehards  usually  oonliiie  themselves  to  marines  pure  and  simple.  The 
ra,i,'ged.  dirty  little  street  .\ral)s  of  tl.  (i.  Urowu  iiave  Itoen  ex('eedinj,dy  popu- 
lar, and  so  have  the  landscapes  of  II.  I'xilton  Jones.  The  list  of  modern 
landscape  painters  really  dcM-rvin,!:;'  of  mention  is  far  too  lonj;  to  ,ni*'e  in 
anything  like  complete  mention.  .\  few  leaders,  such  as  Charles  II.  Davis, 
Homer  .Martin,  the  late  \\  illiam  T.  I'icknell.  and  (ic(>rge  Inuess  must  suUice 
to  close  our  talk  on  the  painters  (d'  this  century. 

II.    ,S(  TM-TI  i!i:. 

Human  progress  seems  io  ailvauee  in  waves,  sending  forerunneis  to  an- 
nouuei'  the  gathering  tide ;  and  the  ehh  and  How  (d'  fon-e  is  ielt  in  all  manner 
of  endeavor,  hut  in  nothing  so  instantly  or  accurately  as  in  the  tine  arts,  the 
most  sensitive  ami  sulitie  ftu'Uis  of  human  ex]iression.  The  jilastie  arts  are 
us  keen  to  record  these  changes  as  the  pictorial,  and  the  coming  jiower  of  tlir 
nineteenth  century  found  a  few  prophets  in  the  dying  years  of  the  (!entuiy 
jiassing  away.  Antonio  ("anova  (IToT-lSL'-).  horn  near  Veidee.  hd't  jnany 
graceful  and  (hdieatidy  linished  wiu'ks.  Jlis  ••  Three  (traces  "  and  groui>  ot 
"Cupid  and  I'syche  "  are  wcdl  known,  also  his  colossal  hust  of  Napoleon 
ami  seated  statue  <»f  Washington  for  the  State  of  Candina.  Kram-e  jiro- 
duced  a  master  in  .lean  Antoine  Houdon  ( 17  II-ISL'S),  nuire  vigorous  than 
his  contemporaries,  as  seen  in  his  powerful  work,  the  seati'd  statue  of  \'ol 
taire.  His  statue  of  Washington,  in  the  state  ca|)itol  of  N'irginia,  wiiile  jtrc 
.serving  a  faithful  likeness,  has  a  singular  air  of  l'"rem'lMdei,'anc»,'.  Despitr 
his  strength,  Houdon  was  not  more  accurate  in  stmly  than  the  great  Dane 
Thorwaldsen.  horn  at  Copenhagen.  1770.  His  famous  "  liioii  of  Lu/enu^"  i> 
known  to  all  to\irists.  and  his  i»as-relieis  are  familiar  the  world  over,  lli^ 
chief  I'eligious  works,  the  cidossal  tigures  of  Christ  and  the  twelve  apostlc>. 
are  in  the  church  at  Copeidiagen.  where  hi'  diecl  in  IS  1 1.  The  greatest  nam<' 
of  this  ]ieriod  in  I'nglaml  was  .lohn  l'"laxman  (17.''>.'i-l.SL'(i).  who  was  as  suc<'ess 
ful  a  teaidier  as  he  was  a  worki-r  in  his  art.  He  was  the  originator  of  tli' 
canu'o  designs  on  the  Wedgwood  ware,  being  ]iarticularly  hap]iy  in  delicati- 
reliefs.  Christian  Daniel  IJauch  ( 1777-1. S.'")7)  achieved  the  place  of  honm 
among  tierman  sculptors  of  this  time  hy  his  heroic  imperial  moiniments.  ol 
which  the  nnist  important  is  the  eciuestrian  statiu'  ol'  l''rederick  the  (ireat. 

.Mthoiigh.  for  many  generations,  Ifonu'  was  the  .Mecca  of  artistic  pili^riiii-. 
and  most  of  tin'  great  names  have  at  one  tinw  or  another  lieen  enrolled  upon 
the  list   of  students  sojourning  within  her  gates,  tht^  race  charaeteristii  s  .il 
each  strong  niiin!  were  liable  to  lind  exjiression  in  spite  of  classic  trainiu!.; , 
.■ind  when  the  mature  artist   brought  forth  his  own  creations  indepenlent  ol 
the  touch  of  school  or  master,  they  were  likely  to  present  his  own  nationii 
teuileiicies  of  thoie^ht.     <  »f  late  years,  with   increased  facilities  lor  stndvui 
other  art  centres,  of  intercommunication  id"  ideas  by  travel  and   increasing: 
duplication   of   works   cd'   art    by   various    reproductive   processes,    tlie   ■•m 
atmosphere  "'  seems  to  have  extended  so  as  to  absorb,  and  in  a  great  nwasuv 


MIT   I'iKKiltESS    OF  THE   CliMrilY 


mw 


lions.     William 

Wcfks  iin-  ill! 

u  Orit'iitiil  siili- 

(lit'S,  ol'lcii    I'lt'- 

■r  lliirrisoii  iiiul 
1(1  siiuiilf.  'I'll!' 
(■(M'(lint,'l,v  iinpii- 
list  of  iiiotlt'ni 
Idiit;  to  K'*'*'  '" 
larlf.s  II.  Davis, 
less  must  siitlicf 


I'oruniuTs  to  un- 
fit in  all  niaiiMfi- 
the  tint-  arts,  tin- 
('  |ilastic  arts  mi' 
iii;^  power  ot  tin' 
IS  ot  the  ceiit\in 
eniee.  loit  many 
es"  and  tj;roniiot 
nist  ot  Napolfou 
lii.  Kianec  ) no- 
re  vip;orons  tli;ni 
ed  statue  ol'  Vol 
r<?inia,  while  i>ic 


n  ot  lar/.erne  '■  i> 
Iworhl  over.     Hi-^ 
■  twelve  apostlrs. 
[lie  t,'reatest  naiii' 
|io  was  as  sueccs-- 
rii.;inalor  ot  tli> 
lliiippy  in  deliciit' 
]■   jilaee   ot    hoimi 
ul  monuments,  o! 
\\vV  till'  (ireat. 
iirtislif  pili^inn^ 
rli  eiirolieil  Upi'i 
•liaraetei'istii  s  nl 
elassie  trainin.; , 
s  independout  ol 
Ihis  own  natioiiii 
lies  tor  stndviii 
I'l  ;md   inrri'iisin  ; 


a  '^reat  iiieasii! 


oliliterate.  distinct  lines  of  i-iciid  dilicrence  in  maiiiifrs  of  expression,  the 
InndamiMital  principles  ol  lintli  liciii'^  more  i,fent'rally  son!.,dit  tor  and  applied, 
riiiis.  the  nnniistidvalily  Teutonic  uspeet  ot  (ieriiian  scnlptnie  in  the  enrlv 
lialt'  ot  this  century  .shows  in  tiic  i^reui  monnment  to  -(ierman  L'liitv."  liy 


NArOI.F.ON'    J        ff'WOVA.) 

Sihillincr.  at  Xiederwald  on  I  lie  Ilhiiie.  iiiul  the  Widhidhi  decorations,  hy 
l.iidwi;.,'  Schwantii;der.  tni'  Kiir^;  I^oiiis  ot  I'.avaria.  (lernian  seijoioiie-^  ot 
|iiii'pose  lends  a  di'4iiit\  o|  appearance.  e\en  il  il  heconies  somewhat  '^raiidi- 
">e  at  times,  and  (ieinian  pain^tal^iie,'  accuracy  perlecls  tlie  lerlmicpie  even 
111  the  linisli  ot  small  deiails.  I  (uriic^- the  same  periMd>.  in  Italy,  the  cla->i»! 
.iitlneiiee  was  more  dominani   wlieiv  the   l.'omau  xhool  >till  held  sway,  and 


i'> 


"!i; 


w 


:'>»ri 


■'s-i'; 


mi 


;,  »■, 


!H>     I) 


"S|!?,r 


(HH  riUUMI'HS  AND    WONDEliS   OF   TlIK  A/A'"   CEM'UliY 

il('li('ii(-y  (It'li'iionitcd  into  iiLsipidity,  and  tiiiislt  lit'cainc  tinii-al.  Kcli,i;ions  and 
I'lassic  Milijcrts  wen-  most,  lri'i|iii'ntly  luodiici'd,  licsidc  ninrr  vital  wmU  in 
IMHIiaits.  stalni's.  and  linsts.  Sonii'  tlitTc  wcic  wlio  stniij'^lt'd  Inr  Iri't'doiii, 
aninn','  tiirni  Lnicn/o  llaitnlini  (1777  isrid),  a  l-'iori'iilinr  iirnt'cssur,  wlmsr 
L;ri>ii|i.  cnljtlt'il  "  ( 'liai'il  \ ."  is  in  llic  I'ltti  ralacc.  laiii^'i  rani|ial<>ni  aiiiii'vid 
a  sui'|>risiii^  lame  lor  Ids  lii^ni't's  id'  (ddldrcn,  nm-  id  whirli,  Iroin  a  nmniiMn'nt. 
ini  a  I'ulisli  si'imlidiri'.  lias  iircii  widely  ('()|iii'd  in  rlicaji  plastrr  under  the 
eirniieoiis  title  n|  " 'I'lie  I'rayiii'^  Samuel. " 

ill  l'"iaiiei'.  the  advaiiee  td'  seiilptnie  has  lieeii  more  euidiinial  and  eonsist- 
iiit,  the  naliiinal  arlistie  teiiiiieianieiil  iindini;  aliiindant  means  oi'  e\|iressiiin 
III  the  |ilastie  ait.  The  h'reneli  diaiiialie  instinel  has  a.  sine  |ieree|itiiin  of 
the  elleet  id  a  |nise,  the  value  id'  j^raeel'iil  iir  vi^^nrmis  lines  and  (he  halanee 
III  |irii|ini'i  idii,  sii  that  whether  under  liniids  tn  aeademie  tiaditinn  in  matters 
td'  teehniijiie.  or  lirnken  Imise  and  wnrUiii'^  under  individual  ins|'iratinn,  t  he 
{''leneli  seidiitnr  is  likely  In  create  an  arlistie  result..  The  minds  id  the  euin- 
iiinii  |ieii|di'  are  more  awakened  to  arlistie  im|iressions  tliroii,L,di  the  i^i'iieral 
exeelleme  of  I  lie  |iiiliiie  nioiiiimeiits  and  senljitiiral  dreoralions.  so  Ireely  dis- 
jilayed  Ihioie^hoiil  the  land,  than  are  the  masses  in  eoiiiitries  where  ail  is  at. 
a  low  standard.  Intil  alter  the  middle  of  the  eeiiliiry,  l''reneli  seiil|itiire, 
like  the  resi.  was  mainly  of  smooth  and  didieate  tinish  and  inelined  to  he 
roniaiil  ii\  thini;.;h  l''raiii;ois  iviide  was  |iiiwerl'iil  and  vi,i;(>roiis,  as  shown  in  his 
pat  rii'i  ie  ,i,'ioiip  ■•  Le  Chant  dii  hepart  "'  on  the  .Vre  de  Trimiiphe.     In  !'ai,i;land, 

I  he  > Is  oi    l''lasiiian's  sowini;  slowly  lie!j;aii   to  hear  fruit    in  an  awakeiiiii'^ 

pi  I  Mi  I-  iiiti'i'  St.  thoiii,di  the  earlier  efforts  were  sedate  and  eoiiventional  rat  In 'r 
than  soirilril,  the  most  important  works  liein;.;  ilii;'iiitieil  and  stately  moini 
ineiits  and  memorials.  W'estmaeolt.  ( 1 777-1  Sad).  I''raiieis  Chantrey  (17SL'- 
ISII).  whose  lar'^e  forinin'  was  lieipiraiheil  to  the  Koyal  Aeademy  as  thr 
'•  Chaiitiey  l'"iiiid  ;  "  .lohn  (iilison  ( I7'.M-1S(;(1).  a  pupil  id'  Cannva;  Henry 
Weeks  ( lS(t7-IS77).  who  made  the  JirsI  Imst  of  N'ietoria  as  (,)iiern  ;  and 
.Mfreil  (i.  Sti'vens  ( INI 7  lS7,"i).  are  a  few  of  the  more  iiotalile  men  of  tin' 
past  lieneralion.  Thomas  Woollier  ( ISL'-I-ISKL')  expressed  the  feel  in,^' of  the 
pre-ltaphaelite  mnvemiiit  in  seiilptiire,  as  did  Hunt,  liurne-.lones,  and  Kos- 
selli  ill  paiiil  iiii,'. 

.\meriean  seiilptnre   lie::,'aii  with   the  new  eentiirv  and.  like  most,  .\meriean 
growths.  I ie;4a II    in   a   very   siiuill   way;   for  alllioiit,'h    ifiisli    had    made  a    \v\\ 
ti,i;iires.  imialily  a  fountain  now  in  l'"airmoiint.   I'ark,  one  of  the  lirsl  piercs  id 
siMilptnial  work    in   (lieeoiintry  was   that   of  a   poor  New  .lersey  stone-eiitlrr. 
.lohn  l-'ra/re.  who  tried  to  eomfort  himself  for  the  death  of  his  idiild  by  maK 
iiiLj  a  mi'iiiniial  li^Mire  of  him.  although  he  had  never  seen  a  statue.     P'roiiilhi- 
meagre  lie'^inniiiL;  started  a  line  of  ever-inereasiiii^  st reii,i,'tli.  iiiitil  imw,  in  tin 
plastie  ails,  as  in  all  others,  we  eaii  hold  our  own  with  the  liest   in  the  world, 
(M'rouisi'  I  he  earlii'i' .■students,  led    hy  I  lorat  io  ( ireriioii<4;Ii,  of  I'oston.   Hiram 
power-,  of  Vi'iinoiil.  and  Thomas  ( 'rawford.  of  New  ^'ol■k.  made  ilndr  way  '" 
IJoiiie.  w  heir  I  hey  applied  the  traditional  methods  to  traditional  sulijrets  will. 
eoinentioiial   re>iilts.      ( lieenoiiLjh's  eolossal    statue  of  \\'asliiiiL;ton   is  in   tli 
Capitol   ■4iouiid< ;    I'ower^'s   "(ireek  Sla\e""is  owned  by  the   l!iike  of  ( 'l'\' 
land:   and  Craw  lord's   •■ »  Mplieiis  seekinij;   l'air\  diee,"  now  in   the  I'.ostoii  Mn 
seiim.  and    ••Colossal    I.ilnrty"   in   the  Capitol,  an*    his    liestdsiiown    work 
I-'rastus  I'aliiii'r.  of  Alhaiiy,  eontempoiary  with  these,  developed  his  talent 


MiT  rno(,i:i:ss  or  the  cESTruy 


<;().'> 


Kflii^ioiis  and 
!•  vit;il  work  in 
•d  t(ir  Int'tlnni, 
rott'ssiiv.  wlidsc 
i|i;iliiin  ailiit'Vt'd 
(iiii  ;i  iiMiumiifiit. 
liistcr  uiultT  tlic 

i\ial  ami  consist- 

iis  of  fxiivt'ssidii 

If  |ici('f|ilitMi  nt 

;ill(l  till'  iKllailft' 

lilinii  in  nialtfi's 
I  inspinilinn,  tlir 
linds  cif  till-  I'diii- 
iiii«,'li  the  ;4«'iu'ral 
MIS,  so  liffly  tlis- 
■s  wliiTi"  art.  is  at. 
Mcncli  M'uliitan'. 
1(1  inclined  to  lif 
,  as  slinwn  in  his 
,li,..     Ill  l'jii;lanil. 

in  an  awakcniir^ 
nvcntional  ratln'r 
md  stately  inoun 

Chant  n-y   (17SL' 

Aradcniy   as  the 
("annva;    llctiry 

I  as  (>nf<'n  ;    and 
dilf    men  of  til.- 

:li.'  Icclin;^  of  the 


d,  .\ui('iic;ni 


|tln'  lirst  i>it'ci's  ol 
jTst'V  ston«'-(Mdt('r. 

his  (diild  Wy  uimK 
Matnr.     r'ldin  tlii- 

vmtil  now.  in  tin 
litest   in  the  worlo. 

)f  r.oston.  llirini! 
Jiiiide  llh'iv  way  I" 
|)nal  snl'jeets  w  ill' 
Ihin'^toii  is  in  ih' 


dd<nown    woil 


home,  and  seenred  niodids  imd  sniijeets  fnini  his  own  neiL;hhnihoo<i.  Ljivini;  a 
distinctly  American  ciiaiader  to  Ids  woik.  Anions;  the  most  noted  of  the 
American  colony  at  Home.  althon;^di  not  iiiirticidarly  iriven  to  Amenciin  .>ni)- 
jocts,  was  Williain  Wctinoiv  Story,  of  .Saleiu.  Mass.,  horn  in  l.Sll).      Tlionia.s 


BTATIK   OK    KK.N.IAMIN    KItANKI.IX.      (ItOYIK  ) 

liiiU.  l»orn  in  the  sntne  Stiite  in  the  s;inii'  yeai-.  \\;i>  (d  the  >;inie  chos  in  llonip; 
liid  his  themes  ail'  more  |i;ilriotie.  iiotaldy  the  ••  l'an;nici|iation  "  '^loup  in 
Washini^lon.  Ilanii-t  llosinei'  i^  the  lirst  feminine  n;ime  on  the  American 
list  (d' scnl|itcirs.  She  ;d-o  ^(■tl^•d  in  Home,  w  he|c  she  ('oiM;deted  ni;in\  works. 
William    lienr\    llinehinl    ;iml    l;;indoi|i|i    IJo'^i'rs  were   hotli   ol    the   ideali.st 


'A 


I 

'W.i 

',   li 


^W\ 


"fil 


(■;■!■■( 


(iOU 


TlilUMl'llS  AM)    WOSDEHS   OF  THE  A7A'"   CENTURY 


M 


jMtil 


scliool,  till'  lattiT  (•(mi|pli'tini,'  Criiwlnrd's  iiiitinislu'd  Wasliingtctii  iiionuiupiit. 
iit  Kichmoiid.  TIh'  iiaiiu'  of  l{(ij,'frs  is  iikih'  (•(niiiiiniily  cdiineclL'tl  with  llic 
liiiuiliar  little  stutiicttt'  ^roiijis  cif  every -day  dnmesticr  seeiies  so  apiiealiiii,'  to 
tiie  |i()|ndar  taste.  The  sciiliitor  .Idhii  IJoj^ors.  nl'  .Massaeiiusetts.  lias  alsn 
iiiaili'  a  lew  larj;'e  works,  aiiioiii,'  them  the  ei|iiesti'iaii  statute  ol'  (Jeiieial  liey- 
iiolds,  helnre  tlie  City  Hall,  I'liiladeliihia.  Henry  Kirke  I'.ruwiie  (IMJ-lNKC)) 
made  a  liuiiilier  ol'  equestrian  statues  of  note,  one  of  Wasliiniiton  Ix-iiii;'  tlie 
lirst  Iti'onze  aetnallyeast  in  AnuM'iea.  His  li^uic  ol  (ieneral  Scott,  was  east 
from  (;aiitiired  cannon,  relics  of  the  .Mexican  war.  His  |iu|iils.  J^arkin  .Meade 
and  .1.  ii.  \.  Ward,  both  attained  hi;j;li  [ilaces.  the  -iatter  boin,!:,'  esjx'eially 
jironiinent  in  the  iiro','ress  of  .\merican  seuljiture  throu,L,di  sn<'h  woiks  as  his 
colossal  Washington  for  the  New  York  Treasury  liiiilding,  and  his  '•  Indian 
llunti'r."  ••  ril,i,Mim."  and  "  Shakespeare,"  in  Central  J'ark. 

After  the  middle  of  the  century,  Kreneh  art  became  emotional  and  dra- 
matic, the  notorious  "  Danee  "  for  the  Paris  Opera  House,  by  tl.  I!.  Carpeaux, 
bcin.Lf  one  of  the  first  of  the  new  utterances.  Paul  Hubois  was  less  uston- 
isliiiig  in  manner,  and  Henri  Chapu  was  still  more  restrained,  althoui,di  far 
more  vital  than  the  old  conventional  school.  The  name  of  i'"rederic  .\u','uste 
iJartholdi  shoidd  be  known  to  every  American  by  reason  of  his  colossal 
statue  of  ••  Liberty  Knliyhteniuij  the  World,"  now  standing  sentinel  in  New 
\'ork  harbor.  This,  and  his  figure  of  Lafayette  offering  his  services  to  Wash- 
ington, were  presented  to  .\meri(;al)v  tbe  French  government.  Antoine  Louis 
ISarye  ( 17i>."»-lS7.">)  was  a  .sculptor  .s(^/  f/ctirn's,  a  law  unto  himself  of  lii.s  own 
development  ;  ami  though  lie  has  many  followers,  as  a  sculptor  of  animals  lie 
has  no  rivals.  In  many  branches  of  art  he  was  proticient.  but  his  best-known 
works  are  the  nuirvelous  studies  of  animal  life,  modeled  with  infinite  skill. 

When  the  great  wave  of  impressionism  rose  and  flooded  the  land,  carrying 
music,  literature,  and  the  drama  belore  it.  plastic  art  as  well  as  jiictorial  was 
ght  u|(  too.  and  whiiled  into  a  variety  td  strange  forms.  .\ugusic  Kodin 
ovemi'ut  in  sculpture,  his  manner  being  copied  with  varying 


eau 


h'd  the  new  m 

degrees  of  success  by  lesser  lights,  and  like  all  new  movemeiits  run  to  fooli>ii 

extremes   by  incompetent  followers.      His   heroic  group.  •• 'i'he    liourgeois  ol 


Cal; 


as, 


will   indicate   his  stvle.     From  extreme  realism  on  one  side,  witi 


portrait  statues  in  the  last  det;iil  of  modern  costume,  silk  hats,  kid  gloves, 
and  in  one  i-ase  holding  a  cigar,  to  the  vague  suggestions  of  a  sha[ieless  mas> 
of  marble,  out  (d  which  protrude  unlinished  limbs  and  half-devtdoped  heads. 
sc\dpture  has  been  pushed  from  side  to  side,  but  is  .settling  into  .a  vigorous, 
steady,  onward  niovenuMit,  in  which  the  best  men  of  all  nations  stride  alon- 
together.  In  the  limits  (d'  a  short  article  it  is  impossible  to  mention  all 
deserving  names,  but  a-  few  will  serve  as  types,  and  tlie  Americans  are  well 
worthy  to  head  the  list. 

I)aniel  I'leuch's  grand  m.'ijestic  golden  ligure  of  Liberty,  towering  abovi 
the  Court  of  Honoi'.  tlie  imperial  hostess  of  the  World's  Pair  at  Chicaui'. 
placed  him  at  once  on  a  pedestal  of  fame.  Prom  thi'  iirominence  of  hi- 
beautiful  Columbian  Pountain  opposite  the  golden  (lodih'ss,  l'"rederick  .Mar 
Moiinies  became  known  the  laiidovi-r.  His  greatest  late  work  is  the  crowning 
of  the  soldiers'  and  saihu's'  memorial  areh  for  Prospect  Park,  Pirooklyn.  with 
a  colossal  quadriga  of  Triumjdi  and  groups  of  the  army  and  navy,  .\ugustu- 
St.  Ciaudeiis,  though  a  cosmopolitan,  is  truly  an  .American  sculptor  of  th' 


!5'  it 


uR  y 


Airr  I'llOGUKSS   OF  THE   CESTUIIY 


(loT 


1  iiioimnu'iit 
ted  with  lli>' 
uiUH'uliui^'  I<| 
tts,  liiis  iilsii 

it'llCIill    Kt'V- 

(isll-isstw 

oil  briny  till' 
■(lit  was  cast 
lai'kiu  Mi-adt' 
\iT  fsjK'i'ially 
wiiik>  as  his 
his  '•  Intliaii 

)iial  and  tlia- 
\\.  Cariicaux. 
IS  h'ss  astiiii- 
,  altliuuiih  far 
li'ric  .\U',nisto 
■  his   cohissal 
itiiit'l  ill  N»'W 
•ices  to  Wash- 
AntoiuL'  Louis 
'If  of  his  own 
of  animals  he 
lis  bi'st-known 
itinilc  skill, 
iiitl.  earn  in;,^ 
|iictorial  was 
jiousli'  Koiliii 
with  vaniii'^' 
■nil  to  fooli>li 
rxiiirj^t'ois  ot 
lie  side,  with 
Is.  kid  <,dovi'S, 
lapi'less  mass 
•(■loi>cd  licads. 
ito  a  vij^i'i-oiis. 
IS  stride  aloii- 
incntioii  all 
leans  aiv  WfH 

iwcrin;.;-  ahovi 
iv  at  ("hicau". 
lint'iK'c  of  lii- 

ii'deriek  Mar 
s  the  crowniii- 
'.rooklyn.  wiili 
vy.     .\iii,Mistu- 

:"\ilj>t()i'  of  til' 


tiist  rank,  whose  statues  of  Admiral  fariaLrut  in  New  York.  Lincoln  in  Clii- 
ra.tro.  and  the  sturdy  I'uritaii.  Cliaiiin,  in  S|iriiej;tield.  Mass.,  are  well  known, 
olin  Warner  is  another  distiiictivtdy  American  iiroduct.  altliou,i,di  he  had  the 
advaiitii.ye  of  some  trainin;^'  in  I'aris.  His  work  is  l'"reiich  in  tccliiiii|iie  hut 
not  l''reiicli  ill  spirit.  haviii,L(  the  native  traits  of  frecdnm  ;iinl  ori'^iiiality.  as 
shown  in  his  ti;j;nre  of  William  Llnyd  (iarii>oii.  ami  lati'r  in  his  relief  [lor- 
t  raits  on  the  art  IniildiiiLC  at  the  < 'olundiiaii  hair.  This  ureat  occasion  offered 
opiiortnnities  to  American  sciilptors  of  which  they  took  full  advantage,  show- 
iiiLT  the  hi,<,di  rank  to  which  they  were  entitled.  It  iiuch'  an  American  of 
Carl  I'.itter,  the  talented  Austiiaii.  whose  dueorations  on  the  J'ennsylvaiiia 
Kailroad  Station.  I'liiladelphia.  are  well  known.  It  cadch'd  further  lustre  to 
the  name  of  .lohii  .f.  I'.oylc.  whose  heroic  ''Indian  ^lotlier"  in   Kaiinionnt 


■rilK    WASl|IN(.TON    MONIMIINT.    K  \l  liMolNr    I'AKK. 

I'ark.  and  seated  statue  (d'  lU'iijamin  Kranklin.  are  matters  (d'  just  ]iride  to 
I'hiladelithians.  It  u'l^vo  jiroiniiH'iice  to  such  men  as  Lorado  Taft,  with  his 
<;raeeful  work  on  the  Horticultural  Jhiildiic^::  Philip  .Martiny.  on  the  A<^'ri- 
cultural  liuildinj,' ;  the  sircat  Columhus  qiiadri'^a.  hy  K.  C  Potter  and  l»aniel 
French,  whose  beautiful  relief  of  ••  I  teaih  Stayiii','  the  I  land  of  the  Sculptor "' 
is  a  masterpiece.  .Ml  visitnis  to  the  White  City  will  remember  the  viLCorons 
animal  studies  by  Kdward  Keiiiys.  and  the  Indian  ti;4nres  of  .\.  (".  I'roctur. 
The  sculptural  commissions  (d'  the  < 'oii.i,Messii)nal  liiinary  in  Washiiie:toii 
have  produced  a  remarkaiile  collection  of  works  by  taleiiteil  Amprieans.  and 
every  great  exhibition  brini,'s  interestini;  examples  from  those  already  named, 
and  such  others  as  Herbert  .\dains.  I'Mwiii  Hhvell.  Piessie  Potter,  with  her 
dainty  little  statuettes,  jiortrait  work  by  Charles  (JraHy.  Catherine  Cohen. 
C.  K.  Hallin.  straiii^'c  vi.-ionary  su:4i,'estioiis.  in  the  Itodin  manner,  by  (Jeorge 
Hoiiiiard.  and  an  array  of  lesser  names  to<j  immeinus  to  mention. 


:i| 


m 


h'; 


ri 


n.  iiii 


ysi 


fiS^i 


l«l 


iti 


H 

I» 

^h 

■  -1 

COS 


THWMl'HS  AND    WONUEItS   OF   THE  A7A'"  CENTUllY 


For  tliis  reufsoii,  hut  tew  df  tlic  notiihlo  uiiiiH's  of  iiKulcrii  loieigners  can  be 
{jiven.  However,  lliiiuo  Tlioruytiroi't.  ol  Kii},'liiii(l.  imist,  not  be  overlooked, 
whose  fiiiuoiis  "Mower"  is  imieh  tuliiiireil  ;  nor  ()nsh)W  Kord,  more  youthful 
and  romantic  in  style,  .lolin  Henry  Foley,  of  Dublin,  has  liad  a  pronouncied 
efl'eet  on  Knglish  seidpture,  being  a  sueeessl'ul  teaeher,  including  among  his 
pu])il3  several  distinguished  wonuMi,  among  them  the  I'rinttess  Louise  and 
the  Karl  of  Elgin's  graiuhlaughter.  Miss  (J rant,  (ieorge  Tinworth's  terra 
cotta  reliefs  must  conclude  the  list  of  Knglish  works.  A  few  Itussians  have 
reached  eminenci!,  mainly  by  aniiuiil  studies.  Antocolski,  a  .lew  of  Wilna, 
of  poorest  parentage,  has  done  poweiful  figure  work  of  ;y  serious,  riither 
melancholy  sort,  the  most  iinp(Utant  being  a  "Christ  l>ound."  What  is  best 
in  modern  Italian  and  (Jerman  work  is  practically  French,  and  of  the  French 
themselves  the  list  is  too  long  to  complete.  .V  few  must  suHicc,  such  as  flean 
Alexandre  F'alguiere,  who  as])ires,  like  Carpeau.x.  to  give  vitiility  by  mean.s 
of  vigorous  action  to  his  figures.  Emanuel  Fr^mict  has  worn  with  .some  dis- 
tinction the  mantle  descended  from  r>arye's  shoulders.  Vidal,  another  pupil 
of  Barye,  was  blind  for  twenty  years,  yet  gained  two  medals  for  correct 
anatomy  in  liis  modeling.  Carrier  IJelleuse's  "Hebe  Asleep"  is  an  example 
of  the  delicate  style,  and  .Mfred  JJoucher  shows  the  other  extreme  in  his 
rendering  of  sturdy  masculine  figures,  toiling  or  racing,  striving  to  present 
in  sculpture  the  picture  of  luiman  struggle  for  existence,  as  did  .Millet  in  liis 
l)aintings.  Tliese  materialistic  studies  represent  the  fight  for  the  bread  and 
breath  of  life,  while  the  impressionist  contortions  of  the  Kodin  school  try  to 
suggest  the  conflict  of  emotions,  good  and  bad,  and  the  battle  of  spiritual  and 
physical  desires  and  development. 

Ml.     CKK.AMMS    .AND    fit.ASS    WORK. 

From  time  immemorial  to  the  i)resent  day  men  have  been  fashioning 
shapes  of  clay,  experimenting  with  different  kinds,  ditt'erent  degrees  of  heat, 
and  different  chemical  combinations  to  form  gla/.es  and  c(dorings.  The  fun- 
damental processes  of  pottery  making  have  changed  but  little  since  pr'  ''is- 
torii!  times,  and  wall  pictures  of  the  days  of  the  Ptolemies  show  the  potter's 
wheel  whirling  much  as  it  does  at  present,  although,  of  course,  many  mo(h>rii 
inventions  have  been  made  to  facilitate  different  forms  of  work.  In  the 
famous  Sevres  factories  in  France,  established  under  roy.al  ])atronage  ami 
still  remaining  government  pro]>erty,  a  modern  device  has  I'cndercd  possible 
the  making  of  large  vases  of  extremely  thin  ware.  To  prevent  the  delicafr 
paste  of  which  these  are  nuule  from  collapsing  by  its  own  weight  before  ii 
can  harden,  the  va.se  or  jar  is  moulded  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  the  niouili 
of  the  object  sealed,  and  the  air  exhaust»'d  from  the  chamber,  leaving  tin 
object  in  a  vacuum.  The  air  contained  in  itself  is  suHicient  to  hold  up  tlir 
sich's  until  they  harden  and  danger  of  colla]>se  is  over,  when  it  can  be  fired 
Attempts  were  madt-  in  vain  to  ecpial  the  delicacy  <tf  the  Chinese  egg-shell 
ware,  when,  one  day  an  educated  T'liinese  visitor  to  the  fa<'tories  observed 
the  method  employed,  and  exclaimed,  '"This  is  the  way  we  make  those  cups.* 
and.  taking  a  mould,  he  dipped  it  into  the  liiiuid  paste,  linsed  it  annind  ami 
emptied  it  at  once.  A  thin  film  like  a  soap  bubble  remained  in  the  mould 
which  hardened  enough  to  form  the  dainty  ware  the  workers  had  been  tryiii 
without  s\icce.ss  to  produce;  so  the  Chinese  method  was  at  once  adoiiteu 


i  I 


;ny 

ners  can  be 
overlooked, 
ve  youthful 
pvouounced 
g  luuon^'  hi« 
Louise  iiiul 
^ovth's  terra 
ussiiins  have 
.w  of  NVilua, 
rious,   riilWer 
What  is  hest 
,f  the  Freneh 
s\ich  as  .lean 
itv  hy  uu'aus 
,itli  some  ilis- 
iiiiother  ])Ui)il 
Is  tor  (torrect 
is  an  exanqilc 
ittrenie  in  his 
„.^r  t(>  \»resent. 
il  Millet  in  his 
the  bread  and 
u  school  try  to 
if  spiritual  and 


•on  tashionins 
xrvees  ot  heat, 
i|,'s.     The  fun- 
siuee  \)V'  ''i>*- 
()\v  the  potter's 
many  modern 
work.     In  the 
latronais'e  ami 
(h-red  itossil)le 
■ut  the  delieati' 
•eight,  before  i' 
Iter,  the  mouth 
v\;  leaving  tin 
to  hold  up  thr 
it  ean  he  lireil 
liinese  cgg-shel! 
ories  observed 
Ike  those  cups.'* 
il  it  around  aii't 
ill  the  mouh! 
Iiad  been  tryin 
once   adopt  e<i 


Airr  i'1!(k;/ii:ss  of  the  cestcry 


(iOi) 


About  the  middle  of  the  last  iMMitury  au  impetus  of  ilcvflopnu'nt  in  "■(•ramie 

art  appeared  all  over  tiie  couliiienl   of   Kuropt;  and  in   England.     This  was 

|irol)alily  due  to  the  discovery,  in  ditVerent  places,  of  kaolin  or  the  tine  clay 

of    which    porcelain   is   made,   which    stimulated    the    potte^'y   industry   and 

caused  the  estahlislMuent  of  many  fiictories  which  ai'e  still  working  to-day. 

The   Dresden  works,  fonndecl   in   17<K».  were  hidden  in   an  old   fortress,  and 

their  secrets  jealousiy  guarded.     .Mter  iiliout  a  century  they  went  into  decay, 

hut    in  isr».'5  were  revived  and   reostahlished  in  large  ilew  hiiildings  of  their 

own,  where  diunty  Howercd  ware   is   produceil.  which   has  again  come  into 

popular  favor.      Italian  ceramics  are  ajit   to   he   tlorid  and  ovcrloadeil  with 

(lecoriition,   that   called    ••  maji>lica  "  deriving  its   name    from   the   island   of 

Majiu'ca.  where  it  was  lirst    made.     ••  l'"ayencc"  comes  fiom  I''aen/a,  and  the 

l''reiich   form  of  the  name.  ••  faience,"  ha>  lieen  used  to  designate  jiorcelain 

in  geiu-ral.     The  town  of  Limoges,  in   !•' ranee,  has  been  a  centre  »d'  ceramic 

art  since  177.'!,  when  a  l''rench   tirm  cstalilished  a  factnry  for  the  jiroduetion 

of  a  ]iecidiarly  tine  ware,  made  jiossilile  by  tin;  superioi'  (iiiality  of  the  kaolin 

found  in  the  neigliliorhood.     In  Ls.">'.>  a  laily  in   New  WnV.  .-.liowed  the  Mavi- 

land  tirm  a  cup  of  delicate  ware,  asking  them  to  match  it  for  her.      It  was  so 

nnitdi  liner  than  anything  they  had  seen  that  they  desired  to  import  some  for 

their  own  husiness.      With  this  end  in  view.  Mr.  David   Ilaviland  took  the 

cup  and   went   to    I-'rancc  trying  to   tind  where  it   hail   been   made.      lie  was 

directed  to   Limnges  and.  in    the    factories  there,  he   tried   to  have    Knglish 

shapes  and  decorations  copied  in  the  exipiisite  ware.     'I'lie  conservatism  and 

slow  nu'thods  of  the  place  were  not   e(|ual  to  his  demands,  and  he  theretoi'e 

established  a  factory  of  his  own.  which,  sini'c  the  middle  of  the  century,  has 

been  the  most  important  in  the  town. 

In  Englaml,  the  nM)st  celehrated  potteries  are  aU  over  a  century  old.  and 
the  ceramics  art  has  been  developed  to  the  highesi  degree  both  in  techiucal 
and  artistic  directi(«ns.  The  works  of  the  Doiillon  iirm.  who  own  many  pot- 
teries, are  iiarticularly  rich  in  color  and  deccu'ation.  those  from  their  factory  at 
LandH'th  being  especially  tine.  So  also  ar<' the  Coaljiort  wares,  celebrated  for 
ihi'ir  rich  blue  c(dor.  the  Woyal  Worcester  ami  the  Crown  Derlty.  In  these 
Kic^lish  factories,  and  also  in  those  on  the  Continent,  artists  of  great  skill 
are  emploved  as  decdrators.  and  in  tin'  Wedgwodd  works  tiie  deliciite  cameu 
ligures  in  white  relief  on  a  tinted  ground  weie  originated  hy  the  famous 
scidpt(U-,  dohn  l-'laxman.  In  America,  tlie  Trenton  pntiiricN  turn  out  a  vast 
•  juantit v  of  wari's  (d' varying  decrees  of  artistic  excellence,  ami  one  lactory 
has  the  secret  cd'  an  old  lii>li  ware,  the  I'.elleek.  of  indescrdialili' delicacy, 
like  an  iridescent  sea  shell,  long  thonght  to  lie  a  lo^t  art.  The  Wookwood 
jinttery.  of  most  aitistie  quality  in  desien  and  color,  is  made  in  Cincinnati. 
;nid  was  the  in\ention  of  a  woman  who  ha->  traini'd  a  scdiool  oj  girls  as  deco- 
rators; as  has  also  the  Tifiany  lirni  in  New  \ mk  for  their  marvidons  glass 
work.  .\n  adeipiate  dociiptiou  oi  the  work  of  this  tirm  would  till  a  liook.as 
thev  have  dev(doM''d   undreaiiied-(d    iiossiWilities  in  the  use  (d'  glass  for  deco- 


ra 


tive  lairjiose 


Thev  have  revived   lorgot  1  en  art s  of  colonies  and  mvente- 


iicw  iiroeesses  o 


f  t 


reatnii 


nt.  that    give  resi 


dls  like  fairy  work,  no  two  pie( 


nrue. 


ili 


ililie 


Tl 


lese  a 


nd    manv  other   lorms   of   imlustrial   art    product-,  are 


Imaight  to  a  high  plane  of  perfection  nowa 
•,':ievously  abused,  being  applied  to  ever\thin,i. 


ilavs,  although  the  word  ••art 


alahle.  from  writing  pajii'i'  to 


I 


;}".» 


ff'l 


t  J  I 


MUi 


r«' 


i  ij 


»fii 


Km. 


11 

ii 

,!(' 


Ilt!> 


610      TiiiiMJ'Hs   ixu  n<>.\/>i:i,'s  or  riii:  .v/.v"  ciisruiiY 

soiip.  Tilt'  \i\v\\[.  scliniils  ami  iiisliliitioiis  wliicli  tciidi  I  lie  arts  aiiil  iiidiisti'it'H 
eninliiiii'il  an'  di'iii'^  vast  '^(mkI.  Imwcvri'.  in  iiii|in)\  11114  |iulilic  taste  and  Icarli- 
Iiil;  till'  uiii'lil  til  ilisi'i'iiiiiiiati'  lict  u  ci'ii  iriD'ail  ami  t'aUf.  ami  I  ln'ir  iiilliiciii'c 
can  already  lie  Ji'li  m  idi^iicr  slamlanis  nl'  drcorat  imi  in  art  ides  of  ('iiiiiiimii 
daily  use. 

i\.    I  MM  sii;i  Ai.    \i;rs. 

Closi'ly  l'ipll()\viii'4  paint Iiil;'  ciiinc-  lilack  ami  wliite  ait  in  varimis  i'oriiis. 
t'ithrr  ri'|inidii('l  ivi'  nr  (iri:4'iiial  wmU.  and  it  is  ditliciilt  to  disciiiiiiiiati'  lie 
Iwccn  lint'  an  and  liamlicrall  iiiIIh'  iiiaii\  iPiiM'cs.srs  ('iii|ili)\  rd.  I'ai,i,'iaviii;; 
on  metal  lias  iuniLj  heeii  Unowii.  and  steel  was  emisidered  an  es|ie('ially  valu- 
able nieilmd  ut  re|(riidiieiiii,'  paintiiiLCs  until  within  a  j,'eiierati(iii.  Kteliin.^;- i- 
aiiotlH'rold  t'liini  ol'  lilaeU  and  while  wmU.  and  is  still  |Mi|iiilar.  tlinii;4;h  le>s 
so  than  lnrnierly.  Wood  eie^ias  iiii;'  during;  I  his  eeiitiii  y  has  passed  lliroii^;li 
many  sta^^es  cd  develo|iiiieiii.  ami  in  the  illii--t  rations  of  honks  and  iiiai^a/im'N 
has  heeii  l>roii,;lit  to  a  lii^jii  standiii'^' as  a  line  art.  ll  is  still  ii>ed  in  iiianv 
\va\>.  Iiiit  all  I  hose  proeesses  that  it'ipi.ire  line  wmU  liy  iiaiid  are  lieiiiLC  super- 
seded  by  the  pholo-lype  jiioeesses,  ol  ^\hieh  there  are  niaii\  kinds.  The 
niakiii;.;  cd'  plates  or  blocks  lor  printiii'^  re.piired  skiUeil  liaiul  work,  and  tin 
eii;.,'ra  vers  ami  woodcutters  were  iieeessarii\  arlisis  t  heiiise!\  es.  xi  that  while 
tliev   were 


pyi Hi;  the  work  (d'nihers  Ihey  were  also   | 


jirodiieim':  works  o|  an 


theiiis(dves.       The   plates  and    prints  were,  thendore.  \aliiableaiid  expensive 
ami,  as  niodein  hasie  '^icw   iiKUe  ami  more  in  demand   eheap  ipiiek  worl^,  iIk 


•  !( 


areiiil    sl\le    ol    wdikinu'   i^a\e   wa\     to    meehanieal    nielhods  ol    -^reali 


speed.  Willi  I  he  de\elopnieiit  (d'  plioli  i'.;rapli\  and  its  appliealion  lu  the 
engraver's  art,  while  a  certain  iiidi\iiliial  arti>lie  eharaeter  in  the  work  wa- 
lost,  the  actual  copying;'  ol'  painliiiu'  iu  all  1  he  details  nf  lii^ht.  sliaile.  and  hall 
tones  has  been  carried  to  a  lii^h  di'Ljree  (d'  perl'eetion.  liy  what  is  kiinwn 
as  photo'^ravuri'.  every  tiny  brush  mark  and  every  ditl'erent.  tint  <d'  enloi  is 
iititic  accnracN  in  lilack  and  white.    This  is  aceomolished 


reproduced  with  sen 
by  liaviii!.;-  a  pliiHn;;raph  ol  the  oaintiie^  taken  on  a  i;i'latiiie  liliu.  which  i^ 
siisoeiided  in  a  bath  id'  acid  in  tlu'  line  id'  an  electric  current.  This  eiirreiii. 
|ilayiu'4   o\('r   a    sheet    ol    co|iper,   sels   tree   the   molecules  id'  metal    that    an- 


deposited  upon  the  tilni,  and  lilliiii;'  all  the  little  iiiei|nalities  of  the  siirlace. 
produce  what  is  practically  a  cast  id'  the  pliotoi,M'apli  in  copper.  'I  he  plali'. 
thus  sctMired.  is  inline  over  by  hand  and  tinislied  here  and  then'  with  cn;j:raver"-. 
tools,  and  fmm  this  prints  may  be  duplicated  to  any  extent.  In  ein,'ra\ed 
])lates  the  desiyii  is  cut  into  the  metal,  incised  lines  beiiiLj  either  drawn  b\ 
hand  with  a  sharp  point,  called  "dry  point  "  wiu'k.  or  eaten  in  by  aciiis.  tlic 
remaining'  Miii'aceid'  tlu'  plate  beiin;-  protected  Irom  the  acid  by  a  Lcreasy  tiliii. 
In  wood-cut tiiii,'.  the  bloidvs  show  a  reverse  process,  the  dcsij^n  beini;;  leh 
standin;^  in  line  lines,  while  the  remainint,'  surface  is  cut  away,  so  that  :i 
wood-ent  is  in  reality  a   carviii'.,'   in    low   relief.      The  modeiai  electrotype  ]ire 


cesses    proililct 


dmilar   result   nii    a    metal   bloid<   bv   the   action  of  acid. 


method  capable  of  most    speedy  work  and   therefore   in   demand   anion;.,'   tin 
ninltitnde  of  daily  ]iid)lications   illiistratiiiLj  current  events.      ( »f  course  tlics. 
hasty  results   can  scarcidy  be  called   tine  art.  but   they  are  developments  .  : 
artistic  industries,  calculated  to  meet  certain  needs  of  onr  busy  civilization. 
i''or  more  artistic  el'b'cts.  various    forms  id'  lithot,'ra])liy  have  <.,'iven  lieiiut 
I'ul  results.      This  valuable   process  was  accidentally  discovcnul  in  IT'.MJ.  b\ 


rHY 

•  iniil  tiM''li 
•ir  inlliiiMiiT 
1)1  ('(imiiHiii 


liniis   rurins. 
riiiiiiiiil''  !»■ 

M'fiiill.v  viilu- 

Ktrliiii;^;  i-^ 

.  tli(i\i:4li  l''-^ 

,,>,,., 1  ill  iiiiiiiv 
l„Mii:4  siiiMi- 
Uiiiils.     'I'll' 
AcirU.  ;iii'l  tin 
>()  tlllll    wliilf 
r  wniks  til  ml 
lit)  cxiiciisivr. 
lick  work,  till' 
,(ls  ol    '^ri'iilci 
iciilion   to  111'- 
till'  wnik  w;i> 
null',  mill  li;tlt 
li;it    is    known 

ii;t     nl'    civlol'  IS 
;ilTiiUlplislli'il 

lilin.  \\lii''li  i- 
This  cuniMii. 


,i/;7   I'linuitiiss  or  Till:  rEsrruy 


cu 


III 


tal   lliiit    ;itv 

,|'  till'  siii-r;iir. 

,,.,      'I  lie  yV.W'-. 

illi  ciiiinivi'v"-. 

Ill  ciiLr'"!^'''' 

IthtT  lllMWII   liv 

l)V  iiciiis.  till' 
a  L'lTasv  tilm. 


liciii'. 


■ii^ii 
Iviiv.  so 


that 


lull   I 


I II  it  y  (If  1 
if  ai-iik 


111' 


il   anionic 


th 


l)f  coiirst'  tin 


lvi'li>l 


mil 


nts 


civili/alnm. 
(^ivcii  lu-ant 

hi  1  :'.»■>.  >'> 


\i.iiii'^  |>nliciiiiaii.  .\lii\s  SciirrrjiliT.  Ill  ria','in'.  |)c>irMr4  I"  writ''  a,  list, 
ami  haviin^  im  iia|ii'r.  lir  sciawli'il  mi  a  liiii'  >l(nn'  ll«inr  tile  a  lew  wnids,  ami 
later  nil,  I'liiiiiin^  In  r<  iiiHVi'  tlieiii.  Ill'  lift limr^'lit  him  nl  an  i'X|irriim'iil  uitli 
acnl  nil  thf  slmir.  'I'lii^  In-  liU'il,  tiiniiir'  liic  slniii'  ratrii  away  all  anniml  his 
writ  ill!,',  h'av  ill;,'  thai  raiscil  in  snUiciciit  lelicl'  tn  |irini  Irniii.  tin-  Icltniii',' 
liciiiL,'  (liiiif  willi  a  uiiasy  wiitiii','  Mili>.taiirr  that.  rc|ii'lh'(|  tin-  ai'iil.  I.atir 
i'X|n'riiiH'nts  |irnvi'il  that  the  eaiini^r  away  of  the  stnne  was  imt  m  ees^ary  il 
the  (h'M^'n  were  iiiaile  Willi  an  nily  luali'rial  ami  I  he  rest  uT  Llii-  siirlaet*  ke|it 
iiinisl  with  a.  weak  ■^llllltllln  nl  acid.  A  'greasy  print in;^'  ink  lii-in'^  aiijilied 
wiiiihl  stii'k  only  tn  the  nily  <lesi;(n  ami  imt  tn  the  aeidiilated  .^iirlat'i'.  whiidi 
iii'iii'os  made  {iiissiWh;  tlit;  |ii'inlin}^  trnm  iiat.  stnnes,  wliieh  were  not,  mi  iialije 


I'llOToiiltAI'lllt      Vli;W    nl-     M.W     Yi'ltK    I  I  IV     VM>    III   I'-nS    l{l\l-.ll,     lAkLN    HtnM 
■Jlllll    ^inliV    nl     I'AltK    linW     IM  II.IIINn. 

In  wear  (tilt  as  the  reliel  dcsi','iis.  Seml'elder  died  in  ISI'I.  livin-  Innc; 
riinii'^h  tn  see  his  iiiv.iit inn  in  ii,~e  thinuLihnnt  the  world.  althiiii:j;li  ot  cnm-e 
he  could  not  know  the  iniiHoveiueiits  that  iilioto|^'i:i|iliy  would  \n-\\yj,.  < 'n  ilie 
ciiiteiiiiial  aiinivcrsaiy  ol  this  ;,Meat  discovery  in  l.s'.Kt.  exhiiiitions  of  litlm- 
','iaiiliic  \v<trks  were  licld  in  i.nmlnii  and  i'aris.  and  the  |inssiliilities  and  devrl- 
n|iiiiciits  shown.  Mr.  . lames  .McNeill  Whistler  has  made  many  veiy  iiitcr- 
cstin'4  ex|ii"ihni'nts  with  it.  as  have  alsn  Mr.  .lo.se|.li  IN-niiell  and  Mr.  IIiilnMt 
llcikomer.  Tht'  latter  has  made  inmiiiierahh'  fxi"'rinieiits  and  inventions  in 
liis  lnisy  artistic  career,  and  has  just  recently  i.erlfcted  an  iiiit.roveiiieiit  on 
lithoLcraidiy  which  he  calls  •■  i.latc  iirintin;.:."  and  whiidi  has  Immmi  diilihi'd  hy 
the  irri'veiciit  the  "  lleiknt  v|ie  "  jirocess.  It  is  siiiiidy  paintiir,'  in  a  iieciiliar 
nily  ink  on  a  metal  |il  .te.  wiiich.  while  the  inlx  is  nioi>t.  is  dusted  over  with 
;i  line  jiowder  whii.di  adheres  toe\ci\   hiiish  mark  on  the  surface.     One  iir^re- 


% 


^ 


\   V: 


'1^  ' 


;«'! 


fci 


1 

i     ': 

n 

1 

ei'j      TiiiiJMi'iis  .iM>  ]y()Mn:iis  or  riii-:  a/.v"  cKsrcnv 

(lii'iit  III  this  |i(>\V(lcr  is  a  iiictiil  tliiil  is  clcciriciillv  rdinliictildc,  iiiid.  iitlt-r  llic 
t'MTss  i>l  powdt'i'  is  iti'iislicd  olT,  liu'  |)i;itf.  willi  wlial  t'ciiiiiiiis  sticiuii.^'  mi  tin- 
oilv  siirt'art',  is  plai'fil  in  an  fleet r(it_V|if  hatli.  Tlie  e(i|i|ier  ileposited  llieieon 
l»v  llie  elei'lrii-  eiineiit  iianlens  and  Idiins  a  nej,Mtivi'  iil'  tlie  (iri^'inal  iiaint- 
in,!,'.  wliieli  4-an  l>e  slri|i|ied  Iroin  the  plate  and  used  in  a  print in},'-|iress,  j,Mviii^: 
an  alisnlntely  laitlilnl  repiiMlnctinn  ul  the  artist's  handiwuik.  A  .similar 
proeess.  called  ••  alj^rapliv."  has  lieen  invented  li,v  Mr.  Selml/,  of  Mayeiiee. 
who  has  devriuiied  the  pnssihililies  ul'  aliiniiniini  lor  plair  work,  the  advaii- 
tU'^i' of  this  material  nver  stone  or  ul  hei' melal  liein^;  its  extreme  li^litiM'ss. 
'riie.se  prneesses  are  especially  valuaMe  tn  artists  who  can  work  in  lilack  and 
white,  as  their  own  original  ciinceptinn  is  peil'ectly  re]ir(Hluced  without  the 
possiliility  ol'  misconception  liy  some  copyist,  as  exists  where  a  paintiii'.,'  is 
interpreted  by  an  etcher  or  en'.,n'aver. 

(M  the  new  processes  or  improveinents  on  the  old,  that  haveari.seii  lieoaiise 
ol'  the  discovery  of  phototrraphy,  it  may  he  said  their  name  is  le;j:ion.     I'hoto- 

j,Miiphy  itsi'ir  is  rapidly  lieiujjf  (h'veloped  into  a  line  art.  and  has  hi me  one 

of  the  most  importaid  I'aetor.s  of  modern  existenci-.  It  eomitines  science,  art. 
and  industry,  and  is  eiiually  nei-essary  to  all  these  occu]iations.  While  it  i^ 
diHicult  to  state  what  was  the  first  attempt  that  led  to  the  sn,!,'|j:estion  of 
jihoto'^raphy.  it  may  he  supposed  tlie  experiments  of  the  Swedish  scientist 
Scheclc  Were  aiuoiii;  the  first.  lie  found  that  the  action  of  the  sun's  lay 
Itlackeiied  silver  chloride,  and  others  experinnudinj,'  after  him,  at  the  lieijin 
niuL;  of  the  century,  had  j^linimcriiiLj  ideas  (d'  the  possihility  id'  a  new  ail. 
As  lias  so  olien  liap]>ened  with  the  dawninj;  cd'  some  "^reat  idea,  some  new 
appreciation  id' a  ,i;reat  natural  law.  the  thoin^dit  was  working;  in  many  miinls, 
and  the  discovery  seeiin'd  to  lie  almost  simultaneous  in  several  places.  .\  , 
early  as  I.SIIL'  \Vedi,'wood  ])ultlislied  in  the  ■•  doiinial  of  the  IJoyal  Institute  " 
an  "account  of  a  uiethoil  of  copyini;  paintiiiLcs  on  ,i;lass  and  of  makin;.,' prn- 
fih's  hy  the  ai^ciicy  (d'  li^ht  on  nitrate  oi  silver,  with  some  remarks  liy  Sft 
Humphry  ])avy."  These  'gentlemen  were,  however,  imalile  to  fix  the  impn'> 
sions  lliey  procured,  and  a  I^remdiman,  De  Nii'pce,  seems  to  ha\e  liecii  iIm' 
first  to  succeed  in  this  direction,  in  ISl'ti,  learniii",'  that  M.  i<ouis  dac(pir> 
hamierre  was  experimeiitiiij;  on  the  same  lines,  he  conferred  with  him  aihl 
they  formed  a  partnership.  'I'lic  latter  seems  to  have  been  the  more  l)u>iness- 
like  of  the  two.  and  the  process  they  evolved  lieeame  kiiowi  as  the  "l»:i 
t;uerreotype."  |)e  Niepce  died  in  |.s;i;!,  and  I)aj,Mierre  continued  the  pint- 
nershiii  with  his  son  Isidore,  makiiii;  many  improvements,  r.nd  hecoiiiin- 
really  the  piom-er  id'  modern  photography.  The  extent  '.<!'  advance  may  lie 
calculated  from  Dai^'uerrc's  own  remark,  that  "a  landscape  reipiircs  seven  nr 
eij,dil  lioiiis  to  lie  photoi.;ra plied,  hut  a  siii,!.;le  statue  or  monument,  if  stronuly 


li-ht 


cii,  call 


i>e  t 


lUeli  III 


about  three  hours."     ( 'oniiiariii'^  this  with  the  iiistm 


taneons  camera  wnik  <d'  tn-day.  that  ,L;ives  us  the  lifelike  moving'  fii,nirrs 
the  kiiiefoscope.  will  illustrate  the  chani'c  wroii'^ht  in  two  tliird.-^  of  a  eeiitni 
The  earliest   portrait  work    was  slow  and  tedious,  the   fir>t  portrait    in   Ni 


^'ork  iM'obabl 


V   liein 


U'  ]irodiiced  liy  I  >r.  nrajier,  the  sciiMitist.  altlioie^di  tie 


brated   i'rob'sscu'  .M<irse  was  vasth  interested  in  the  new  science  or  art. 


ad\ 


v.'inccd  its  cause  in  this  eoiinlrv. 


From  the  bcLrinniiii,'  (d'  phntn'^iapliic  experiments,  the  ijre.atest  desire  li 


been  felt  to  photoixraph   in  color,  and  numberless  attempts  with  more  o 


r  I'  -- 


rritv 

llltl.  iltt.T  til.' 

irkiii.i;  «'M  till' 
sited  tlit'ict.H 
li^MiKil  imiiil- 
;.|)n'ss,  niviii;^' 
I.     A  .similar 

ol'  Miiy.'iit'i'. 
rk.  lilt'  iitlvuii- 
.uic  li^liMi'-^. 
i  in  Uliick  ami 
mI  witlutiit  the 

a  paiutiii!,'  is 

iiiiscn  lu'causi' 
,.<,'ion.  IMiiitn- 
liis  Ih'imiiui'  one 
i(«s  st'ii'in'f.  art. 

s.     NVliilf  it  i^ 
sii|-;!4«'stit>ti  I'l 
•fdisli  scit'Utisi 
[•  tlic  Sim's  la.v 
111,  at  lilt'  U'\i\u- 
y  of  a  iH'W  ail. 
idea,  soiiif  >it>\v 
ill  many  mimis. 
■ral   plat'fs.     -N - 
[iiyal  liisliliilf  ' 
,,'l-  uiakin:.;  I'ln- 
rcinaiks  liy  S^ 
)  ti\  tlu'  imi'iv>- 

)   li;i\('    Ix'tMl    til'' 

I,()uis  .lac<nifs 

1  with  liiui  ami 

.  iniirt-  lm>im'ss- 

Iwi    as  Urn  "l'''- 

itinm-il  tilt'  l';i''- 

:.nil   iH'fiMiiiii-; 

mlvaiu'f  may  l-f 

IMluivt'S  St'Vfll  "!■ 

iiciit.  it'  sinm-ly 

with  ihc  iust;n'.- 

inviivj;  tii;iiV''s  "1 

nl>  (if  a  (•(•iiluiv. 

Jl.ortrait    in  N'   ■ 

IllhoiiLlh  111'-  '■'  '  ■ 

litMU'f  tjr  aft.  ;i!v 

■catt'st  (h'siiv  1' 
Ivitli  im'iv  i>r  i'  - 


.1 /.'■/•  I'nnuiiiiss  or  rill-:  ciisrcnY 


OKI 


•  lU'ci'ss  liavf  hccM  iiiailr.  lnil  liir  |.i<>ccsscs  iiiv  inaiiily  slow  iind  \v\\  cxiicii- 
dvi'.  .\  nt'w  nit'lhiitl  of  |>iint(i-|.rintiiiK  in  culipr.  liowcvfr.  Inis  rrfcMli\  drvil- 
npt'd   viTv  artisiii-   |ins>iliilitifs.     'I'his   is  ncc(.iii|.iiNlicd  l>>    nutans  i.f  thici' 

I'latt^s lor  each  iy{  I  he   ijnvi'  |.i  immy  ecdnr.s ;  the  ne.i,Mti\  e  havin^t  liren 

iiiaile  ami  the  plate  iirc|i:iivd  lor  |iiiiitin-  in  eaeh  eoinr.  the  inks  (d'  eaidi 
.•(dttr  are  a|i|tli('d  seiiaralclv .  (iiic  |iriiitiii-  inudiiees  a  red  inii.ressinii.  di- 
ivelly  tin  this  edines  a,  yellow  iiii|in>sioM.  and  on  top  of  that  is  put  a,  hliie,- 
Hid  as  all  .urailalions  of  color  aie  eonipo>ed  of  various  proportioii.s  of  these 
hree  primary  tints,  the  ••overlaying,' "  of  the  ihivc  inks  produces  a  picture 
.■oiitainin.';  all  the  varietx  of  the  oii<;inal  snliject.  A  sldl  more  recent,  dis- 
covery makes  an  impression  upon  a  '^lass  plate  that  ^ives  all  three  colors  on 
■he  same  plate;  linl  this  process  is  a  secrel.  and  i->  too  new  to  l.e  classed 
.mioiig  the  snccesses  of  industrial  art  as  \ct. 

One  of  the  lalcr  and  more  notalile  n>cs  o''  photo-raphy  is  found  in  its 
ipplicatioii  to  the  purposes  of  asl  ronoiiiv .  an  evohitioii  in  modem  si'icnce, 
uhieh.  allhoieji  slill  in  its  infancy,  has  already  produced  wondi'rlid  ivsiilts. 
Aiioiit  the  middle  of  the  century  pliolo!,riaphs  of  the  moon  were  secured  liy 
Warren  |)e  la  IJue  and  other  ast  ronomers.  w  hich  ^^icatly  facilitated  studies 
of  the  earth's  satellite,  and  these  were  'ollowed  hy  pholoLcraphs  id'  the  sun 
and  the  sun's  corona  durin;^  eclipse.  It  was  not.  however,  until  I'lofcssor 
Henry  of  the  Sniithsonian  Insliliite  oii-mated  the  idea  of  nnilin','-  the 
camera  with  the  telescope  that  the  marvelous  jiossiliilitics  of  stellar  photo- 
graphy were  discovered.  It  is  not,  too  much  to  say  that  this  diseovcrx  has 
levolntioni/.ed  the  science  (d'  astrommiy.  exiemlinj;-  ihe  lield  of  human  ohser- 
\,ilion  into  the  realm  of  the  iniinite.  I'.\  the  aid  of  clockwork  attachments^ 
ihe  telescoiie  is  maile  to  follow  t he  apiiarcui  motion  of  the  star  to  which  it 
luay  lie  directed,  t hron.i^liout.  the  iii^,dit.  it  desired,  and  the  sensitive  photo- 
graphic plate  is  ex|iosed  to  the  action  (.f  lii^dit  dnriiiL:  a  eorrcspondiiii,'  jicriod. 
••  l'',acli  iiiue^t'.  however  faint,  has  a  comiiaratively  loiii,'  time  on  the  sensitive! 
surface,  ami  therefore  exerts  a  cumulative  action."  The  result  is  that  stars 
are  pictiircil  Ity  the  camera  which  no  human  eye  has  ever  seen.  It  is  I'sti- 
laaled  that  the  camera  has  revealed  douMc  the  numlier  of  stars  discovered 
hy  the  most,  powi'rfiil  telescopes.  In  1.S,S7.  at  a  convention  <d'  astronomers 
held  in  I'aris,  it  was  resolved  to  photo,^raph  the  entire  skies,  with  the  pnr- 
|iose  of  niakinij  a  new  stellar  atlas  to  include  the  latest  discoveries  anion;.; 
the  heavenly  hosts.  With  this  ohject  the  lirmameiit  was  charted  in  si|nares,. 
and  eaeh  observatory  of  importance  throughout  the  world  was  assij^nicd  cer- 
tain of  these  sipiares  to  work  (in.  This  monnmental  lalior  is  still  K"i'i!-  tm, 
;md  it  will  necessarily  he  extended  well  into  the  first  ((narterol  the  twentieth 
ccntiiry. 

The  epoeh-markiiit,'  paper  of  Dr.  IJiinti^'cn.  in  which  he  aiiiioniiced  the  dis- 
covery of  the  X-ray.  was  made  iiulili(r  in  the  latter  part  of  lSt.(,"».  It  iniine- 
(Ii;itely  attracted  the  attention  of  the  scientitic  world,  and.  since,  that  date, 
endless  successions  of  experiments  have  heen  made  with  the  marvelous  ray 
III  all  eivili/ed  countries.  The  X-ray  produces  no  iiotic«'alile  effect  on  tlio 
retina  of  the  eye,  and  we  therefore  accpiire  knowledi,'e  of  it  throin,di  imlire(;t 
!ii;cneies.  One  of  these  a,i,'eiicies  is  the  plioto!:,Mapliic  plate,  on  which,  under 
certain  conditions,  the  ray  acts  somewhat  in  the  same  maiiiior  as  does  a  ray 
et  li},dit.      It  is  not  a   ray  <d'   light,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  as  it  penetrates 


Mli^ 


'* 


i 

*  If 

il 

■1' 

Pi 

||[j 

«HI 

QU 


TIUUMI'IIS  AND    WnSDKIlS    OF   Till-:   XIX^i'   CICXTl'llY 


IK 


m- 


opaiint! 


IkhI 


It's    w 


hicli  li^ht  cimiKit   tnivcr; 


.lust  wliat    it    is  scientists  aii 


not  yet  ri'iuly  to  stale,  hut  its  (liscovt'rcr  dt'liut's  it  as  "a  iini;j;itu(iiiial  viiira- 


tion  of  Iniiiinirt'mus  t'tiu-r. 


Tliis  viliiation  will  traverse  inanv  suWstaiu'es 


ipaqiio  to  liLflit.  as  wood,  itapei'.  vei^etalile  and  animal  tissues  and  i'ahi'ies,  as 


W(  )1 1 


1.  cotton,  silk,  etc.;  and.  it   then  directed  uikiu  a  iihotoi,rr;i|ihic  plati 


wil 


]>roducc  an  image  there.  The  resultini;  i»ietiire  is  not  of  theohject  traversed 
by  tlu'  ray.  l>ut  ol'  any  interveniiit,'  object  wiiich  it  »h)es  not  jiass  tlirouijh. 
A>-'  a  conse(|uence.  the  pictur*;  is  the  imaijje.  so  to  s])eak,  of  a  shadow,  and. 
hence  has  been  called  a  '•shado\vj,'rai>h."  To  illustrate,  if  the  ray  is  directed 
throuLjh  a  human  body,  it  will  ,i,nve  a  '•  shailowjj;raiih  "  of  the  iiones,  or  of  a 
bullet  or  iiiece  of  nu'tal.  if  such  l()rei;.,'n  substance  be  eneountereil  on  its  way. 
Airain,  the  ray  v, ill  traverse  a  diamond  and  cast  no  shadow,  but  it  will  not 
]>ass  throuj^h  rhe  fine>t  imitation  »'ver  made,  the  ••  sliadowi;raiih  "  showin;,' 
the  maiuifactured  ;uticle. 

John   V.  Skaks. 


H4 


•I!Y 


•icntists  art' 
uliwiil  vibni- 
^-  s>i\)sl;iiu'*>s 
(I  I'lilirii's,  as 
If  i.latc,  will 
,.i't  travfist'tl 
,i\ss  tlinmi,'!!. 
sliiulow.  ami. 
,y  is  lUlVcti'tl 
lioiies,  or  "l'  '^ 
mI  on  its  way. 
,\it   it  will  w>l 
ij.li"  sliowin:; 

,   V.  rir.Aiis. 


I  ril 


THE   CENTURY'S   ADVANCE   IN   SURGERY 

Ai-  Tin:  I).\WN  111'  iMi;  ('I.MI  i!V.  -  III  ilic  year  l."»7'.Mlie  rt-leliratcd  I'lviicli 
siiri,'i'<'ii.  Aiiiliinisc  l';ir...  itrnlKihlv  tlic  i^Mcalf^t,  ot  his  day.  in  (Miniiilflin.;  liis 
wnrk  (til  ••  Ciiiniri^i'iy."  mad.-  ilic  icillowim;  Ntatcnifiit.  wliirli  td  iis  nl  lu-day 
is  liiiili  aimisiui,' and  |iatlictic.  lie  says:  ••  l'"(ir  ( iod  is  my  witm  ss.  and  all 
•,'()(m1  iiirn  kiiuw.  that  I  liavc  lalMiicd  tilty  yrais  wit li  all  curf  and  jiains  in 
tilt'  illii^tratiiin  and  aiiiiililicatinn  u|  ('liiniiLriTx  ;  and  that  I  havi-  so  certainly 
touclu'd  the  work  wiicrcat  I  aiii.'d  that  antii|iiity  may  st'ciu  to  liavc  notliiiij^ 
whi-rt'ln  it  may  cxct'cu  as  hcMdc  tin-  i^lory  iif  invent ior,  nor  posterity  aiiy- 
thiiii,'  left  hilt,  aeertaiii  simdl  hope  to  add  some  tliiii,:,'s."  'I'liis  t,'reat  man  had 
scarcely  passed  away  when  tin'  practice  ot  siiri,'ery  of  liis  day  was  a  tiiiiiLT  of 
the  past,  due  to  the  reali/at  ion  of  thai  ••certain  small  hope  "  which  he  allowed 
as  ]»ossilile  to  jiosteiity.  livery  reader,  when  lie  rellects  lipon  the  eriidi.'  sur- 
gery practiced  in  those  days,  when  the  operations  were  tiiose  of  iieeessilv  and 
no!  elect  ion,  —  tliat  is.  were  done  foi'  injuries  and  not  tor  disease,  done  to  relieve 
and  not  to  cure  ;  when  he  remi'ini)i'rs  that,  not  mdy  antisi'pties  Imt  also  aiia's- 
tiietics  were  unknown,  iiin^t  lie  tilled  with  sympathy  for  tiiis  old  j;eiitleman. 
and  wonder  what  he  would  think  imir  were  he  to  see  what  proj,'ress  |iosterity 
has  made  and  is  still  makiiii^'. 

It  is  not  our  purpose,  however,  to  carry  our  researches  so  far  hack  as  I'ure's 
time,  lint  to  iie;,dii  with  our  own  centiirv  and  Idiiii,'  lietore  'he  reader  the  ad- 
vances ill  siiri^i'iy  since  the  day  of  our  ','rainitatiiers. 

In  the  l>et,Miniie.,'  of  this  century  snriicry  was  prai'ticed  hy  many  ^reat  men, 
men  who  did  not  enjoy  the  selt-satisfaciion  of  their  predecessor.  I'an''.  iiiil 
who  ai'coiiiplishcd  iiiich  hy  constant  endeavor  ai.d  laithfiil  application  to  ad- 
vance this  art  and  science.  They.  too.  realized  manifold  "liopes,"  and  their 
children  and  t,'raiidchildren  have  moved  on.  and  to-day  are  st  ill  inessiny  forwanl 
ill  the  lii..  I  i  a  vent  ion  and  ilisco\ery.  Iliit  to  lis.  tin'  art.  of  an  imndreil  years 
a,i,'o  appears  videly  different  i roiii  that  of  our  da\.  Aiia'sthesia  had  not  then 
liceii  'lisci  vered.  no  '^'crm  theory  had  iieen  evolved,  and.  coiise(pieiitly.  no 
sill  h  'liii;.,'  as  ant isept ic  or  aseptic  sni'LTcry  was  known.  The  alidoiiieii  was 
opened  for  disease  only. and  rarely;  ami  hrain  snr;.iery  eonsistcil  solely  in  tn'- 
paiiiiinj,'  for  fraeliiros  id'  'he  skull.  Siipjjcry  was  not  re;.,'arded  as  a  speciailv. 
hilt  every  siiri,'eoii  was  ,:lso  an  olistelrician  ami  a  practitioner  of  "general  medi- 
cine, ( tiitsidiMif  the  treatmeiii  id' Inokeii  liones,  dislocations,  ^'iinshot  wounds 
and  injuries,  the  siirLceon  at  that  time  op  rated  for  strani,'ulated  hernia,  for 
stone  in  the  lil.idder  —  ••cuttiiii^  lor  stone."  as  it  was  called  ;  for  cataract  and 
I'lr  cancer.  Dentistrv  was  ju-t  hc;.,Mnuin'.;  to  lie  taken  up  as  a  specialty,  an. 1 
.ill  medical  men  extracted  teeth,  and  inaiiv  tilled  their  cavities,  t  t|phthaliaie 
^ar;,,'ery  consisted  lari,'ely  in  operations  lor  eataracl.  and  was  done  liy  the  .^'cn- 
'■ral  siirj^eoii.  (Mie  department  of  tiie  siir'4:eon"s  edui'atioii  at  this  time  was 
well  utteiidt'il  tu.aiid  that   vas  his  aaatomic  kiiuwledjre.     Our  liodies  were  th" 


ii 


■III 


lii 


'  ii  i.*i 


■tlii! 

i 


Il.l 


11 


I  >' 


\"M 


'',t  ■■.''•j 


Jli! 


ill 

(if  1'^ , ., 


"r:2^^i 


m 


If':: 


I 


It 


m\r 


61(i         Tli/UMJ'/JS   .l.\7>    WOMUJJiS   OF   THE  XJX'"   CENTURY 

n;iiiii'  llicii  us  iiiiw  :  mid  altli(>iij,'!i  the  siiitjcdii  diircd  not  ti'cspiiss  in  anatomical 
lirlds  uliii'li  ai'<-  t'aniiliar  vi'i'>>>><l  '*>  ''<*'  stiid<-nt  of  to-dav,  lu' did  studs  tiii> 
li.MJN  alter  (Iralli.  and  was  i[uiti'  as  well  ini'oinu'd  rcj^ai'dinj;  tlii'  ,l;i'oss  analimiv 
of  till'  iiiiniaii  Kody  as  tlir  snrj^'t'on  (d'  lo-day  :  and.  had  ana'stiicsia  liccn  known 
til  idni.  111!  would  ]proliaiily  liavc  arconiiili>lit!d  nearly  all  liial  was  done  ilnriiii^- 
tin'  ndddic  ol  tlir  rcutni'v  by  Ins  successors. 

Dniiui,'  tlie  HiNt  i|uailer  ol'  the  century  no  j,'reat  advance  was  math'  in 
surufery.  that  is.  nolhiuj;  revolutionizing:;  hut  many  minds  and  hands  were 
at  work  |iert'eeliiij;  <dd  nu-thods  ol  (iperal  ion  and  devising;  new  ones.  Tiiey 
liad  to  t  I'ust  to  whiskey  and  o|)ium  to  conlrcd  the  itaiu  ol'  the  patient,  and 
(•(Uise(|uently  operal  Kills  i-ei|iiirin.y;  much  time  in  their  iiert'orinaiiee  were 
avoided  when  jmssilile,  and.  when  necessary,  had  to  lie  jiertormed  wiih  siieli 
rapidity  that  the  essential  olijeet  aimed  at  was  ojten  missed.  'The  patient 
was  j^ivcn  a  larj^e  dose  (d'  landaiiuiii  and  a  liie^e  drink  ol'  whiskey  or  luandy. 
and  was  then  held  or  tied  on  the  talde  while  the  suii,'eon  proceeded  with 
his  work.  One  can  readily  understand  tin'  torturing;  pain  the  pour  jial  lent 
had  to  endure,  and  tho  hurried  and  ot'ten  nnsatisiactorv  operation  vvliich 
the  siiriicon    had   to  pert'orm.     'I'he    eiiduiance   if    pain   was    not    the   worst 

part   of  the   patient's   lot.   for  afterwaiil   he    ran   the   '^reati'st    risk  of  M 1- 

poisoiiiiiLC  and  luMnLrrcni'.  which  were  common  complications  in  those  days. 
It  was  the  rarest  thiui;  for  even  the  simplest  operation  wounds  to  heal  hy 
••  primary  nnion,"  as  it  was  calleil.  —  that  is.  without  the  formation  of  pus. 
I'lvt-ry  wounded  surface  was  expected  to  ;,'o  throuj^h  a  certain  riiuouiit  of 
suiipurat  ion.  .Man\  patients  lost  their  lives  from  coiiipound  fractures  ol 
their  liones:  and  a  compound  Ir.iciure.  that  is.  where  there  was  a  Wdiiiid  >  "- 
nectiiii,'  the  seal  of  fracture  with  the  skin,  usnaliv  meant  many  luoiili,-  in 
bed.  and  very  otteii  the  loss  of  the  limb. 

j^xccptiiii;  lor  the  purposes  of  removiii'^'  a  I'o'tns  from  tin-  womb  (the  s<i- 
oalled  Ca'sarian  operation,  because  Ca'sar  was  Ifom  "his  mother's  womb  iin- 
tinndy  ripped  ").  the  alnlondnal  i-avity  was  practically  never  opened,  ami  when 
it  was  the  patient  nearly  always  died.  The  oper.dion  for  the  radical  cure  ol 
hernia  was  seldom  resorted  to.  exceptin;^'  when  straiiiinlation  of  the  intestine 
necessitated  operative  inteifi'ience  to  save  the  patient's  life.  i'liriuL;  the 
latter  part  <if  the  eii,'hteentli  century  the  ipiacks.  calling;  themselves  '•  rupluiv 
cutlers."  were  not  scarce;  but  the  j^reat,  mortality  of  their  practice  produced 
a  wholesome  fear  anioni,'  'he  ptviple.  'I'lio  openition  was  so  often  fatal  thai 
most  of  the  best  sniLjeons  Would  only  perform  it  under  unusually  nrj^'cnt 
circumstances.  What  caused  the  deaths  was  peritonitis,  or  ;.;an^fene  of  tin 
intistine.  and  not  the  method  of  o]ieratin,<,' ;  for  at  this  time  nearly  evciv 
meth<id  of  operating,'  had  been  devised  that  was  in  voi,nie  fifty  years  later. 

Itoiie  sur;,'erv.  the,  treatment  of  fractures,  dislocations,  ami  diseases  o| 
the  bones,  was  j^Teatly  imjiroveil  in  the  first  half  of  the  century,  this  sub 
ject  reci'iviui,'  moi'e  attention  at  the  hands  of  sniLrical  writer^  than  aii\ 
other. 

A  \  i;s  I  iii:si  \. —  Ana'sthesia  may.  certainly  from  the  jiatient's  point  ol 
view,  be  looi^ed  upon  as  the  icatot  advanci'ment  ever  madi'  in  siir^'erv.  It 
was  yreat  ntit  oidy  for  the  reason  thai  it  ,1,'ave  the  p;itient  absolute  nncon 
seionsness  dnriii'.;  thetiineof  the  operation,  but  because  it  eiiabledthe  surfxcon 
to  work  with  greater. e.xactni'ss  an<l  less  Imrry.      The  concc'iitioii  ol'  the  aiia'^ 


I  m 


:ENruRY 

HISS  in  iiuatomiciil 

.  h.'  ili'l  J^f'"')  ''"' 
llic  !,'ri)ss  auiitiiiiiv 

llii'sia  lii'fii  kii"\\" 
t  was  (Idiu-  •lui'i>':~ 

;,ni'c  was  iiiadf  in 
.s  ami  liaiiils  wfiv 
I-  iit'W  (iiu'S.  I  lit'> 
ol'  th-'  l-atirul.  aii.i 

],crt()rmaurc  were 
,,.|nnucil  Willi  ^'"'l' 
isst'.l.  Th'-  li:iti''i" 
wliisUfV  <ir  liraiitlx. 
Mill  |H(ii't'('(lf(l  willi 
in  thf  I'O'ii'  I'li'i''!'' 
,\    (.pcratinii   wliifh 

was  not  thf  wnist 
■atfst  risk  <•!'  1'1'»"1- 
li.iHS  ill  tlinsc  (lays. 
I  wiMUiils  til  IkmI  I'.v 
„.  t'.'iiiKi<i""  1)1'  im-. 
,  cntaiu  :im«'Uiit  d 
ujunmd  Iractiiivs  nt 
iMv  was  a  wtuiiii!  >  "- 
lilt    iiiaiiy  iiKiiil''-   i>i 

,    till'  wniiili  (llif  '^"• 

s  lui.lhfi's  woiiili  1111- 

vrit.iK'iiril.aiwl  will  11 

,v  the  railii'iil  f'""'  '' 

iti.Mi  uf  tlir  iiitotiiu' 


////•:  r/;.v'/7  7;j-N    i/MMAT/i  ix  suiiaEliY 


(J17 


I's  lilV.     I'liiiii;. 


th 


Ith.'iiiM'lvfs  "luiiliii'- 
Lir  prai'tict'  l>n>«lii'''''l 
L  sn  ott.'ii  i';ital  that 
\\vY  uHiisuallv  iiil,'<'ii' 
lis.  (If  ^'aiiiii'i'iii'  "'  •'" 
lis  tiiiK'  m-avlv  even 
tiliv  yciiis  later. 


i.iiis.  ami 


(hscast's  el 


Ih,.   (•(•iitury.  this  siih 
,1   writer-   than    aii\ 


KlUlt     < 


1,.    iiatieiii's    1 
made  ill  surireiy. 
Ilieiit   alisdliitt'  nil 

it  enahh'dthe  siir^'e 
|mo(.'i»tiun 


(■nil 


tliHfie  staff  (lid  imt.  hdwcver.  eduie  Into  heing  tor  the  lirst  time  in  our  pcmi- 
Miry.  I'lT.  like  mnsi  ^M-eat  ideas,  it  a-iliited  the  minds  ot'  medical  ami  scien- 
litie  men  lor  eeni  mies.  <;ri»s  tells  ns  that  'riiendoiie,  in  the  thirteenth 
rentiiry.  recommemleij  tiie  iidialalinii  di'  a  certain  cdiiiiiinatidu  of  djiiiim, 
lieiiildck.  and  nflier  \e.;ctaiile  deii\at  i\('s  tnr  the  juiriMise  nf  jirddncim;  sleep, 
,iiid  that  in  India  similar  cdiiiiiinatidiis  were  tor  eeiilmies  in  use.  it  is  need- 
less, hiiwi'ver,  tn  >ay  that  the  eliect  priiilueeil  was  iidthiiiLr  like  that  fnlhiw  iinjf 
ihe  use  of  nitnius  oxide.  ••  lau'^hiii!,'  -as."  ether,  dr  clilondnini.  and  thai  their 
ii-e  never  herame  ','eneial.  i'nwani  the  (ddsc  id'  the  last  ceiitiiiv  Sir  lliim- 
pliiy  havy  and  others  perlnriueil  ri'iieatecl  experiments  with  nitrmis  oxide 
,:,'a>,  iiiit.  linaily  uave  up  in  desdair.     1  ni  he  eaiiv  part  o|  our  own  ceiiturv  sev- 


(if  the  ana' 


SlU<;i(AI.   oIM.i;.\TIN(i    KiiOM.    MOW  Villi    llO<IMr.\I„    riHI.ADK.I.I'lirA,    PA. 

era)  metlidilsdt'  prddiiciii!;,'  ins(Misiliility  to  pain  were  rec(immen(le(l,  sncli  as 
pressure  on  nerves  and  lileediic^  to  the  decree  oj  proihicin:;  uiicotiscidusness. 
ill  it  none  ot  tlieiii  was  ever  siitlicieiitly  success  Jul  td  render  their  add]  it  ion  i.'eii- 
1  lal  ;  and  it  remained  tnr  a  New  i'",m,daiid  dentist.  I  »r.  Horace  \Vells.  in  1S|  I, 
to  tirst  use  sat  isl'actoiily  upon  himsclt  and  his  patients  the  coniiilete  slate  of 
inciiiiscioiisness  produced  hy  nitrons  oxide  |.,ms.  This  |ioor  man.  however, 
jailed  sij^mdly  when  lie  emh'avored  to  demonstrate  its  powers  liejure  a  hody 
of  medical  men.  and  was  sulijected  to  the  mo'>t  unwarranted  ridicule.  How- 
ever, ;i  pupil  of  thi>  man.  another  dentist,  naaicd  Morton,  two  years  later. 
•  Apcrimented  with  ether,  and  linaily  proveij  upon  himscdl  and  on  patients 
the  woiiihufiil  power  ot  t lie  vapor,  lie  exhiiiiled  his  discoxcry  at  the  Massa- 
'iiusctts  Ocncr.il    Hospital  at  r«o>toii,  where  IM'.  Warren  perfdrmed  an  opera- 


!  m 


1  <w 


i 


m 


H     i 


<)18 


TIllUMl'llS   AM)    WOMtKllS    Ol'  THE  XIX'"   CICyTlUV 


linn  iijiDii  :i  iiaticiit  ftlu'iizcd  l»y  Dr.  Morton.  'I'lic  lanic  of  tliis  man  ami  liis 
f,'icat  iliscovcrv  >]in'ii(l  rapitllv  over  tlu;  contiiit'iit  and  into  tlu'  Ka.slcrn  llfin- 
i.splu'n'.  and  in  1.SJ7  Sir  -lann-.s  \'.  Simpson  in  Kilinl)urf^li  di.scovijrt'd  llu' 
ana'stiictic  powers  of  chlorol'orni.  'I'iit'sc  two  ai^'cnts.  ctlicr  and  fliloroform. 
liavc  existed  as  riviils  for  professional  favor  for  m-arly  lialf  a  ccntiirv,  one 
l)ein,!;  niort>  popidar  and  more  generally  nsed  in  one  eoiintry  and  the  other  in 
another.  Thi-re  is.  however,  a  held  for  the  ii.se  of  ixitii.  the  operator  ehoos- 
ini,'  the  ana'sthetic  to  snit  the  individnal  ease.  In  onr  own  country  ether  i> 
more  ,!4;eiM'r.i]ly  nsed  in  the  Nortn  and  Kast  and  eidoroform  in  the  South  and 
West.    Chloroform  has  hail  more  deaths  attrilmted  to  if,- 


use 


Itut 


III  nianv 


eases  is  a  niiieh  safer  aiia'sthetic  than  ether.  It  is  most  aiiiusin;.,'  to  observe 
the  attitu<le  of  the  so-called  conservative  snrijeon  toward  the  use  of  aiiies- 
theties  soon  after  their  discovery  ;  this  is  parti<'iilarly  true  of  their  employ- 
ment in  oltstetric  |iractice.  many  eniineiit  ohstetricians  niaiiitaiiiinic  that  the 
parturient  woman  was  intended  to  siitt'er,  and  referiiiiLC  triiim]iliaiitly  to  the 
Uilile  for  authority.  It  is.  however,  needless  to  say  tiiat,  although  many  men 
were  at  first  uneasy  in  the  use  of  these  new-found  a.y:eiits.  those  who  did  not 
take  advantage  of  their  wonderful  ]iowers  found  themselves  rapidly  lieenni- 
ing  out  of  date  and  deserted  l>y  their  patients,  who  preferred  unconsciousness 
to  the  older  method  of  using  opium  and  whi.skey. 

Notwithstamling  the  great  step  niadt!  by  the  introduction  of  ether  and 
chloioiorm.  the  medical  man  is  to-day  still  dissatislied  and  is  cijntinually  en- 
deav(U'ing  to  discover  some  agent  or  combination  of  agents  wliieh  will  pro- 
duce insensibility  to  pain  without  unconsciousness  and  without  the  >lighl 
(hiie^i-r  and  the  nncomlortable  after  eJTects  of  chloroform  and  ether.  An 
ideal  ana'sthetic  then  must   be  a  local  ana'sthetic,  one  that  will   i 


ellil' 


r  the 

field  of  operation  insensible  and  be  without  the  slightest  danger  ti»  the  pa- 
tient. 

l.ocAi.  .\\.r.sTiii:siA. —  .\t  th(^  beginning  of  our  century  fr«-»'/.ing  w  ith  ice 
alone,  or  with  ice  and  salt,  was  the  only  method  employed  for  producing 
local  insensibility.  Kree/.ing  as  a  local  ana'sthetic  was.  however,  not  exten- 
sively nsed  until  fifty  years  later,  when  Dr.  IJichardson  of  London  sliowed 
the  ana'sthetic  effect  id'  s]iraying  the  surface  of  tli(>  tissues  w  ith  ether.  Dur- 
ing the  late  sixties  this  method  (d'  treeziiig  became  ipiite  popular  for  pindn- 
ciiig  local  amestliesia  lor  small  o]ierations  such  as  extraction  of  teeth,  reinov- 
iiig  nails,  opening  abscesses,  etc..  and  occasionally  was  eniiiloyed  tor  moi( 
]irotracted  operations.  < 'a'sarian  section  having  been  performed  a  number  ol 
times  by  the  aid  of  this  agent,  'i'he  rhigoleiie  spray  was  fouinl  later  to  be 
more  satisfactory  than  ether  in  iiiany  respects,  and  the  two  together  wen- 
freipienfly  used. 

.\iuither  free/.ing  agent  which  is  now  used  very  extensively  and  has  en 
firely  sii|iplanted  those  just  mentioned  is  the  chloride  of  ethyl.  This,  when 
applied  to  the  dry  skin,  produi'es  in  a  lew  seconds  eompleie  free/.ing.  aii'i 
renders  the  surface  comparatively  painless  bir  many  of  the  minor  surgical 
operations. 

The  ]iro])erties  of  cocaine  as  a  local  amesthetic  were  known  thirty  year- 
ago.  but  it  was  not  until  INSI  that  Dr.  Koliler  nf  (iermany  demonstrated  it- 
practical  applicaliilitv.  'i'o-day  uiosr  (d'  the  operations  on  tiie  eye.  nose,  ami 
throat  are  perfurmed  under  the  pain  prevention  affonled  by  this  drug,  and  ii 


run  y 


Till-:  <;/-:.\rnty's  advaxci-:  l\  sr/{<;/:i{y 


019 


man  iiml  liis 
iisLi-ni  llt'iu- 
s('(»v(!n'il  tilt' 

chldrot'ovm. 

ffiitiirv,  (»in' 
1  the  other  ill 
cratiir  chotis- 
lutrv  fthcr  i- 
ic  South  and 

l)ut  in  many 
ii.jf  to  o\)st'rv»' 

use  of  aiin'S- 
thfir  rinplov- 
iniii'n'  that  the 
].hantly  t«>  the 
\^\\  iii.my  "It'll 
■;(•  wlio  iliil  ii"t 
raiiitUy  lu'coin- 
iiconscioiisnt'ss 

1  of  ftht'i-  and 
continnally  cn- 
kvhith  will  I'l"- 
lioiit  tin-  sli-ht 
11(1  t'tlK'v.  An 
^vill  ivnd.'V  thf 
iiij^rcv  to  llif  pa- 

»/.in^  with  i<'«' 
for  i>v(idiu'iiii,' 
viT.  not  cxtfii- 
|l,oiiilon  showt'd 
Dnr- 
iiodn- 


ith  nhcr. 

Iimlar  for  \ 
nf  trt'th.  ivinov- 
,1ov»m1  for  nior. 


a  iiiiin 


l»-r 


,und  later  to  hv 
tom'tln-r  were 


•Iv  ant 
vi     This 


I  lias 


en 
.lieli 
;.   free/in^',  ainl 
minor  snr<;ieal 


l.wn   thirty  year- 
uionstrated  il- 

aii'i 
1  ii 


eve.  nose 
lliis  drn;j;.  am 


^'em'|•al  snrj^erv  it  hiis  an  extensive  tield.  lieiiiLi;  found  siiti>faetory  wliere 
free/inj;  is  inapiiliealjie  or  ■^'ciieral  aiia'sthesiii  not  desired.  ii>.  lor  mstam'e.  in 
rt'iiiovinj,'  siniiU  tumors.  s|iliiitcis,  in,i;rowiin(  nails,  etc.  In  llie  eye.  nose,  and 
throat  it,  is  ai»plie(l  simply  in  solution  to  tiie  nmeoiis  memlinine.  Imt  wliere 
ana-sthesia  id'  the  skin  's  desire(l.  it  is  iieeessnry  to  injeei  it,  under  the  sUm 
with  a  hyiioih'rmie  syrinije.  Wlieii  used  in  strong:  solutions  lliis  remedy  is 
daiip'rous,  and  it  lias  latidy  iieeii  shown  that  weiiker  soliit  ions  when  used  in 
lai'i^ei'  (|iiaiitities  are  just,  as  siitislaetory  and  less  daie^ei'ous. 

A  reeeiit  snlistitute  for  eoeaiuc  is  eueaine;  Imt,  althon.y:h  less  danijerous.  it 
is  less  satisfactory  and  not  harmless  to  tiie  tissues  tliemsidves. 

Antiski'TH'  ami  Asi:i-Tii  Si  i;tii;i;v. —  Kxei'iitim;-  the  introduetion  td' aiues- 
thesia.  no  j,'reatcr  step  has  ever  heeii  made  in  siiiycry  than  that  whitdi  was 
l)roui;iil  initt  use  liy  the  antiseptic  ami  aseptic  meijiod  <d'  treatiiijj;  wonmls. 
It  is  now  ahout  thirty  years  siiu'c  Sir  .lo-cph  I,ister.  litdievinvf  in  the  so- 
ealled  "  i^erm  theory,"  t'v<ilved  hy  rasteiir.  \'iieliow,  and  others,  ailvoeatcd 
the  use  of  a^^eiits  which  were  destriicli\e  to  i^crm  life  in  tlii'  treatiiH  nt  of 
wounds.  \\  \\\>\  the  irrcai  antiseptic,  and  the  one  used  most  j^'cnerally  hy 
Lister,   was  carhohc  acid,  which  was  applied   to  the  wouml   in  solution,    .iid 

useil  as  a  spray  duriie^  the;   perfoiniaiu I'  operation.-,,  to  protect   the  wound 

fttMii  infection  liy  i^ernis  in  the  atmosiiherc.  It  was  not  lon;^.  however,  lie- 
tore  itwas  discovered  that  the  daic,'cr  lay  not  in  the  atmosphere  imt  in  the 
skin  of  the  patient  and  in  the  hands  of  the  suri,'coii  and  in  the  condition  td' 
his  instruments  and  dressini,'s:  ami  to  these  M>urce>  attention  was  i,dven  with 
icsnlts  known  to  us  all.  Other  antiseptics,  such  as  hitdiloride  of  mercury 
and  horic  acid,  afterward  came  into  use.  and  within  the  ]>ast  ten  years  tiie 
lirst  id'  these  two  has  laii^ely  supplanted  carholic  acid,  and  is  the  one  reliaiile 
and  pratitii'iil  destroyer  of  i^erms.  'I'iie  antiseptic  tiealiuent  of  wonmls  was 
prohahly  not  in  full  swiiej;  until  ahout  iSS.'i-lSlMl.  and  was  quickly  followed 
liv  the  nioi'e  recent  aseptic  method.  These  two  can.  however,  never  he  siie- 
eessfully  separate,  as  the  latter  is  d"]iendent  enl  iiely  upon  the  former:  that 
is.  in  order  to  render  the  tield  of  (>iieratioii  and  the  hands  of  the  sur;j;eoti 
aseptic,  the  antisejitics  must  he  used,  .\scpsis  means  without  |ioisonous 
uerms,  and,  as  applied  to  siiri,Mcal  treatment,  it  is  essential  that,  alter  t!ie 
instruments,  the  dressinj,'s,  t  he  patient's  skin,  the  snri;i"in's  and  his  assistants' 
hands  have  heen  thoroUi,dily  cleimeil  with  soap  and  water  and  rendered  Iree 
from  j,'erms,  there  'le  use  of  antiseptic  solntmns  in  the  wound  or  oii  the  dress- 
sin!,'s.  This  has  heen  a  ijreat  step  forward,  this  iliscovciy  that  it  was  in  the 
skin  that  the  !,'erms  lurked,  and  tliat  soap  and  water  and  a  scruhhintf  hrush 
were  as  necessary  as  antiseptics.  I''ew  surircns  to-day  employ  antiseptic 
solutions  ill  wounds  uidess  the  wound  itsell  ,~  already  infected,  when  it 
liccomes  necessary.  In  wounds  whicii  are  clean  and  made  liy  the  suri,'eon 
under  asejitie  conditions,  no  :intiseptic  druy'  is  rcipiiied  which  may  indred  he 
actuallv  harmful,  for  these  cdiemlcals  which  destroy  ;<erms  arc  not  alto;jfetlun' 
harmless  to  healthy  tissue,  particularly  when  used  in  stroiii^  solution. 

The  discovery  of  amesthesia  and  the  piomuh-tation  of  the  i^M-rni  theory  of 
nitlammation,  toi^ether  with  the  suhse.pii'ut  perfection  of  the  means  of  de- 
stioyiui;  inicrohes.  all  within  the  memory  of  many  now  livini;.  have  revolii- 
tioni/etl  surLjery  to  such  an  extent  that  the  sui;j;eon  reaches  fearlessly  into 
;ct,nous  which  before   weie    impr.icticahle,  ami  undei takes  operations  which 


m 


:i  1 


'TT' 


I'h  '^ii 


I': 


11. 


!    I 


il  h 


Id  i' 


fi'jo       TiiirMi'iis  AM)  w->\/n:i,'s  or  nil-:  a/.V"  ('/■:.\Tiny 

Wi'l'c  never  cvdi  (Ireiiiiled  dl' ;l  ■,'e|ier;it  i(  HI  ll;4n.  (  die  r;ill  re;i(lily  illlil,L;ilie  lli;il 
III)  siir^enii  wiiiilil  (MIC  til  iiiiileriiike.  ;iii(l  iiii  |iiitieiit  Would  endure,  llie  ni^nns 
i>|  ail  (i{ier;il  loll  lust  Iiil;  Inr  se\'era!  Imurs  wit  lioiii  an  aiuest  liet  ie  :  and  lliat  it 
Illu^l  lia\i'  lieeii  iiiil\  all  luiiiiediale  and  certain  daie^iT  nt  ilealli  tliat.  oiiii- 
pelled  a  Mir.t;i'nii.  ill  |iie-anl  i>e|it  ie  da\  s.  to  (i|ien  an  alidoiiieii  or  hrain  when 
lie  realized  the  '^n'eat  |>rolialiilil,v  ol  Milisei|iient  iuilaninialion  and  death. 

I,et  us  look  at  some  of  the  iiiilisidiial  advaiiees  ol  Mii'^erx  .sinee  the  iiitro- 
dlletioli  oj'  alia'sthesia  and  ol  the  use  ol'  i;erill-ilest  ro\  in'^  ai^ellts.  eon>ideiili;; 
tirst.  siiii|ile  Irael  iires. 

<»!■  SiMi'i.i;  l'"i;Ae  11  i;i:s.  —  A  iiiestheNia  was  the  means  of  |ierniil  I  iie^  siir- 
;^eons  to  "set  "  liaeliire^  ill  a  sat  istaet  (ii'V  niaiiiier  and  without  pain:  .iini  the 
u>e  ol  ant  ise|it  ies  has  |ire\eiited  iiiaiiv  ol  these  rraetmes  Iroiii  Ipeeonr.ii'^ com- 

|ioiiiid  Iraeinres.     Lately  there  iias  I u  a  ehaie^e  in  the  L;eiieral  lieatnieiit  ol 

Irael  ure^  which  is  |iro\ini;'  a  j,Meat  advaiiceuu'iil .  I'oriiieily  it  wa^  the  i'[\<.- 
toiii  to  kei|i  not  oiil\  the  liiokeii  lioiie  itseir  peirectly  <iuiet  on  a  s|iliiil  until 
union  hail  taken  |ilace.  liut  also  to  iiiiiiioliili/e  all  the  neiL^hliorinL;  st  rncture's. 
joints,  muscles,  and   tendons.     Tins   nieaiil    that  when  the  limli  w:i>  taken  oil' 

tiie  splint,  not  only  would  the  hone  1 solid."  hut  there  was  also  a  leiidency 

to  lixalioii  ol'  the  muM'les  and  joints,  so  I  hat  it  look  I  he  pal  ieiil  as  loie^-  to  !L,'et 

hack    the    ll->e    ol     the    linih    as    il     did    |o    nilile    the   lil'okell    hoiie.       This   is   now 

oli\iated  in  many  Iraeliires  hy  liei^iniiiii;^'  hoth  the  pas>i\r  and  active  niolion 
ol  t  he  neiL;lilioiiii'4'  muscles  and  joints  at  n  much  earlier  period  than  lierelo- 
lore  :  III  laci.  in  iuan\  I  lad  nres,  -iicli  as  I  hose  near  t  he  \\  li-^l.  liy  ne\'er  allow - 
iiiL;  these  .iiijaceiil  tnictures  |o  ;;et  still'  at  all.  Imi  keepiii',;-  up  the  pa>si\e 
million  (while  the  liie^iiieuts  are  held  liriiily  lo.^ci  her)  liom  the  vei\  lii>l 
dre>sinLC.  In  otlnr  more  eoiiiplicated  and  Muioiis  Iractures  where  nioiiou  i- 
colli  ra-indicaleil.  the  use  of  caielully  applied  ma^sa^e  prexeiits  laruelv  ihr 
stillness  and  the  wastin'4  ol'  the  muscles  which  lesulis  Iroiii  Iohl;  coiilineiiii  ni 
on  spiints. 

('oMi'oiMi  l''ii  \i  1 1  iji'.s.  —  III  pre-ant  iseptic  d.iys  compound  liactiiies  wer. 
one  ol  llie  t;ieatesl,  caiisos  ot'  the  amiiiitatiuii  ol  limhs  ;  ami  yet.  to-day.  the-e 
same  iiieaks.  which  twriifcylive  years  airo  would  have  co>l  the  patient  hi^ 
liiiili.  are.  liy  means  of  antiseptics,  rendered  aseptic  and  coiiveited  into  a  >im- 
ple  Iraclure  hy  the  cl.isiiii^  ol  the  wound,  and  the  )parl  is  iiol  only  saved  hiii 
liilly  restored  to  luii"tioii. 

|!o\  i;  I  lisi: Asr.s.  —  I  »iseases  ot  the  hones,  as  in tlaiiimat  ion.  caries,  and  necro- 
sis, are  now  dealt  with  very  diri'erently  Ifoiii  of  old.  'I'lie  diseased  >tiucture~ 
are  now  thoroughly  leiiuived;  and  the  intiammat ion  whiidi  al  one  time  kept 
the  ]iati<'!it  in  misery  and  dani,'er  I'or  a  Ioiil;  time  is  suhdiied  Irom  tin'  start. 

OsTKOTi i:\iv.  —  This  term,  which  means  the  division  ot  a  hone,  is  muierallv 
apidied  to  the  correction  ol'  Tn  rormit  ies.  such  a.s  hnw-le^js.  This  operaliou 
titty  yeai>  ai,'o  was  not  rreipiently  resiu'ted  to.  and  then  only  in  severe  casev. 
llie  milder  ones  heiiiix  hdt  alone  lU'  treated  with  braces,  which  at  liest  eoiihl 
do  little  more  than  luevent  increase  in  del'ormily.  When  the  operation  wa> 
perloiined  on  the  hone,  it  was  then  divided,  usually  willi  a  saw.  The  opera 
tion  nowadays  lor  thi>  condition  is  what  is  called  suipcutaiicoiis  o-teotomv  . 
that  i>.  the  wound  made  is  only  as  laf^'e  as  the  chisel  umiI  tor  sevcriiiL.'  ih' 
hone,  aliout  one  hill  inch,  and  nwiie^  to  our  kiiowled'^e  of  mirrolies  and  o 
means  (>[  destrov  ini,'  them   and   pieveiitini;   their  rava,i,'e>.   humlreds  of  h 


(•i:.\rrny 

i.;„lily  iina:4iii<'  tlwl 
iMiiluiv.  tlii'  ;ii;niiy 
^thi'lir;  and  thiil  it 
„t  ,l.-i.lll  lliiit,  cnm- 
,1,1,. II  ni  luiiiu  wh.'ii 
ioll  ilMtl  (Icillll. 
;,•!■>    >iuc»'    tlir   llltn.- 

imciits.  (•oii^iiliTin:-; 

^  ,,|  iicnuitliii;-;  sur- 
illiuiit  I'^ii"  ••  •'!"'  ''"' 
fium  lic-oiiun:-;  <•'""■ 

nvM.Till    tlvalMK'Ul    nt 

unly  it  was  iIh'  ••">• 
uici  im  a  >|'liiil  Hiitil 
inliLnriu;-;  str\irtiin'V. 
l,r  linili  \va>  ti.kru  niT 
.  \\;i>  ai-i'  ii  >«'iiiliiicy 
paticul  a>  l"ii'-;-  t^  :4<''' 
.„  Ih,u.'.  'I'l'i>  >^  •""' 
\,.    ;,iul   arliv.-    lllnllnu 


'■  1 


.rllnil    tliaii    licrrl..- 


v\ii>l.l>y  iicvrr  allow - 
;,„.,,i„-  up  til''  pa-sivr 
,)  In.iu  tlir  V.T>  tii>l 
lUlfS   wlliTf   llinnMll     i- 

,    ,„vvrl.ts   lai-vlv    tin' 

,,,„„    1,,11-    rnlllilKMUrUl 


mioii 


and   \« 


,„1  lia-'tmvs  WTP 
.).  t.i-ilav.  till'-' 


^t    the    I 


atifii 


t    hi- 


ll ciiiivrilfil  intu  a  sim- 
I  (lulv  savf.l  Win 


IS     III! 


itinll.  ( 


lit'  I 


arit'S.  anil  ih'cH' 
I  stnii'Inn- 


liscasci 


liicli  at  niK 


llliir  Ki'l/ 


aiu'd  in. Ill  111''  >-';"■'• 
i.f  a 


lioiu'.  i-i  'A' 


iicralK 


Tliis  (.[.I'lali' 


1  nlliv    111  St 


vi'ic  t-asf 


w 


hich  at  lifst  ''"Ul'l 
^'lifii  til.'  (.iM'ratitin  wa- 
il, a  saw.     Tin'  "!"''■' 


•  utanc'iHS  i> 


I    ll^ 


I  or  St 


a'Jf 


stt'i>ti>ni> 
vcriiiL'  '1' 
,f  iiin-ritlifs  ami  "> 
>.  huntlivds  nt    li'. 


,'i 
.•fl 


l>.l 


6ii2 


TuiuMrns  AM)  \\().\t)/:iis  or  riii-:  xix'"  cKxrcny 


:>   ki 


■i«y)i 


iiri.'  iiuulc  stritiy;lit  cvcrv  yt'iir  wliicli  ;i  u'riioratidii  a;j()  could  not  liuvc  been 
siilcly  Imiclicd. 

A.MiTTATioNs.  —  'I'lic  tirst  Mit'ci'sstul  iuninitatinii  at  tli«'  liip  joint,  for  oitlier 
injury  or  discast'.  in  tin;  Uniti'd  States,  was  done  in  1S(I(»  by  Dr.  Urasiu-ur; 
till'  next  was  luit  acconiplislu'd  until  ISL'-I.  As  lute  as  ISSI,',  the  ;,'ri'at  Anu-ri- 
ciin  sur.i^i'on,  (Ji'oss.  wrot*?  in  Ids  "Systt'ni  of  Surgery:"  »' To  no  opfration 
tliat  can  lir  iicrfornit'd  on  the  human  body  is  llic  oft-rt'peutcd  maxim.  •  ./</  r.r- 
t minis  iiiiir/iiis  cxfriuiiii  fciiii't/!a,'  mori'  justly  applii'aljhi  than  to  aniimtalion  at 
the  hip  joint,  'i'lic  ojH'ration  may  become  necessary  both  on  account  of 
disease  and  a(!cident;  but  it  is  of  so  formidable  a  nature  and  so  fraui;ht  with 
daie^'er,  tliat  it  shoidd  never  be  unib-rtaken  unless  the  patient  has  no  otlier 
(diance  of  escape.  Tin;  !,'reat  risk  which  attends  it  is  chietiy  due  to  shook, 
loss  of  blood,  suppuration,  erysipelas,  and  pyaemia.  .  .  .  I'nder  hi^ddy  favor- 
able eiroumstam-os,  mncii  of  the  enormous  wound  may  unite  by  the  tir.st  in- 
tention ;  but.  in  Lfeneral.  more  or  less  suppuration  takes  placie.  and  in  some 
instanc«'s  tiie  disciiari,'e  is  so  copious  as  to  leail  to  fatal  exhaustion.  The 
Ljreatest  ilan;,'er  td  all.  however,  is  the  occurrence  of  pyaeuda.  or  secondary 
al)srcss,  especially  in  amputations  at  the  hip  joint  in  consecpience  of  injury, 
as  a  compound  tractiii'c  oi-  a  yunshot  wound."  'I'his  <,'ives  \]n'  attitude  of  the 
profession  toward  tiiis  operation  a  litth;  more  than  tifteen  years  a,y:o.  and  the 
daMifi'is  widch  attended  its  performance.  Let  us  arid  that  the  mortality  at 
tbis  time  may  be  expressed  in  the  foUnwiiiy;  Hi,'ures.  (\h:  V.  V.  Sheppard 
l)repared  tlicsc  statistics  \'i>v  |)r.  .\sldnirst.)  Of  61."!  cases  in  which  tlu^ 
results  are  known.  ••  L'.'IT  <iccuircd  in  army  practi(^e.  of  which  .'!(>  recovered 
atid  L't>7.  or  S7..'!  per  cent  died;  71  were  jierformed  in  civil  life  for  itijury, 
witli  tiie  residt  (d'  -17  deatiis.  m-  a  mortality  ol  <;(i.l  per  cent;  l.'()l  wore  ])rac- 
ticed  lor  disease,  with  I(t,1  deaths,  or  a  mortality  rate  (d'  U).'J  ])er  cent;  and 
of    II  amputations  for  unknown  causes  '.W.  or  77. L'  per  cent  were  fatal."' 

Ill  IS'.Mt.  l)i',  .liihn  \.  \\'yi-th  of  Mew  York  introduce<l  his  '•  bl"odlo.ss 
metiiod"  of  amputation  at  the  hip  joint,  and  he  recently  reports  CA)  opera- 
tions |ierformed  after  this  iiianner  iiy  himself  and  others,  in  wliiidi  tlu're 
were  II  deaths.  ."»  (d'  which  occurred  in  cases  of  extreme  injury,  where 
the  patients  had  lost  a  larec  amount  of  blood  and  vietir  lud'ore  operation. 
In  |((  cases  the  operation  was  done  for  m!.ili,i,'iiant  <,'rowth.  and  I  deaths 
occurred.  10  per  cent.  In  L'L'  the  aiiiiuitation  was  made  for  iiiHammatory 
disease  of  the  bone,  and  .'»  died.  l.'!.(!  per  cent.  One  has  but  to  contrast  these 
statistics  to  understand  what  antiseptic  methods  and  recent  improvements  in 
the  control  of  liemorrha',fe  have  done  to  lessen  the  mortality  of  amputations. 
The  still  more  recent  use  (d'  salt  solution  injected  into  the  circidation  ol 
palii'iits  siilierini,'  from  profuse  hemorrhage  has  lately  been  the  nn-ans  of  sav- 
in;.,' many  lives  which  would  have  otherwise  succumbed  to  the  loss  of  blood 
and  the  shock  subserpieiit  to  injury  and  operation.  .\s  illustratiiii^  the  con- 
trast iietweeii  the  septic  anil  antiseptic  nnthods.  let  us  consider  (he  snrf,'cr\ 
of  our  ("i\'\\  War  and  compare  with  that  of  to-day.  and  we  shall  see  tlu'  eiior 
moiis  differences  in  methods,  and  ]iarticularly  in  economy  of  limbs  and  organs 
as  well  as  mortality. 

lli;Moi!i!iiA(ii:.  —  The  arrest  and  control  of  lieiuorrliaire  has  jj^reatly  im 
proved  within  the  past  tweiity-tive  years.  The  makiiiLr  <d  an  aseptic  wouim 
does  away  laricely  with  the  much  dreaded  secondary  lieiuorrliage  of  a  gener;i 


% 


un  y 

luivi'  broil 

it.  iov  cither 
•.  I'.nislu'vir ; 
jii'iit  Amt'i'i- 
III  (iiH'viitioii 

sill).  •  .1'/  '■••■- 
miutiilitm  at 
1  account  tit 
t'nmi;lit  with 
has  nt»  ulht'i- 
[w  to  shock, 
hi^'hly  fiivor- 
,•  the  tii'st  iu- 

iuid  in  some 
nistion.     The 

or  secondary 
lice  of  injury, 
ittitvKh'  of  the 

s  ai-o.  ;>"^^  t^'*^ 
c  mortality  at 

•'.  C.  Shepiianl 
in   which  the 
I  ;5(»  recovered 
ife  for  injiiry, 
'_'('>l  were  prao 
)cr  cent ;  and 
ve  fatid." 
lis   '-bloodless 
torts  ('.•.)  opera- 
II  which  tlicre 
injury,   where 
ore  operation, 
and    l  ileaths 
intlannnatory 
contrast  these 
provcint'nts  in 
amputations, 
circulation  ot 
means  of  sav- 
.  loss  of  blood 
ratint?  the  con- 
Icr  I  he  surjici'v 
11  sec  the  enor 
lbs  and  or«j;ans 


TIIJ-:  (KyruiiY's  advaxci-:  /.v  .svav,/;//)- 


()'J3 


ml 


lias 


.■vcatly   ini 
^Clitic  wouu'i 


liov  of  a  ;j;cncr:i 


tiou  ago.  by  prcvcnlin'^  sniiiPiuatinn,  wliicli  is  usualiy  the  cause  of  m ndary 

henuu-rlia;.;c.    TIil'  chinisy  and  coiii|ilicatcd  apparatus  of  fmnicr  days  for  con- 
trollini;  licuiorrha.Lte  has  iiccii  superseded  by  llie  use  of  tlie  Ivsmareli  ruMier 
toiiri  i(|Uet,  the  neat  lienio.static  forceps,  and  the  sterile  uniinal  lij,Mture.     No 
surj,'eou  tiiinks  to-day  of  a|i|ilyin'^'  a  silk  lii,'alure  to  a  blood  vessel  and  allow- 
iiii;  it  to  hanj,'  out,  of  the  wound  until  it  separates,  so  tliat   in  ca>e  ot  s( nd- 
ary bleedin,!;  he  could  readily  find  the  vessid  ;  but   he  applies  an  alisorbable 
ligature,  iisually  of  cat;^Mit.  whiidi  is  sterile,  and  which   is  entirely  absorbed 
by  the  tissues  after  it    has  done   its  work.      Much  sulferiiii;-  has  i)cen  saved 
patients  b_\  tile  introduction  of  aiiMU'baiile  niateiials  lor  lij^'atioii  of  vesstds 
and  sewiiifj  of  wounds.     T'ornieriy  niic  of  the  |,neal  dreails  of  wounds  was  tiie 
••takiiii^  out  of  the  stilclie-.,"     'I'o-day   wliere  tiie  wounds  are  not  inthnued 
this  is  little  complained  of.  and  where  tiie  anim;i!  suture  is  used  there  is  no 
disconibirt  wiiatcver.      Many  nieaii>  have,  ilurini;'  the  past  century,  lieeii  em- 
ployed for  the  resuscitation  id'  patients  sulferin:;'  from   protiise   iieniorrliai^(< 
and  sliixdc.     'I'he  idi'a  td'  injecliiii,'  inlu  the  veins  of  the  patient  thus  aib'cled 
blood  from  another  person  or  from  an  animal  is  not  new.  and  has  at  times 
been  (piite  successful.     The  most  j;enerally   UM'd   nietiiod  was  to  draw  the 
blood   from  a  healthy  jierson  or  animal  and   inji'it   it   into  tiie  vein  (d'  the 
patient  with  a  syrini;e:     iiowcvi'r.  so-called   -ilircct    transfusion   "  was  als(» 
employed,  and  eonsi.-ted   in   |iuinpiii;4  the  blood  direct    from   the  vein  of  the 
healthy  individual  into  that  of  the  |iatient.     Hihci-  maleii, ds  tliiin  blood  liav(f 
been   injected   into  the  blood  vessels  of  persons  snfferim,'  lioni  ;,^reat  loss  of 
blood,  notably  milk.      All  of  lhe>e  nieilcMU   lia\c  been   |>ul    upon   tlm  shelf, 
never  to  be  ealletl   into  use  a^ain.     'I'hc  iii^fnuity  of  tin'  niiietcenth  century 
su'4Ljest»'d  the  substitution  of  :i  solution  of  common  salt  for  lilond  and.  to-day, 
the  intra-venous   injection  (d'  nornial   -^alt    soiulinn  saxes  hnndieds  of  lives. 
The  s(dution  is  made  to  resemble  a^  clo-elx  as  possible  the  lii|iiid  p(Mtion  td' 
tlie  human  blood  (the  /li/iinr  snii'/iiiiils).  opecially  as  to  spccilic  i^ravity  :  and 
as  it    is  alwa\s  sVcrili/eil  by  boiliic^-  iiefoic  heinu;'  u-ed.  it  is  free  Irom  all  the 
dampers  whiidi  accoiiipiniy  the  lian>ln>i(iii  of  one  person's  blood  into  another. 
No  W(dl-appointed  operating-  room  is  witliinil  ;I■^  lran>iii^iim  aiioaratus  and  its 
salt  s(diition  ready  lor  use, 

WoiMis.  —  Keference  to  the  remarks  on  aM'jisis  ami  antisepsis  will  show 

the  reader  that  the  treatment  of  wounds  has  underj^one  : niplete  (di.iic'c  in 

tlic  past  (|Uarter  (d'  a  century:  but  ]iriibably  the  mndein  treataieii.  of  piii- 
shot  wounds  illustrates  this  better  thiin  anything'  else.  I'ntil  l.NS.'t,  only  six 
caM's    were    recorded   where  the  alidomiiiid   cavity   was  opened    for   ^Miiishot 

wounils.  but  since  that  time  hundreds  of  cases  have  1 n  treiiteil  in  this  way 

I'verv  vear.  The  injuries  were  formerly  considered  aiiiiust  certainly  fatal, 
iiid  if  the  intestine  was  injureil  the  patient  assuredly  died.  Now  the  abdo- 
iiieii  is  opened.  Iiem<M'rha:4e  controlled,  wounds  — often  to  the  nnndier  id'  six  (u- 
eii^ht  or  even  thirty  or  more  -  o|  the  into!  inc^  (io>ed.  or  an  injured  section 
of  the  intestines  ri'iiKived  and  th.'  abdominal  cavity  (deansed  aial  <dosed.  with 
iiianv  fav(H-able  terminations  to  make  the  oipcration  not  only  a  ju>titiable 
one.  but  one  of  necessity  and  safety.  There  is  no  comparison  with  tnc  pre- 
si'iit-dav  results  of  L,unshot  wounds  of  eiiher  abdomen  or  idlest  and  thll^e  of 
a  Ljeneration  a'^o.  it  is  the  duty  of  the  suri^eoii.  in  case  of  eiinsliol  wcund 
nf  abdomen,  to  ojieii.  exjilore.  and  ri'iiair.  whereas  torinerly  it  was  considered 


i 


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(I 


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■)f 


J|i    l(;  '■ 


in- 


li 


titf4       riULMi'iis  AM)  \\(i\i)i:i;s  or  the  a/.V"  ciisiiiiY 

tlic  pai't  <il  wiMlniii  til  liMM'  tli<>  pat iriil  williuiil  lailiral  tiraliiit'iit  ami  milv  to 
iiiaki'  liiiii  fiiiiiriiilalilr  wiili  (ipiali'S.  TImis  ca.scs  <il  (laiiia,y;f  In  tlic  iiitrsliiio 
and  visctTii  did  (icca.siiiiiallv  rrcovcr  in  prc-aiitisr|>tit'  davs.  Itiit  it  was  tlif 
lart'st  occiirrciin'. 

Wliat  lias  1 II  said  nl  i;iiiisliiit  wuiiiiiU  applio  alMi  In  stab  wniiiids  nl   llir 

clicst  and  alidiiiiii'ii. 

'riiK  Am  mi;n  r  Ai;v  C.wai..  —  I'mliahly  tlic  mii^^itv  nl'  iin  pnrtimi  ut  tlir 
linily.  unless  it  lie  tin'  lirain.  has  Imtii  -n  iiiiii'li  iiiipmM'd  dunii;^'  I  lie  past  til- 
tci'ii  vi'iMS  as  that  nl'  llir  aliiiii'iilaiv  i-aiiai.  'I'lir  rsiipliauns  nr  '^ullrt  is  imw 
opi'iicii  with  iiiipiinilv  jnr  imili  ili>('a>r  and  injury.  This  nr'^'an  is  imt  niil\ 
apprn.ii'iialili'  tliroiiLih  tin-  ui'i'k  but  aJMi  llirnir^h  tlir  harU  part  nl  thfi'hi'st. 
I>y  rt'scri  idii  III'  tilt!  rilis;  and  the  hitler  npi'ialinii  is  treipieiit  ly  made  iieees- 
sary  li\  the  lnd'^niellt  nl  jnreli^n  lindie>.  —  lillttiiUS.  talse  teeth,  lie.  —  sn  Inw 
dnwn  in  the  esnphie^iis  that  theveiiniint  he  leaehed  thinu;.,di  the  niniit  h  m 
thniii;;li  an  npeiiin.!;  made  in  the  neck. 

'rill',  Srn.MAf  II.  —  This  nrnan.  wiiieh  was  Inrnierly  a  Inrli'dih'ii  Held  to  the 
siir!,'t'n!i.  is  miu  sulijeeted  tn  the  iiiii>t  \arieil  siiryieal  nperatiniis.  Irniii  simple 
opeiiiiij,'  Inr  the  purpose  nl  lemnviu.;  a  Innii^Ni  lind\  ni'  estalilishiiii,'  a  listii- 
Iniis  traet  tn  the  reseel  inn  nl'  a  pnrtiniinr  it  nr  In  its  emupleti'  reseetinn.  as 
has  lieeii  siH'eessl'iilly  aeei iiii pii.>lieil  several  times  within  the  past  year  nr  twn 
Inr  malii;iiiiiit  disease.  'I'he  ieiiin\ai  nl'  the  smaller  end  nl  the  stmnaeh  Inr 
eaiicer  is  imw  a  Ireqiieiit  nperatimi.  Oniiii'^  liie  war  nl  the  reliellinn  there 
were  sixty-l'nur  eases  III'  Wnlimls  nf  the  ^tiiiiiaeh.  and  nlily  nlie  leeiix  eleil.  In 
over  sis  hundred  and  lilty  eases  nl  wnumls  nl  the  intestines  there  were  le- 
enrded  mdy  li\e  eases  nl  reenvery  I'lnm  wnumls  III'  the  small  and  lirty-niiie 
Irnm  wiiinuis  nl  thi'  hir,i,'e  intestine. 

'I'm-:    I  \Tr.sTi\.\i.  'I'l;  m  i.     -  What    ha  ^   lieeii   said  nl'  the   stomaeli   applie 
also  tn  this  pnrtinii  nl    the  alimentary  eaiial.      Nn  siirncnii  can  iinwadays  eal 
liiiusell'  snrh   il'  he  is  ineapalile  nl    reninviie^  a  ilise.ised  pnrtinii  nl'  intestine, 
it    may  he  mdy  a    lew   iiiehrs  nr  several    leei.  and  liiin^iiii,'  the  diviiliiiL;  end 
ol    remaining  intestine  inin  sin-li  appnsitinn  that  healing;;  ti'ikes  plaee  and  tin 

t'lnieiinii   is  lestnred.      I'lilil    n iitl\.wlieii   the  means  nl'  aiiastnninsin^:  lli 

intestinal  canal  \\eie  perlected.  il  was  the  cii-tnni  id'  the  siiri^enn  tn  luin 
the  severed  ends  nl  the  intestines  inIn  the  alidnminal  incisinn  and  sutiin 
them  there,  estaliiishin'4-  in  this  w;iy  an  artilieial  anus  with  all  its  aerninp 
nyiii^;'  disenml'nrts.  This  was  eeiiainly  heiter  ihaii  allnwiiii;- the  jiatient  ti 
perish  trniii  his  disease.  Imt  Imw  inlinitely  pulnalile  is  ihe  present  met  Im 
nl'  hriie^iu!,'  the  healthy  eiit  ends  nl'  the  intisiiiie  iiitn  an|Hisitinn  and  rei'stal 
lishinn'  the  ealihre.  It  is  this  nperatimi  wiiieli  has  sn  miirli  rediieed 
iiinriality  n)L  int  la-alidmninal  iiijuries.  '^mislinl  wnumls.  stahs.  etc..  and  n; 
ma'ie  hundreds  nl'  snITereis  Irmii  iiitesi  inal  eaiieer  either  well  a^ain  nr  mii 
i'nrtalile  Inr  years.  The  perl'eetinn  III'  the  nperatinii  ni  jniniiiL;'  line  part 
the  alimeiilary  canal  tn  annijiri-  has  lieeii  due  lar;4ely  tn  the  iii'^enuily  an 
]ierseveraiice  nl  .Vmericaii  siiri^emis.  wlm  have  devnted  years  tn  experiment; 
tinn  and   practice  upnn  the  cadaver  and  iipmi  animals. 

Tin;  Kll'\i:vs.  —  The  kidney  has  nnt  licell  liehimi  the  nther  nri^'alis  nt  1 1 
Imdy  ill  reapin;^-  the  iMnrJiis  nl  uiniliiii  sui'^ery.  The  liist  case  of  reiiinv, 
ni' the  kiiiiicy  wa^  dmie  in  ISli'.l  by  Simnii.  mid  was  successful.  It  was  iln 
onlv  alter  a   nuniher  nl   dn'^s    wei"  nperatcd  nn   successrnlU   tn  dciiinusir.i 


/  ciisri'iiy 

,,,;itin.Mit  auil  "lily  to 
i;,,^„.  to  tlu-  int<'sliii.'> 

dins.  Will   i»^  ^^''^  ''"' 
,,  stub  \vni\inl>  "l  'li'' 

,1  auiiii;,'  llif  I'ii-''  *''■ 
^ons  i.r  l^iill'-'  '^  ""^^ 
nii>  oriiiiii  i^'  ""'  "'"'> 
,;,..U  p;.it  ot  th.TlM'>t. 
,,..iii.''ialv  iii;ia.'  n.vr>- 
Is..  i.M-th.  if-  — ■^"'"'^ 
tl.n.u-li  111.'  uii.iitlM" 


I  toii.'.ia.Mi  li.'ia  <"  <!"■ 

„,u.n.tinus.  tn'Uisimi.l.' 

,„.  ,.st;il.lisliin:4  :i  l'^'"' 

S  .nml.l.'t.'  IfS.'rlinll.  !l^ 

,i„,l,..    ,USt    y.MVltNVn 

,,,,,1  „t  thr  stom:irli  t"i 
.  „i  ,1„.  ivlM-llion  llii'iv 
,lv  ..III'  ivcov.Mvd.      In 


(11 


,„.,stmrs  lli.'iv  wnv  iv- 
,1...  small  an.l  liltA-iini-' 

,,f    llir    stoliliirll    ai'l'l"'- 

,ov,,ii  cini  iinwii.hiys  call 

.r.l  polUoll  <'l'    illt>'>IH"'- 

i„„.in.4  thi'<livi.lin!4''i"l> 
,l,u-ir.Ursi.la.'..  an.llli.- 
;nis  1)1'  aiiasti>iii«'siii.i  ili'' 
oV  tlif  suv-f""   '"  '"■'"- 
|i„;,l   in.M^in..  aii.l  s'ltiu'' 
„„s  xvilh  all  its  accnUM'a 
allnwiii'j;  the   palu'iit   t- 
,,   i,  ,h..   ,„vM'Ul   nu'll.nM 
,,;,,,i.nsiti<iu  aii.l  iT;'stali 
,,.   M.   niii.'li  iv.liuv.l   Ml. 
„„1,.  ..i;,l.>.  .•l.'..  ;iii'l  lia 
,.i,l,,,  xvrlla-aiiM.rnMn 

,u  (.;  jniuiu-  .iiir   part  "'■ 

,,ly  t.'.  Ill''  iii'4''ii"''>'  ■■"" 
,,,;iyravst.M.xprriinfnl.. 

1  ,i„.  ,,tli.T"i-':iiis  ..1  ll. 
n„,  ,i,,,  rasi-  ul  v.Mimv; 
sur.vs^lul.  It  was  .In; 
......s-^luUv  to  ll.'llloU>UV 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER, NY.  M580 

(716)  872-4503 


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THE   CENT  CRY'S   ADVANCE   IN  SUIIGEIIY 


Gt>5 


that  lifo  iiiid  licaUli  art'  coiupatibl''  with  only  <jiu'  kiiliicy.  Since  this  time 
the  i-enu)val  ol'  a  kidney  lor  disease  or  injury,  -wiien  its  fellow  ol'  the  oppo- 
site .side  is  liealthy  and  }ieri'orniing  its  i'nnetion.  has  l)een  looked  njHjii  as  an 
entirely  justitiable  ojieratiun.  Tim  surLji-ry  ot  this  or,L^an  has  hitely  so  far 
advaneed,  however,  that  many  kidneys  are  now  treated  l»y  more  enriitive 
operations.  In  l.S8()  the  lirst  ()})er;itiou  was  done  tor  the  removal  ot  a  stone 
from  the  kidney,  an  operati(jn  which  now  nearly  every  sni'u'con  of  miieh 
experienee  has  performed.  The  ojieration  for  the  hxation  of  a  tloatih',;:  kid- 
ney, which  is  now  so  common,  was  first  done  in  ISSI,  Now.  since  Simon's 
bold  experiment  the  lives  of  between  two  thousand  ami  tljrec  tliousand  jier- 
sons  havi'  been  thus  saved  who  had  otherwise  certainly  died. 

TiiK  ])i,AiJi>Kit. —  For  generations  the  bladder  has  been  considered  a  legiti- 
mate field  for  surgery,  liut  modern  methods  and  tecliniipie  have  greatly 
extended  the  d(jmaiii.  One  of  the  greatest  advances  in  liladiler  surgery  has 
been  the  crushing  of  stone  and  its  immediate  removal.  Tntil  ISlTt  the  treat- 
ment of  all  stones  in  the  bladder  was  their  removal  through  an  incision  made 
in  the  organ.  At  that  time  Civiale  first  jjcrfoi'mcd  the  operation  of  ii:issing 
a  bla(h'(l  instrument  into  the  bladder  and  crushing  the  stone,  tlicn  allowing 
the  jiatient  to  ])ass  it  snbseipiently  at  urination.  The  operation  iieeame  ([uite 
])opnlar  with  certain  surgeons  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  ci'iitnry.  The 
cutting  o})eration  has,  however,  never  been  entirely  put  aside,  and  even  to-day 
it  is,  in  many  eases,  the  best  and  only  ])roced\ire.  In  bSTS  I'.igelow.  of  lios- 
ton.  devised  the  method  whi(tli  is  now  universally  used,  of  crushing  tlie  stone 
and  washing  it  out  at  once  through  a  sihcr  tube.  This  was  a  gri'at  stride 
ahead  of  the  old  method. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  deciding  upon  the  removal  of  a  kidney  has 
been  the  trouble  of  finding  out  whether  the  other  kidney  is  doing  its  work, 
and  this  Kelly,  of  Johns  Hopkins  I'lnver.-ity.  has  done  much  to  overcome  in 
devising  his  nn'thod  of  examining  by  looking  at  the  openings  of  the  tuiies  of 
the  kidneys  where  they  empty  into  the  lAadder.  If  the  kidney  is  performing 
its  function  the  urine  will  be  seen  flowing  from  its  tulie  into  tlie  bladder. 

Hkhma  ok  llrPTfi;!';.  —  I'robably  the  treatment  of  no  c(uidition  has  re- 
ceived more  eoiisideratiou  from  the  surgeon  of  fjie  nineteenth  century  than 
that  of  rupture,  and  it  was  not  until  1S'.)1  that  an  ojieration  was  devised, 
simultaneously  by  an  Italian  and  an  American  surgeon.  whi(di  has  jiroved  for 
itself  all  that  its  originators  claimed.  Hundreds  of  ojierative  methods  have 
lieen  brought  forward  for  the  cure  of  this  troublesome  and  dangerous  con- 
dition :  but,  until  the  operations  of  Halsti'ad  and  i'xissini  were  lirought  for- 
ward, little  ]>ros]iect  of  an  absolute  cure  could  be  promised  a  patient,  and  the 
conservative  surgeon  would  oidy  umlertake  to  operate  upon  very  troublesome 
cases  such  as  could  not  be  controlled  l)y  a  truss.  Now  nearly  every  c.ise 
of  hernia  may  be  looked  upon  as  curalde  by  an  operation. 

Oi'KUATiVK  Gvx.Kcor.oiiV.  — The  operative  treatment  of  the  disease  nf  the 


'male  generative   organs  has  l)eeu 


revolutionized  in  our  eenturv,  and   its 


lutiou  has  been  largelv  dm'  to  .Vnierican  surgeons. 


revo 
ever 
In  the  lifties.  Marion  Sims  won  great  renown 


The  lirst  ovariotomv 


performed  was  done  in   Kentucky,  by  Dr.  Kphraim  ^IcDowell.  in   ISO'.I. 

lor  himself  and  his  country  by 
boldness  in  this  line  of  work.     Tiic  greatest 


Mulerfnl  ingennitv  am 


Ins  w( 

advance  here,  as  in  all  de 
40 


avtments 


if  sur; 


lieen   maui'   suice 


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(it's 


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'■  !■ 

1" 

1  > 

i|i  : 

(526 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 


introduction  of  antiseptic  and  aseptic  principles.  To-day  there  is  no  disease 
or  condition  wliicli.  it'  seen  early  enough,  cannot  be  cured,  or  essentially 
relieved  at  tht;  hands  of  an  expert  ahiloniinal  surgeon.  Thousands  of  women 
are  now  saved  every  year  by  these;  means  who  formerly  would  have  certainly 
died  or  remained  hopeless  invalids. 

Ai'i-i;m>i(itis.  —  This  coiulition  must  seem  to  the  ordinary  reader  to  be 
either  a  new  disease  or  one  nuu-h  more  prevalent  than  in  days  gone  by,  but 
it  is  lujt  the  case.  The  cause  of  this  appearance  is  the  fact  that  in  former 
times  the  condition  was  not  recognized  in  its  incijiieney,  and  the  exact  cause 
of  the  troulile  was  unknown.  The  condition  then  advamu'd  until  it  was 
called  ty])hlitis,  peritonitis,  and  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  etc.,  all  of  which 
would  to-day  occur  if  the  conditions  were  not  recognized  early  and  treatment 
immediatfly  instituted  ind'ore  tin;  intianimation  and  infection  extended  from 
the  apipendix  to  neighboring  tissues. 

IJuAix  SuiKiKKV.  —  This  branch  of  surgery  is  ])ra(!tically  a  triumj)h  of 
recent  years.  Formerly  the  brain  was  never  interfered  with  except  for  in- 
jury (traunuitic).  and  even  then  nothing  was  d(jne  exce[)ting  for  the  removal 
of  pressure,  as  from  a  jaece  of  depressed  bone,  and  the  institution  of  drain- 
age. To-day  the  skull  is  opened  for  ejiilepsy ;  abscesses  of  the  brain  are 
opened  and  drained  successfully,  and  tumors  of  the  brain  are  removed,  thus  not 
only  in  numberless  instances  saving  life  but  —  what  is  equally  inii»ortant  — 
saving  the  usefulness  of  the  life  and  mind.  The  first  actual  successes  in  this 
line  are  recorded  by  Uennett  and  (lodlee  in  l.S<S4.  who  localized  and  o[ierated 
on  and  ultimately  found  a  tumor.  The  i)atient  died,  but  the  l)old  begiiniing 
was  followed  by  a  number  of  other  surgeons,  till  this  new  region  for  explora- 
tion, hitherto  untouched,  has  become  a  fertile  ground  for  successful  efforts. 
Abscess  of  the  brain,  until  twenty  years  ago.  was  almost  invariably  fatal. 
MacEwen  in  1IS7'.)  located  an  abscess  of  the  brain  and  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  operate,  but  was  refused  by  the  fanuly  of  the  patient.  After  the  death  of 
the  patient  he  operated  precisely  as  he  would  have  done  in  life,  evacuated 
the  jms  and  demonstrated  that  had  he  been  permitted  to  do  so  he  could  have 
saved  life. 

Where  the  cranium  is  woumled  surgeons  nowadays  will  not  hesitate  to 
ojien  the  skidl,  secure  the  bleeding  vessels,  remove  clots,  and  thus  many  lives 
are  saved.  Even  comi)aratively  slight  injuries  to  the  skull,  where  the  brain 
is  damaged,  involve  oftentimes  destriu'tion  to  the  arteries  and  blood  is 
effused,  producing  such  destructive  pressure  as  causes  very  serious  symp- 
toms or  even  death.  In  other  instances,  the  restdts  of  a  blow  or  a  fall  with- 
out injuring  the  skull  nuiy  cause  profound  damage  and  subsequent  hemor- 
rhage. In  all  these  cases  oper.ative  interference,  now  extremely  safe  and 
easy,  may  readily  save  life,  (iunshot  wounds  of  the  br;un  .are  now  only 
occasionally  fatal,  provided  o[»portunity  offers  for  prompt  and  clean  operative 
work.  Even  where  the  ball  has  traversed  the  entire  length  of  the  cerebriun. 
recovery  has  followed  operation.  The  results  of  brain  s\irgery  in  relieviiiL; 
certain  forms  of  epilepsy  are  occasionally  most  brilliant  and  frequently  mueli 
relief  is  afforded.  Where  the  epilepsy  is  of  the  character  known  as  focal. 
and  where  there  is  evidence  of  irritation  of  the  brain,  due  to  a  local  pressure 
whether  of  the  cranial  walls  or  of  some  new  growth  Avithin  the  brain  tissue. 
the  removal  of  these  sources  of  irritation  has  in  many  reported  instance- 


Ml.ilJ 


■»^i 


Uli  Y 

is  no  disease 
I-  ("sscntially 
(Is  of  wuuiea 
;ive  covtiiinly 

reader  to  be 
iroiie  l)y.  but 
hat  in  tuvnu'V 
Lf  exact  cause 
until  it  was 
.,  iiU  oi'  which 
;uid  trcatuicut 
extended  ii'oni 

a  tnuui\iU  of 

i'xcui)t  for  iu- 

ov  tlio  removal 

utiou  of  drain- 

the  brain  are 
uoved,  tluis  not 
iV  imiHM'tant  — 
uccesscs  in  this 
id  and  operated 
boUl  beginning 
fion  for  explora- 
ecessful  efforts. 
..variably  fatal, 
id  tf)  be  allowed 
ter  the  death  of 

life,  evacuated 
o  he  could  have 


THE  rKyrmtY's  ADVA^x'l^:  ix  sunoEiiY 


(J27 


been  most  satisfactory.  Again,  certain  cases  of  jirutractcil  headache,  so 
severe  as  to  render  life  insiiiiiiortahlc.  have  lu-en  cured  by  trepanning  the 
skull.  Certain  forms  of  insanity  have  been  modified  and  relic /od  where  tliis 
had  followed  upon  brain  injuries.  It  is  of  great  interest  to  reflect  upon  the 
methods  by  whicli  students  of  l)rain  disease  are  enabled  to  determine  so 
exactly  the  location  of  tumors,  abscesses,  hemorrhages,  clots,  scars,  and  other 
alterations  of  tissue  giving  rise  to  epih^psy  and  Ijrain  disorders,  and  wliich 
afford  no  inciicatiou  of  tlie  di.-eased  locality  by  any  changed  condition  of  the 
surfa(!e.  In  dealing  witli  other  [)arts  of  the  body,  if  th((  jirccisc  locality  of 
the  part  to  be  operated  on  cannot  be  at  iirst  determined,  there  is  no  In'sita- 
tion  in  the  minds  df  the  surgeons  in  cutting  down  upon,  and  searching  for, 
that  which  he  proposes  to  remove.  In  dealing  with  so  delicate  an  organ  as 
the  brain,  liowever,  this  cannot  be  permitted;  for  a  variation  of  the  very 
smallest  dimension  will  sometimes  change  the  manipnlations  from  those  of 
])erfcct  safety  to  the  most  fatal  results.  <  )ur  knowledge  of  the  location  of 
the  functions  of  the  brain  and  the  areas  from  whence  arise  governing  iuHu- 
ences  has  been  derived  almost  solely  iwnw  experiments  upon  living  animals. 
Among  tlie  names  of  tlie  great  pioneers  in  this  direction  must  be  nuMitioned 
those  of  Ferrier  and  Ilorseley,  of  England;  Fritscli,  Ilitzig,  and  Goltz,  of 
Gernuiny.  The  researches  which  have  thus  opened  uji  a  new  realm  of  oper- 
ative ])ossil)ility  are  among  the  very  greatest  trium|ihs  in  our  means  of  sav- 
ing life  and  affording  opportunity  for  relief  of  the  most  serious  disablements 
known  to  modern  times. 

For  illustration  of  how  these  studies  are  pursued,  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
review  the  method  used  by  Ilorseley. 

Tlie  brain  of  a  monkey  having  been  exposed  at  tlie  jtart  to  be  invt'stigated, 
the  poles  of  a  battery  are  ai)plied  over  si^uares  one  tv,-clfth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  all  the  vari(ms  movements  which  occur  (if  anyi  are  minutely 
studie(h  One  sijuarc  having  been  studied,  the  next  is  stimulated,  and  the 
results  are  again  noted,  and  so  on  from  scjuare  to  S(puire.  'I'liese  movements 
are  then  tabulated.  For  example,  all  those  adjacent  s(piares  which,  when 
stimidated,  ])roduce  movements  of  the  thumb  are  called  the  region  for  repre- 
sentation of  the  tliumb,  or  "tin;  thumb  centre;"'  and  to  all  those  s(}uares 
which  ])roduce  nu)vements  of  the  liand.  the  elbow,  the  shoulder,  or  the  face, 
etc.,  are  given  corresiionding  names.  In  this  way  the  brain  lias  been  mai>ped 
out,  region  by  region,  and  the  same  minute,  [latient  study  given  to  eadi. 

These  animals  are  etherized  so  that  tliey  do  not  suffer  the  least  jiain. 
Such  operations,  with  few  exceptions,  even  without  ether,  arc  not  painful. 
Tlie  brain  itself  can  l)e  luindled.  compressed,  cut,  or  torn  without  the  least 
jiain.  A  number  of  cases  have  alrea<ly  l)een  rei)orted  in  whiidi  a  consider- 
alile  portion  of  tlie  human  brain  lias  l)een  removed  by  ojieration,  and  the 
i)atients  have  been  about  their  ordinary  avocations  within  a  week  (U'  two. 


Studviug  in  this  wav  the  brain  in  the  lower  an 


limal 


s.  it  is  now  possible  to 


't  a  very  fair  knowledge  of  the  loeali/ation  of  many  of  its  functions  m  man 


^Moreover,  ])ortions  o 


f  the  bodv  can  ht;  entirelv  severed,  and,  if  suitably 


lin 


preserved,  can  be  replaced,  and  they  will  adhere  am 
lia])pened.     When  a  wound   is  slow  in  liea 
either  from  the  patient's  owi 
iriends,  or  even  from  frogs,  an 


grow  as  if  nothing  had 
<:,  we  now  tak(^  bits  of  skin, 


body  or  provided  by  the  willing   family  or 
il  •■  graft"  them  on  the  surface  of  the  wound. 


i-  ' 

\  r,\ 


i 


'    I 

Mi 


I 


F 


^J 


Ill 


;f 


ill 


m 


;■•!?( 


Vi 


«!' 


!    li 


If:; 


K;':..  ill.,:.  4 


it 


1! 


fi-.'S 


rnirMi'iis  a.\i>  woyjujiis  or  r/ii-:  .\/.\"'  ('Esrrny 


Tlicy  usiuilly  aillicrc.  and  as  t'lilarLrciiU'iil  taki'S  place  at  their  iiiar,i,niis,  tlicy 
coalfsct!  hy  oiu'  lialf  tlic  time  leipiirrd  tor  lu'alin;.;'.  Kvcii  a  large  disk  of 
bone,  one  or  two  iiiclies  in  diann-iei',  when  removed  from  the  skull,  can  be  so 
savcMl  and  utilized,  it  is  plaeeci  in  a  ve.--d  tilled  with  :i  warm  antise|)ti(! 
solution,  whieh  is  again  piaeed  in  a  liasin  of  warm  water,  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  a  special  assistant  to  sec  that  the  thermometer  in  this  basin  shall  always 
mark  100'  to  lO.")'  I''ahr.  'i'he  bone  may  be  separated  from  the  skull  so  long 
as  one  or  two  hours,  but  if  properly  I'ared  for  can  be  rei)lace(i.  and  will  grow 
fast  and  fuHill  its  accustomed  but  iuterru]ited  duty  of  jirotecting  the  brain. 

lliixTciKN  ItAVS.  —  ( >ne  of  the  most  recent  advances  in  the  art  of  surgery 
is  the  discovery  and  use  of  the  X-rays.  In  Deceudu'r.  liSlKl,  Trofessor  luint- 
gen.  of  Wiirzbuig.  announced  his  dis(!overy,  and  since  then  its  utility  lias 
continually   increased,  until  to-day  no  large  liospital  or  pro]ierly  equip[)e(l 


X-U.\Y   riCTiniK   OF   .\   COMI'OrXD    FTiACTUUK    AND    DISLOCATION    OF  TITK    FOKF. AHM. 

teaching  institution-,  indeed  no  first-rate  surgeon,  is  without  tl;e  X-ray  ap- 
])aratus.  l'>y  its  >ise  many  doubtful  eas(>s  of  both  injury  and  disease  in  surgi- 
cal practice  are  thus  entirely  rendered  (dear.  In  th(>  diagnosis  and  treatment 
of  many  fractures  it  is  nearly  indisnensable,  showing  the  exact  location  ol 
the  lueak  and  the  positi(m  of  t he  fiagment  before  and  after  dressing.  I'ro- 
bably  in  no  oilier  condition,  unless  it  be  in  fractured  bones,  has  the  X-ra\ 
])roved  itsidf  of  so  much  value  as  in  the  location  of  toreign  bodies  lodged  in 
any  id'  the  organs  or  tissues  of  the  liody.  Kcd'ore  I'rofessor  Kiiiitgen's  di-- 
covery  it  was   not  of  iiiire(|nent  occurrence  that  an   exploratory  operation 

was  111 ssarv  to  positively  prove  the  ]ireseiice  of  a   foreign  body,  and  even 

this  was  at  times  id'  necessity  a  failure,  'i'o-day  the  X-ray  picture  enabh  - 
the  surgeon  to  learn  tiie  exact  location  of  the  foreign  body  and  indicates  t" 
liini  the  best  point  from  wliiidi  it    may  be  attacked.      With  I'cpeated  iiiiprovr 


i   (EMI -11)' 

.  tlii'ir  m;u'ij;iiis,  they 
■.veil  ;i  l;iigi'  lUsk  of 
1  the  sluiU,  can  be  so 
li  a  wavin  antisi-ptii; 
,,,..  luiil  it  is  the  tbity 
lis  basin  shall  always 
n,ni  til.'  sknll  so  Ion-' 
j.hicc.l.  and  will  :-;n)W 
rotcctin-  the  brain. 
;  in  the  art  of  sur-'cvy 
IS'.K"),  rroi't'ssor  Kiint- 
3  then  its  utility  has 
or  pvoiievly  e(iuii>i)e(l 


_J 


Ition  of  TIIK.  FOnEARM. 

without  tV.(>  x-ray  a].- 
.rv  and  discas."  in  sur-i- 
(lia-nosis  and  in'atninit 
he  exact  hu-ation  ol 
lid  iilttT  dr.'ssin-.      1''"- 
,1  bones,  has  the  X-i'a.v 
l',„vi;4n  bodies  lod-^vd  ni 
^ndVssor  Kiint-en's  di- 
..xi.loralory  oiievatiou 
|lon'i;4n  body,  and  rvcn 
X-viiv  itictnrc  cnalil'  - 
l.ody  and  indifat<'>  i- 
Iwith'roiu'atod  inipvov 


m 


\-ii\v   I'H  11  ui:  Ol'  A   in>i.(K  \1'i:d  kiijow. 


1  7   1 


\y  ■ 


.Ir.^ 


w 


I  ! 


630 


THWMPIIS  AND    WOMHIIIS   OF   THE   XIX'"  CEyTUItY 


innits  in  appiiriitiis  t.lic  time  (it  cxposiin'  i(,'(|uin'(l  lor  iiiiiking  tlic  picture  of 
tilt!  Jiart  has  bcfii  greatly  reiliKunl.  The  ailvaiitagc  of  lliis  was  made  mani- 
fest when  it  was  diseovered  tliat  destnuitioii  of  the  skin,  tiie  ^o-(•alled  "X-ray 
burns,"  might  follow  long  and  repeated  exposure  to  the  rays.  It  is  not 
always  necessary  to  make  a  jilate  of  the  part  to  he  examined,  since  by  simply 
studying  the  j)arts  by  the  eyes  through  the  tluoroseope  orthe  tluoroscopicj 
S(!rt'L'U  th((  surgeon  can  readily  sec  everything  that  a  photographic  jiiet'.ire 
could  show  him.  The  tluoroseope  or  screen  is  now  often  used  during  the 
operati(jn  of  removing  foreign  bodies:  through  it  tlie  surgeon  can  Avatch  the 
various  steps  ol  liis  operation,  his  tipiiroach  tu  tiie  toreign  body  and  its  final 
removal. 

If  the  field  of  its  usefulness  continues  to  expand  at  its  present  rate,  it  will 
not  be  long  before  its  use  as  a  diagnostic  measure  will  be  as  valuable  to  the 
medical  man  as  it  now  is  to  the  surgeon. 

I'ly  such  instruments  of  jirccision  as  this,  and  others  less  conspicuous,  the 
old  elements  of  intelligent  inference  and  argument  by  analogy  and  exclusion 
are  rendered  of  less  value,  and  a  rapid  a}iproac]i  is  made  to  scientific  exacti- 
tu(U'  in  surgery  as  well  as  medicine.  All  tliis  has  attained  a  far  higher 
quality  and  scope  in  the  last  quarter  of  this  century  than  in  any  other  jjcriod 
of  the  world's  history,  and  we  may  look  to  great  advances  in  the  coniing 
century,  in  all  life-conserving  and  remedial  measures  whereby  the  race  may 
enjoy  a  larger  measure  of  relief  as  well  as  imnumity  from  the  onslaught  of 
disease  and  the  results  of  accident. 

There  is  shown  here  for  illustration  a  photographic  picture  of  a  limb, 
taken  by  the  X-ray  now  growing  familiar  to  every  one.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  wliile  it  is  a  simple  matter  for  the  casnal  observer  to  note  ob- 
vious solutions  of  continuity  in  bones,  or  the  jjresence  of  foreign  bodies,  this 
is  not  the  chief  item  of  usefulness  to  the  surgeon,  and  certainly  not  to  the 
medical  practitioner.  A  special  training  is  required  to  study  and  interpret 
the  findings  and  a])pearances  of  the  tissues,  their  altered  relationshii)S,  densi- 
ties, and  many  other  matters  entirely  insignificant  to  the  uneducated  among 
medical  men  or  laity. 

Again,  the  picture  here  shown  is  similar  in  outline  to  but  a  reversal  of  the 
shading  seen  through  the  fluoroscope  by  direct  vision,  when  the  greatest  skill 
is  required  in  noting  the  significance  of  altered  states  in  the  denser  or  softer 
tissues. 

When  suits  for  maljn-actice  are  instituted  against  surgeons  it  is  not  to  be 
admitted  that  the  evidence  or  findings  of  the  "highly  intelligent"  but  not 
technically  skilled  witness  can  have  the  slightest  Aveight  as  ])roving  the  con- 
dition of  tissues  of  which  they  are  very  ignorant,  not  only  i)hysiologically 
but  more  so  i)athologically. 

J.  Madisox  Tavlok. 
John  II.  Giuhon. 


:,JiiS 


:!?'l!:i: 


'NTUIiV 


ig  the  pictm'f  of 
viis  niailf  niiini- 
so-fallod  "  X-riiy 
rays.  It  is  uot 
siiioo  by  simply 
■tlui  Huoroscoiiic 
Dgrajiliif.  ]>i('iM'o 
vised  dui'iiij;  tlm 
)ii  can  watch  the 
)ody  and  its  final 

?sent  rate,  it  will 
IS  valuable  to  the 

conspicuous,  the 
5gy  and  exclusion 
1  scientihc  exacti- 
iied  a  far  higher 
1  any  other  i)eiiod 
■OS  in  the  coming 
i-eby  the  race  may 
1  the  onslaught  of 

picture  of  a  limb, 
t  should  be  \)orue 
)servei'  to  note  ob- 
oreign  bodies,  this 
3rtainly  not  to  the 
udy  and  interpret 
lationships,  densi- 
meducated  among 

a  reversal  of  the 

the  greatest  skill 

le  denser  or  softer 

Ions  it  is  not  to  be 
lelligent "  but  not 
]n'oving  the  con- 
lly  physiologically 

IpisoN  Tavlok. 

III.    GlHHON. 


PROGRESS   OF   MEDICINE 

'•As  a  jioint  of  history  pregnant  with  viiliuil)l('  dedMctions.  it  is  good  to 
look  back  ujiou  the  conditions  of  medicine  in  tormer  times  and  tind  tliat  it 
lias  always  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  physical  ;ind  moral  sciences. 
AVhere  tlu'se.  however,  liave  l)een  niiuked  by  folly  and  cre(hdity,  mc(licine 
has  exhibited  the  same  imperfections." 

It  is  ditlicult  to  trace  the  improvement  in  successive  eras,  because  they 
melt  into  one  another  liy  indefinable  gradations.  During  the  earliest  period 
it  was  believed  that  i)hysic  was  an  art  which  was  sujiposed  to  he  most  myste- 
rious, and  it  was  presunu'd  that  the  practicer.-;  held  commnnion  with  the 
world  of  sjtirits.  The  practice  of  medicine  in  those  days  consisted  in  the 
usage  of  agents  necessarily  unreliable,  as,  for  instance,  the  woi'd  abracadabra 
hung  around  the  neck  as  an  amulet  to  chase  away  the  ague,  etc. 

^luidi  time  has  been  wasted  in  attempting  to  portray  tlie  first  origin  of 
nu'dicine.  liambilla,  a  surgiMm  of  Vienna,  has  asserted  that  Tubal  Cain  was 
the  inventor  of  cauterizing  instruments,  apparatus  for  reducing  fractures,  and 
other  instruments  for  surgical  jjrocedures,  thus  endeavoring  to  prove  that 
surgery  antedated  medicine.  It  is  evident  that  medicine  nnist  have  liad  a 
very  early  origin,  for  nuinkind  even  in  the  earliest  ages  suffered  pain  and  the 
train  of  sequences  due  to  exposure,  and  hence  somi  discovered  a  method  of 
alleviation.  Their  category  ])rol)ably  consisted  of  luu'bs.  I'natMpiainted,  how- 
ever, with  the  construction  and  function  of  the  human  economy,  practitioners 
were  unable  to  trace  the  jjrogress  of  disease,  and  the  more  fatal  internal  mala- 
dies were  ascribed  to  the  deities  whom  they  feared.  Ib'uce,  various  sujiersti- 
tious  practices  w(mld  arise  and  be  handed  down  from  one  generation  to 
another.  We  may  imagine  this  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  liealing  art, 
and  such  is  nearly  it.s  present  condition  amongst  the  savages  of  Africa, 
Australasia,  I'olynesia,  Sumatra,  etc. 

Later  on,  the  jtriests  bei-ame  the  physicians,  fi'om  being  the  oracles  of  the 
divinity  whom  the  peojile  wished  to  consult.  The  various  remedies  were 
handed  down  from  one  to  another,  as  me<iic;d  science  did  not  exist  at  that 
time.  Herodotus  informs  us  that  even  in  his  time  the  liabylonians,  < 'hal- 
deans,  and  other  nations  had  no  physicians.  When  any  one  was  attackeil 
with  disease  the  patient  was  carried  into  the  ])ublic  street,  and  passers-by 
who  had  suffered  from  a  similar  affection,  or  mirsed  one  who  had,  ad- 
vised the  sufferer  to  employ  the  measures  that  proved  successful  in  former 
cases. 

The  earliest  writers  on  medicine  trace  its  origin,  in  common  with  that  of 
most  other  branches  of  knowledge,  to  the  Egyptians.  They  appear  to  be  the 
first  nation  that  cultivated  medicine  and  furthered  its  progress.  Many  jiecul- 
iar  medical  ])roi)erties  were  attributed  to  the  di'ities.  All  diseases  wimc  sup- 
nosed  to  originate  from  the  auger  of  Isis.     Kesin  was  burned  in  the  moruuig, 


•1 


I 

i 


jlfir. 


STW 


(Wli 


TiurMi'iis  AM)  noXDi-jiis  or  riii-:  a/.v"  crxTciiy 


iiiynli  at  iiooii.  ami  a  ciiiiiiinsitinii  tcinicd  cyi'liy  in  tlic  ('vciiiii.n.  in  tin;  tcin- 
]ilcs  dl'  Isis,  and  tlif  sii'Iv  wnc  lakcn  thrri'  to  sli'f|i,  iliirini;'  wliicli  tiits  oia- 
clcs  mlLcht,  it'M'iil  til  tlii'iii  t  lie.  iiitMiis  u  liicii  tlicy  slioiiid  cniiilny  U>  cITccI  a 
cure.  This  is  an  iliurl  rat  inn  ol  the  siiiicrstitioiis  wliich  prrvailcd  at  tliat 
time. 

'riit'  carlii'st  aiitliciitic  rccdrds  \vlii(di  we  can  ascertain  iiniii  c(dla1crai  read- 
in;^  afe  In  lie  ininid  in  the  Scii|il Mies.  Mere  it  is  stated  t liat  .T(isc|ili  coni- 
iiiaiided  ins  servants  and  |iliysieians  to  einlialni  Inm  ( I  7<H>  ii.  e. ).  'I'liis  sliows 
tiiat  i\i;y|il  at  that  time  imssessed  a,  set  (if  ineiiwlio  practiced  the  iiealini;- 
art.  and  tliat  tliey  einliaiiued  tlie  dead.  'I'his  umst  iiave  rei|iiired  an  idea  id' 
anatdiny.  wldcli.  needless  to  say,  was  crude  ami  nnscieiititic.  as  dissection  id' 
tlie  human  body  at  that  time  was  i>roiiil)ited,  the  penalty  lieiut,'  dealli. 

Acciudin;;'  to  I'liuN.  tic  l\u;y|it  ian  kiic^s  encoura,i,M'd  |iost-moitems,  I'or  Mie 
|iur|iose  ol'  asceitainin;4  the  cause  (d'  diseases  ;  and  tins  method  was  i'ostei'cd 
liv  the  I'lolemies,  dnriiii;-  whose  reigns  anatoiny  was  I'aiscd  to.a  hi<j;hci'  stan- 
dard. 

'l"lirou!.;h  the  writin,i,'s  oi'  Moses  in  tlie  sacred  Scriptures,  we  learn  that  the 
medicine  <pi'  the  llelii'cws  appertaiiieil  unistly  to  pidilic  hyj.;iene.  Meat  (d'  the 
Iiol;'  and  rahliit  was  lorliidden,  as  liein;,'  injurious  in  the  lO^yptian  and  Indian 
(dimaie.  The  ndatioii  (d' man  and  wile  and  the  piirilication  oi Womi'ii  were 
rei;ulated.  The  measures  sugK'''<'ed  by  Moses  i'or  the  preveidion  ol'  the 
sjir(?ad  ol  leprosy  havt;  not  yet  been  surpassed.  Next  to  Moses,  S(domon 
ac(|uired  (piitc  an  tdlicient  Unow  lcd;j;e  of  coinpiuindinff  rcmcdifs. 

'I'he  Indian  races  were  divided  into  castes,  the  priests  alone  I'ujoying  the 
privilei^-e  (d'  jiracticiu'^-  medicini'.  Their  nn-dical  knowledj,'e  was  ('ondensed 
in  a  book  whiidi  they  calleit  riu/in/osiis/ii:  They  bidieved  the  body  gave 
rise,  thron,i.;li  seventeen  thousand  vessids.  to  ten  .'-pecies  of  f;as  wdd(di  con- 
tlicted  and  eii.n'cndered  disease.  So  far  as  we  know,  they  were  tlio  tirst  to 
record  a  way  (d'  testin.y;  the  spccilic  ^M-avity  of  urino.  Though  accused  (d' 
many  absurdities,  they  (daimcd  to  cure  the  bites  ol'  venomous  snakes  and 
compounded  an  ointment  whi(di  eradicated  the  cicatrices  of  smallpox,  —  a 
result  which  has  not  as  yet  bi'en  attaiiu'd  in  the  present  ei)ocli.  The  Chinese 
attribute  the  invention  of  medicine  to  Iloruu-ti,  oik;  (d'  tlieir  emperors,  who 
lived  about  1.'(1S7  li.  c  ;  but  possessini:,'  no  anutonncal  knowled,!.;-e.  tlndr  sur- 
l^t'i'v,  to  say  the  least,  was  barbarous.  For  over  four  thousand  years  the 
Chiiu'se  were  not  allowed  to  communicate  with  foreigners,  and  naturally  their 
progress  was  at  a  stamlstill.  They  used  (iups,  acupuncture,  i'omentations, 
lotions,  plasters,  baths,  etc.  Their  midwifery  ])ractice  consisted  mainly  of 
murderous  principles,  and  it  is  oidy  since  the  introduction  of  nussionaries 
that  a  rid'ormation  in  the  medical  practice  of  the  Chinese  empire  has  been 
accomplished. 

The  condition  of  medicine  in  (Irecce  did  not  differ  from  that  of  the  "rude 
and  nncivili/ed  nations."  I>ut  later,  (ireck  physicians  are  credited  with  the 
jnost  brilliant  discoveries.  The  most  distinguished  of  ('hiron's  pu]iils  was 
yEsculapius.  who  occupies  the  most  conspicuous  jdace  in  the  history  of  medi- 
cine. .Ksculapius  is  always  painted  with  a  staff,  because  the  sick  have  need 
of  a  supjiort  :  ami  the  serpent  entwined  around  it  is  tlie  symbol  of  wisdom. 
The  sons  cd'  .Ksculapius  are  considered  the  fathers  of  surgery,  and,  for  theii' 
distinguished  valor  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  have  been  classed  by  Homer  amonu 
the  Greek  heroes. 


rriiHY 


J'liOGUKSS   OF  MEDICINE 


ti;i;i 


,_-.  ill  tin;  tcm- 
whifh  tlin  <ii;i,- 
iloy  til  criVrt  ii 
•Viiili'il  at    tliat 

(■(.llatci-il  rrail- 

;it    .IdSCph   I'tlUI- 

.  I.  'I'liis  slmws 
,M'.l  till'  lii'aliii-- 
liii'il  an  idiM  <il' 
;is  (lisscctldii  <it 
.,'  (It-atli. 

loitiMiis,  I'nr  till' 
Kill  was  i'osti'M'il 
(1, a  hii;lu'i'  staii- 

,.  Icani  that,  tla^ 
I,'.  Meat  ni'  the 
itiaii  ami  Indian 
(if  wonicn  \v»'n' 
cvcntion  nf  tin' 
iMoSfS,  Sdloinoii 
ics. 

nw  cnjoyini^  the 
(•  was  ('(iinlcnsctl 
1  tilt"   body    gave 
t'  ,i;as  wliifU  »'<"'- 
ere  the  ihst  to 
oui^h  aci'uscd  »'l' 
lous   snakes   and 
|oi'  sinallpox,  —  a 
h.     'riu'Chiiu'si' 
I'  ('iu|Kn'iii's.  who 
h'd;-;i'.  their  sur- 
ustiud  years  the 
Id  naturally  their 
^•0,  tt)mentati(ins, 
isted  mainly  ot 
of  niissionaries 
'nipin!  has  been 

Lit  of  the  "  rude 
Iredited  with  the 
D'on's  ])ui)ils  was 
history  of  niedi- 
le  sie-k  liave  need 
Inbol  of  wis(U)ni. 
ry,  and,  for  their 
Ly  Homer  anion u 


The  lirst  operation  ot   vinesection,  or  1.1 1  IrltiiiLr,  formerly  so  proiniseu. 

oiisly  done,  Willi  ;ii  iinu's  - I,  luil  niteiier  disastrous,  nsiilts,  and  now  raiclv 

resorted  to.  is  allriluiied  lo  i'odiiliiiiis.  of  re(;oi;iii/.fd  (ireci;iii  medical  skill, 
till!  patient  lieiiij;'  a  priiieess. 

The  early  (irecks  above  ;ill  reco.^ni/ed  the  value  of  pliysieal  eiiltnre.  wliieli 
to-diiy  ocinipies  :i  piomiiieiil  plaee  in  oiii ciiirieulum.  Were  the  eliildivn  uf 
to-ilay,  like  those  of  I  he  aneient  (irecks,  conipcllcd  to  follow  a  rout  inc  ol  \A\\. 
sie;il  trainin.i,',  a  rii,L,',i;cd  consiitntion  would  iv|i|;irc  many  a  ••  dcliiMiu '"  and 
"iniiriii  "one,  ami  the  race  propai^atc.l  would  tend  to  develop  a  slron,i,'er cliar- 
ai'ter.  Then  the  weak-minded,  now  so  coiispicnonsly  present,  would  be  eradi- 
cated, and  many  diseased  conditions  fostered  by  an  ••inanimate"  race  would 
disappear. 

lly;4('ia,  fioiu  whence  comes  Hy,i;iene.  or  the  art  of  preserviui;-  health,  was 
a  pretended  sisier  of  J'^seiilapiiis.  Anatomy  could  not  Hoiirish  in  (ireeee.  be- 
cause a  most  exemplary  punishment  awaited  any  untoward  conduct  toward 
the  dead.  Their  peculiar  reli;j;ious  beliefs  re;^ardin,!,'  the  rest  of  the  soul  were 
res|)onsible  for  this. 

The  knowledi^e  of  the  functions  of  the  body  in  health  and  disease  w'as  aji- 
lireciated  by  I'yt lia,i(oias.  Dio'^enes  asserts  that  Alcnueoii,  one  of  the  I'ytlia- 
goreans,  wrote  a  work  on  the  fniictions.  which  work  would  eonse(|iieiitly  be  the 
most  aiKiient  known  treatise  on  jihysioloi^^y. 

The  ago  of  Hippocrates  (ii.c.  K'.tt-.'Mtti  was  marked  by  a  revolution  in  med- 
ical scienco.  "This  central  tigure  in  tlit;  history  of  nu'dicine  "  was  deMM-ndaiit 
of  a  family  in  which  the  practice  of  medicine  was  hereditary.  IIi^  was  an  ex- 
tensive! writer  on  such  subjects  as  epidemicis.  acute  diseases.  disliKrations.  frac- 
tures, etc.  Owing  to  t.he  impossibility  ot  establishing  a  physiology  without 
an  anatomical  basis,  his  references  to  these  subjects  are  <'rnde  and  iiKHU'rcot. 
To  Hippocrates  we  owe  tht^  classiiicatiou  of  endeinie.  sporadic,  and  epidemic 
forms  of  disease,  and  their  division  into  acute  and  chronic,  lie  wrote  on 
diseases  of  women  and  epihqisy,  and  his  tlieraneiitics,  thoie^h  cinde.  were  a 
marked  improvement  on  what  iuid  preceded.  He  wrote  fully  on  external  dis- 
ea.ses  and  surgical  therapeutics.  In  obstetrics  he  v.'as  a  close  observer  and  a 
tlioiightful  teaclier.  The  brilliant  theories  and  ])raetices  so  diligently  ob- 
served and  urged  by  this  master  were  thrown  in  the  shadow  by  his  thought- 
less followers.  The  well-instructed  jihysiciau  is  not  ignorant  of  the  ojiinions 
of  Hii)po(U'ates,  for  truly  the  "ilivine  old  man"  is  tlit;  '•  l''atlier  of  I'hysic." 
He  caused  a  revolution  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  semeiology,  pathology, 
and  dietetics.  He  taught  jihysicians  to  observe  attentively  tin;  progress  of 
Mature,  proved  the  inutility  of  theories,  and  showed  that  observation  is  the 
basis  of  medicine. 

An  important  age,  and  one  of  marked  progress  in  medicine,  is  from  the 
foundation  of  the  Alexandrian  Library  (.'!!*()  v..  <•.)  up  to  the  death  of  (Jalen 
(a.  I).  L'OO).  Under  the  I'tolemies  dissection  (d'  human  bodies  was  allowed, 
and  hence,  as  already  stated,  the  science  of  medicine  received  ipiite  an  im- 
pulse. Iferophilns  deserves  lirst  mention  as  a  dissector.  He  described  the 
brain  and  its  vessels,  the  eye,  the  intestinal  canal,  and  ])arts  of  the  vascular 
system.  The  valves  of  the  heart  were  more  exactly  described  by  Erasistratiis, 
who  discovered  the  lymiih  vessels  and  pointed  out  that  the  epiglottis  prevents 
the  entrance  of  food  into  the  lungs. 


(VI 


m: 


'  '  1     !''• 

1 

'  ■        . 

'ii 

m  m 

In   '!i  ■ 


4m 


tuhmi'Iis  AM)  \V(K\i)i:iis  of  thi-:  a/.v"  cESTiiny 


AivtiiMis.  iiKUT  tliaii  ;iii\  nt  licr  \\\\  to  his  tiiiic.  iittciii|it('il  to  I  nil  in  I  |i:itliiil<)!;;y 
upon  a  soiiiiil  aiiiiloiiiic  lia.sis,  an  rl't'oi't  wliicli  .sliows  tlic  scii'iililif  proj^rt'ss  of 
Ills  ai,'i'. 

Of  all  lliL'  plivsiciaiis  of  aiitii|iiitv.  (lalt'ii  was  proliaUly  the  iiiosl  hrilliaiit, 
j,'('iiiiis.  Ill  tin-  midst  of  (lisonlcr  lie  Inl  itack  to  tin-  safer  road  of  soiiml  ilnc- 
t  line  and  arciiratc  ohscrvation  which  ilislinLriiishi"'  ;hf  llippocratic  school,  lie 
wrote  cxtcnsivclv  mi  aiiatoiiiy.  especially  re'j;ardin.y;  the  muscles,  lie  was  the 
iiist  viviscctor.  hy  e.\po>in;,'  the  iiiusch's  of  animals  and  demonstrating,'  their 
functions,  and  his  classilicatiun  according'  to  their  nse  is  at  ]iresent-  in  vonne. 
<'arefully  n'j,Milated  vivisection  has  lieen.  and  always  will  be.  (d  incaleiilahle 
heiietit  to  the  development  of  accurate  medical  knowledi^f,  and  an  imlirect 
aid  in  the  :dle\  iaiion  (d'  human  suffering;',  (iaieii  diuded  the  hody  into  cra- 
nial and  thoracii'  cavil  ies.  and  desiM'ilied  the  orH;aiis,  etc..  contained  therein. 
Anatomy  and  physi(do,Lry.  the  fundamental  bases  of  medicine  and  sur!.,'ery, 
made  the  most  pros^M'css  diirinj;  the  period  just  reviewed,  and  next  came  the 
description  of  diseases,  their  medical  and  surf,dcal  therapeutics. 

After  the  si.vth  century  medieim;  was  exercised  almost  ex(dusively  hy  the 
moidis  of  the  West.  They  were  unworthy  the  name  id'  jihysieians.  as  they 
resorted  more  to  i)rayers,  and  were  retarded  hy  i,i,niurance  and  prejudice. 

During'  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  tliere  wcu'o  among  the  nioidis  a 
few  traditionary  remains  of  science,  originating  from  the  Kast.  The  jjndates, 
ar(di(h'aeons,  etc.,  though  eontiiuiiiig  the  practice  of  the  healing  art,  were 
gradually  discouraged  by  the  (duircli,  but  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  tlie  Iiislutji  of  Oolchester  was  (diaplain  and  lirst  physician  to  Henry 
VI.  Ill  1  ir»L'  the  Jihysieians  of  the  riiiversity  uf  I'aris  were  not  allowed  to 
marry,  the  applicant,  jirior  to  admission,  taking  the  oath  of  celibacy. 

During  the  twelfth  century  the  school  of  Salernum.  through  the  jiersonal 
interest  manifested  by  Kiiiperor  Frederick  J  I.,  acMjuired  a  degree  uf  reputa- 
tion attained  b}'  few  similar  institutions  iii  ancient  times.  Schools  in  Paris 
and  Knglaml  were  jdaced  on  an  advanced  standing,  the  jirofessors  being 
salaried;  and  about  this  period  the  titles  of  iiaeludor,  licentiate,  and  master, 
■were  granted  to  the  jihysieians. 

During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  medicine  made  remarkable 
jirogress  in  France  under  St.  Louis.  During  the  n  igii  of  this  jirince  the 
teaching  of  nu'dicine  and  surgery  was  divided  into  sejiarate  and  distinct 
classes.  Medical  institutions  now  became  greatly  encouraged,  and  in  the 
leading  cities  of  Eurojie  universities  were  erected  under  the  ausjiices  of 
royalty. 

Medical  instruction  exjierienced  an  imj)ortant  revolution  in  the  Eurojiean 
countries  during  the  fourteenth  century.  For  tin;  lirst  time  in  Eurojje  ana- 
tomy w.is  taught  by  dissection  of  the  human  body.  Guy  de  Chauliae,  whn 
lived  at  the  end  of  this  eentury,  Avrote  a  treatise  on  .surgery  which  served  a> 
the  basis  of  Eurojiean  instruction  until  Ambroise  Pare  of  France  jiulilished 
his  ccdebrated  work  njion  the  same  subject. 

The  fifteenth  century  was  also  (me  of  improvement.     The  Arabs  added  a 
few  observations  on  j)athology,  esj)ecially  of  the  ernjitive  fevers.    Someusefui 
works  on  jdiarmacy  and  materia  medica  were  jiublished  during  this  ejiocli 
During  this  era  the  ojieration  was  devised  for  replacing  the  nose  when  n 
moved  by  accident  or  disease,  by  using  for  the  jiurjiose  a  jiiece  of  flesh  takeii 


m 


"rgr 


nil  y 

|ivtij;r»'ss  ol 
(,st  l)rilli;ii\t 

if  soUlIll  lliif- 

(.si'hui)!.    11'' 

111'  Wiis  thf 

t  rut  ins,'  tlu'ir 

I'lit  in  V(i:4ii<'. 

iiii'!iU'>ilalili' 

I  ;iu  iniliriM't 

Huly  inti)  fia- 

ant'il  tlu'ivin. 

iintl  suri,'t'fy, 

next  cunu'  tin- 

AM\v\\  by  tlu- 
ciiins.  us  tlu-y 
lin'jnilict'. 
14  till-  monks  a 
Thi'  itrt'laii's, 
lint,'  art,  wovf 
i)f  tlu'iit'tt'i'nth 
ician  to  llonry 
not  allowed  to 
lihaoy. 

,'li  tin'  i)evsonal 

orce  of  reimta- 

(•iu)'.)ls  in  Varis 

()l'esst)rs  beini,' 

te,  and  master, 

ado  remarkable 
Itliis  prinee  the 
|te  and  distinel 
■d.  and  in  tlif 
Ihe    anspices  of 


i'nonni:ss  or  medk-isf. 


(\Xi 


In  the  European 
in  Europe  ana 
I  Chauliae,  who 
Ivhicli  served  a- 
I'anee  puiilishfl 

Arabs  addtnl  a 
I's.    Some  use  in  1 
ling  this  epofli 
nose  when  n 
le  of  tiesh  takf.^ 


Intni  tlic  arm.  and  anplyin','  it  li\  a  .i,'ialtni-  pr(.c.',>.  Aiioiit  tlie  iniddh' of 
tliis  period  the  internal  adniiiiistratiun  n|  mi-talln-  drnu's  was  introduced. 
Towards  tln'  lalter  cml,  tin'  invention  ol  printin.i,'  temled  to  assist  the  proirress 
ol  inedieiiie.  Near  tlie  close  of  tins  eeiitnry  scurvy  was  Hist  noticed  in 
<iermany.  Duriic^  this  period  luore  ener},'y  was  di'Voted  to  postmorteni  il<'- 
monstrations  aiul  tin-  study  of  syiuptonis  of  diseases. 

To  I'leiieviein  We  owe  t lie  coiuiuencenu'iit  of  the  study  of  uro>s  patliojo'.'y 
and  patholo,i,'ical  anatomy.  .Mal-ai-iie  remarks  oi  iiiiu  :  •■  .\  euIo^\  uiiich  he 
nn'rit-.  anil  wiiicii  he  shared  w  ith  no  other  person,  and  which  has  not  heen 
accorded  to  him  np  to  this  tim<'  by  the  many  histiu'ians  oj  sui',i,'ery,  who  have 
.supertieiully  searched  ainon-  iIm'm.  precious  sources.  i>  that  he  was  the  first 
who  had  the  habit,  felt  the  need,  and  set  the  useful  example,  which  lie  traiis- 
mitteil  to  his  successois.  ot  searchiiii,'  in  the  cadaver,  according;  to  the  title  of 
Ids  book,  lor  the  concealed  causes  of  diseiisc"  His  observations  on  anatomi- 
cal  heart  lesions.  ,i,'a  11-st one.  and   preseii if  par.isites   in   the   boiiy.   were 

ori>,'inal.  -lohii  Kernel,  who  has  been  siirnamed  -the  modern  dalen."  divided 
medicine  into  pliysioloj,'y,  jiatholojjy,  an  1  i 'iera|ieiitics.  The  Inndameiital 
maxim  of  theraneiitics,  that  every  disease  must  he  eondiatcd  iiy  conirary 
remedies,  was  early  laid  down  l)y  him.  and  he  claimed  that  anythiiir,'  that 
<Mired  a  disease  was  contrary  to  it.  Sui',t.":'y  was  olaced  o"  .i  liij,'h  scale  iluriii;/ 
this  era.  as  thor(uit,'li  a  course  as  ih  nue  affonlr  1  was  i^dven.  and  a  ri'^id 
examination  held  at  iis  terniinati m.  Aiidiroise  I'an'  contributed  lari;ely 
t'tward  makini,'  this  a  i^'lorioiis  century,  lie  lose  from  the  lowest  walks  of 
lib-  to  the  highest  prob'ssioi  il  attainiiu  nts  aud  honors.  He  »\a>  the  first  to 
control  hemorrhage  by  tyiiii,'  the  lilcediiiLj  vessi'Is.  thus  doini,' awav  with  tiie 
former  cinde  and  jiaiiifid  method  ol  pouriiMj;  on  hot  oil.  'I'his  procedure 
proved  quite  a  boon  to  surp'ry  ;  as  an  instance  it  may  be  niciinone  i  that 
prior  to  the  introduction  (d'  this  lueilmd  in  aiuputations  the  lileediiit;  was 
i'ontndled  by  means  of  a  hot  iron,  and  this  before  the  day.s  of  aiuesthesia. 

Kvery  a,t,'e  of  ancient,  nu'diieval,  and  modern  medicine  has  hail  its  charla- 
tans, and  the  more  civilization  jirotrresses,  the  mor''  po|)ular  these  ipiacks 
become  with  certain  types  of  people.  ])articiilarly  those  of  the  miildle  and 
lower  classes.  althouLjh  no  class  appears  to  be  exempt.  Latent.  unserii[nilous, 
and  unprinci|)led.  they  play  upon  tlie  credulity  of  the  ignorant. 

The  central  fii,'nre  of  the  media'val  cliarlatans  was  Paracelsus,  who  was 
<;iven  to  drink  Jin.d  debauchery.  He  advertised  extensively,  similar  to  1h(> 
charlatans  of  to-day.  and  exerted  an  influence  in  his  time.  -The  school  which 
he  would  have  founded  was  uothinj:,'  but  a  school  of  ignorance,  dissipation, 
and  boasting  —  a  school  of  medical  dishonesty." 

During  the  sixteenth  century  the  greatest  discoveries  took  jilace  in  ana- 
tomy, based  ui»on  dissections,  the  only  rational  method  (d'  a.seertaining  ana- 
tomical knowledge.  The  lesser  circulation  oi  the  blood,  or  that  through  the 
lungs,  was  a])preciated. 

The  oHieers  of  the  universities  were  chosen  by  the  students,  who  assisted 
in  laying  out  the  cnrriculuni.  ("oinpare  this  with  the  rigid  methods  of  med- 
ical instruction  now  in  vogue.  The  iiractitionei's  were  of  roving  habits,  which 
were  evidently  contracted  during  their  student  days,  as  it  was  customary  for 
them  to  go  from  one  school  to  another,  the  poor  classes  defraying  expenses 
liy  begging  and  singing. 


i 


636 


TRIUMPHS   A  XI)    WOXDKIIS   OF   Till-:   XIX'"   CEXTURY 


■   I 


'!    I 


n 


■  i 


Tlu'ii'  \v;is  evident  iiupriivciucut  in  the  sncial  and  mental  >iatns  of  nu'dii-al 
men  upon  tlie  aji|if(iacli  of  the  seventeenth  eentnrv.  and  this  pefiod  is  si;4iial- 
i/ed  by  tlie  diseovei'V  of  tile  eii-('ulation  of  the  Idooii.  one  of  the  most  iniiior- 
tant  •»■('!•  made  in  metjieine.  ('liemistrv  now  assnmed  the  dit;nitied  asjiecl  of 
a  science,  which  lai'l   beiietited  the  |iro,u;i'e>s  oi'  meiiieine. 

It  is  diilicnh  for  ns  at  the  pf'^ent  time  to  nndei'>tand  why  the  circnlatioii 
of  the  blond  was  not  discovered  \<v\o\-  to  this  period,  but  to  the  ancients  it 
was  inconiprelicnsiiile.  TIicn  lielieved  i  he  arteries  contained  air.  beca\ise 
after  death  they  were  fonnd  eninly.  \\'illiam  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  (d' t  he  blood,  did  not  ])ublish  the  results  (d' his  investi,y:at  ions  until 
IdL'S,  tiist  .-uliinittiiiL;-  them  to  iilteen  years  of  pidof.  This  naturally  revolu- 
tionized ]iliy>iolo;4y.  'I"he  capillary  circulation,  oi'  that  intermediate  between 
the  arteries  ami  vtdns.  was  lU'scrilied  by  .Mal|iiL;hi  in  KJL'S.  Of  c(p\irse  this 
was  possiiile  only  throui^li  the  means  oi'  a  micros<'ope.  No  less  remarkable 
was  tlie  discovery  of  the  lymphatic  vessels,  reriivian  bark  (the  alkaloid 
(|uiuiiu'  beiinjf  more  commonly  eiujiloyed)  so  niuversidly  employed  as  a  spe- 
cilie  for  malaria,  was  lirst  used  in  the  early  ]iart  of  this  epoch. 

Hurinj;'  this  period  o]ihtlialiuolo'^y  (whi(di  treats  of  the  diseases  of  tlie 
eye)  was  cultivated  in  l''ramH',  cataract  was  lirst  recouiii/ed.  and  the  diseases 
of  the  ear  lirst  >ystem,ilically  described.  Altogether  the  century  showed 
marked  progression.  (dosniL;'  with  tlii'  teachings  of  Sydenham.  ••  tlie  Englisli 
liipliocrates." 

The  eighteenth  century  was  one  of  continued  ]irogress.  'I'he  eminent 
observers  (ievoted  more  time  to  microsco]iical  wm-k.  studying  the  minute 
structure  (d'  the  tissues  and  cidls.  One  of  the  most  jirominent  is  Lieberkiihn, 
■who  invented  the  solar  microscope,  with  wliiidi  he  was  enabled  to  exhibit  the 
cireuiation  of  tlu'  blood.  The  systiunatic  practice  of  the  preventive  inocula- 
tion against  small-pox  by  vaccination  originated  in  this  decade.  'I'lie  iirst 
inoculation  with  cow-pox  was  in  J771.  Kdward  .leiiner,  the  Knglish  surgeon, 
was  "the  father  of  vaccination."  which  he  tirst  did  in  IT'.M!.  About  ISIMt, 
])r.  Waterhouse.  thi'ii  pnd'essoi' of  medicine  in  Harvard  (!olh>ge,  performed 
the  lirst  vaccination  in  America,  the  i)atients  being  his  tour  ehildren. 

The  treatment  id'  the  insane  was  (diangerl  from  one  of  torture  and  barba- 
rous metlioils  to  a  more  seientiti«  oni',  comlucive  to  the.  comfort  and  return  to 
health  of  the  patient. 

This  ])erio(l  marks  the  earliest  examjile  of  nu'dical  teaehing  in  this  coun- 
try, consisting  of  the  demonstrations  of  anatomy  in  IMiiladidphia  by  l)r. 
Tliomas  Cadwalader.  upon  his  return  from  Kuroi)e.  This  was  previ(uis  to 
17r»().  about  which  time  a  body  was  dissected  in  New  ^'ork.  In  I'rtl-od  Dr. 
William  Hunter  of  Scotland  delivered  a.  series  of  lectures  on  anatomy,  aeconi- 
panied  by  dissections,  at  New]i(U't,  \l.  I. 

In  I7<>'_'  Dr.  Sldpoen  laid  the  foundation  oi'  a  medical  school  in  IMiiladel- 
pbia.  which  tinally  devidoju'd  into  the  Medical  Department  of  the  I'liiversity 
of  rennsylvania.  This  was  the  lirst  medical  school  established  in  this  coun- 
try. In  17<>S  a  s(diool  (d'  mediiine  was  organized  in  New  ^'ork,  and  the  next 
in  succu'ssion  was  the  Medical  Department  of  Harvard  (College  in  17SL'.  The 
fourth  was  established  at  Hanover.  17U7.  being  eonneoted  with  Dartmouth 
College.  The.se  were  the  oidy  medical  colleges  instituted  prior  to  the  ])resent 
century.  The  iirst  book  on  American  surgery  was  written  in  1775  by  Dr 
John  .lones,  the  title  being  "  Wounds  and  Fractures." 


■WJC! 


TUllY 

tiis  ol'  nu'ilii-al 
•viiKl  is  si'^ual- 
u-  lno^^  iiui>t'V- 
litiftl  asiircl  t>t' 

the  fivculaVii'U 
the  aiu'ifHts  it 
•d  aiv.   lH'<'a\ise 
scovcrcv  nf  llu' 
.stii^atiKUS  \uitil 
aturally  vcvolu- 
lu'.liato  iH'twt'cn 
Of  roiii'sc  tins 
Ifss  i-cinarkaMo 
[•k  (till"  alUaloi<l 
,1o_vihI  as  a  sik'- 

h.  " 

(lix'ast's  oi'  tlu> 
ami  lilt'  diseases 

century  showeil 
nil.  "the  F>uiili>li 

s.  The  eminent 
ivini,'  the  niinute 
•  iit.  is  Lieberhiihu, 
lied  to  exhiliit  Uu' 

■  ventive  inoeula- 
Urade.     The  iiist 

Kui;lish  siuLi'eou. 

<k;.'"  About  IStiO, 


pnoaiiKss  OF  MKoiriyE 


iVM 


illeite,  iiertoruied 
ehihlven. 
orture  and  bavba- 
llort  ami  return  to 


Inn;- 


in  this  eotm- 
iladelphia  by    l>r. 
|s  was  i)revious  to 

In  irra-oc.  Dr. 


In.  an 


itomv.  aeconi- 


•hool  in   rhihulel- 
,)t'  the  I'niver 


^itv 


shed  in  this  eouu- 
•,„.i,    ..ml  the  next. 


k,  antl  the  lu 


Ih'Lre  in 


ITS'. 


Th 


I  with   Dartinonth 


brio 
Ion  in 


r  to  the  jiresi 


ut 


'' The  tendency  of  the  njiieteeiith  century  seems  to  be  a  eontinnation.  and, 
perhaps,  in  some  respects  an  exaggeration  of  the  condition  liiat  obtained  in 
France  during  the  ]irevi(.ns  century;  in  otlier  words,  the  world  has  lu-come 
pniclieally  uu  enormou.s  .school   of  pathological  anatomy  and  diagnosi.s — a 


/(.v.v'-..J., 


•«,•>,.  vis'       ^,    -.,, 
■  '•i  "■"■   ~i-  f-     V  V 


1775  by  1)1 


Ul!.    OI.lVKIi   WKM)i;i,I,   noi.MKs. 

.school   inaiiguratpd   by    i'>icliat.  as  re|iiescntiiig  sn-called   scientitie  or  exact 
i!U'diciiu>."' 

Darwin  has  prnmulgatc'i  "the  most  intluential  |phil(is(i|ihii>  doct  riiic  of  this 
Oi"  any  other  century."  <>ur  matei'ia  niedica  and  the  laws  (if  physics  have 
lu'cii  enriclieil  by  bntanical  discuveries.  aiding  greatly  the  experimental  re- 
searches of  to-day.  lli'linliojz  has  '^dven  us  an  instrument  called  the  oplitlial- 
iiioscdjH'.  eonlaining  a  scries  nf  numlicreii  nia'^iiitying  lenses,  with  which  the 
interior  of  the  eve  can  lie  e\|iliired  in   lnoking  directU  through  the  puiiil  of 


W 


1 1 


,     \  i 


ml 


638 


ritlUMPHS  AND    WOXDERS  OF  THE  A/A'™  CENTURY 


the  cyo,  similar  to  looking  through  a  door  into  a  room.  Through  his  know- 
li'dgi'  of  j)hysics,  Scebach  was  able  to  make  fame  through  his  diseovery 
of  thermal  electrieity.  Daguerre.  who  invented  [)hot()graphy,  must  not  be 
overlooked,  as  by  means  of  this  process,  many  eonditions  are ' directly  ap- 
jireeiated  by  tint  eye  which  could  not  be  told  in  words  and  still  convey  an 
idea  of  the  tumor,  etc.,  being  described.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention 
here  that  the  biograph  will  in  a  few  years  prove  an  important  factor  in 
teaciung  the  various  o])erations.  One  surgeon  in  France  is  now  employing 
it.  We  must  not  overlook  Edison  and  his  electrical  achievements  which 
directly  and  indirectly  affect  medicine;  nor  Uell's  ttdephone,  which  is  some- 
times used  to  locate  a  bullet.  ]>y  placing  the  receiver  to  the  ear  and  probing 
for  the  bullet  with  electric  conductors,  the  making  and  breaking  of  the  cir- 
cuit u[)on  contact  with  the  missile  is  transmitted  to  the  receiver  and  dis- 
tinctly heard.  This  procedure,  however,  has  been  discarded  since  the  intro- 
duction by  Rontgen  of  the  X-ray. 

A  very  siginiicant  feature  of  the  age  has  been  the  extraordinary  develop- 
ment of  associations  devoted  to  scientific  discussions  and  the  publication  of 
medical  literature  and  journals.  The  fornuition  of  medical  societies,  espe- 
cially ill  the  Tnited  States,  has  been  (piite  active.  lUit  few  counties  are 
without  a  medical  organization,  referred  to  as  *'  The  .  .  .  County  ^ledical 
Society." 

The  .Vmerican  Medical  Association  was  established  by  Dr.  Nathan  Smith 
Davis  in  IMiiladelphia  lifty-two  years  ago  (1S47).  The  first  two  years  no  nu-et- 
ings  were  held,  but  since  then  reguhir  annual  meetings  have  been  in  progress, 
the  place  of  assembly  being  decided  upon  by  a  majority  vote  of  its  members. 
It  has  met  in  the  city  of  its  birtli  five  times,  the  founder  has  been  elected 
president  twice,  and  is  still  (llMMl)  in  active  jiractice  at  the  age  of  eighty-two. 
lie  has  attended  all  its  meetings  held  in  various  cities  from  Iioston  to  San 
Francisco. 

The  iirst  medical  journal  in  this  country  appeared  in  New  York,  1797.  It 
was  called  "The  Xew  York  Itepository,"  was  publislied  (piarterly,  and  man- 
aged to  reach  its  twenty-third  edition.  Fifty  years  ago  there  were  about 
twenty  journals  published  in  the  United  States.  At  the  end  of  the  century 
there  are  two  hundred  and  thirty. 

In  ISIO  there  were  six  hundred  and  fifty  students  of  medicine  in  America, 
and  one  hundred  graduates.  At  the  present  writing  about  twenty  thou.sand 
medical  students  are  enrolled  in  our  various  colleges,  and  during  the  spring 
of  IS'.C.)  about  three  thousand  tivt^  hundred  received  the  degree  of  M.  I). 

The  original  branches,  practice  of  medicine,  surgery,  obstetrics,  physiology, 
anatomy,  therapeutics,  and  chemistry,  have  been  subdivided  and  specialized. 
Among  the  chief  of  these  specialtitjs  are  gynecology,  which  treats  of  diseases 
of  women  ;  pediatrics,  which  treats  of  diseases  of  children  ;  dermatology, 
which  treats  of  diseases  of  the  skin  ;  ophthalmology,  which  treats  of  diseases 
of  the  eye;  laryngology,  which  treats  of  diseases  of  the  throat  and  larynx; 
otology,  which  treats  of  diseases  of  the  ear;  neurology,  which  treats  of 
diseases  of  the  nerves ;  medical  jurisprudence,  which  treats  of  the  relation  of 
medicine  to  law;  jiathology,  which  treats  of  diseased  tissues  and  organs; 
bacteriology,  which  treats  of  the  microbes  ;  and  physical  diagnosis,  whicli 
treats  of  the  art  of  discriminating  disease   by  means  of  the  eye,  ear,  and 


-T^r 


NTURY 

nx<J,\\  ^lis  know- 
i  his  discovery 
y,  must  not  be 
ave'ilivt't'tly  ap- 

still  convey  an 
uiss  to  mention 
ovtant  factor  in 

now  employing? 
evements  which 
;,  wliich  is  sorae- 
I  ear  and  probini; 
■aking  of  the  cir- 
receiver  and  dis- 
d  since  the  intro- 

ordinary  develop- 
he  pulAication  of 
a\  societies,  espe- 
iew  counties  are 
.  County  Medical 

l)v.  Nathan  Smith 
two  years  no  meet- 
R  been  in  progress, 
jte  of  its  mem\)ers. 
|r  has  been  elected 
age  of  eighty-two. 
■on\  r.oston  to  San 

■  w  York,  1707.     It 
larterly,  and  man- 
there  were  about 
■nd  of  the  century 

Hlicine  in  America, 
It  twenty  thousand 

during  tlie  spring 
s^ree  of  M-  1^- 
Metrics,  physiology. 
(h1  and  specialized. 

I  treats  of  diseases 
veil  ;  dermatology, 
h  treats  of  diseases 
throat  and  larynx: 
which  treats  of 
rs  of  the  relation  of 

issues  and  organs; 
la  diagnosis,  whidi 
I;  the  eye,  ear,  an.l 


/'RUGUKSS   OF  MEDICI XE 


«>3i> 


tnmdi.  The  nucleus  of  tlie  teaching  regarding  the  latter  subject  is  due  to 
to  the  ett'di'ts  and  (iliservations  of  Corvisart.  of  l''nuice.  lie  was  the  lirst  to 
as(!ert;iin  tht'  diseased  areas  of  the  hiu.ys.  liy  tapi)ing  on  the  chest  with  the 
tingers.  and  listeniiij^r  to  the  pitch  of  the  note  tiius  elicited.  A  low,  chill  note 
indicates  that  tin;  lung  is  solid,  as  in  iPiieuiaonia  ;  a  Hat  note  that  fluid  is 
present,  and  so  on.  I'.y  placing  the  ear  to  the  chest  wall,  sounds  in  lii'alth 
and  disease  are  heard,  which  vary  in  intensity,  degree,  etc.     Laennec  discuv- 


nU.    NATHAN    SMITH    OAVIS,    OK   (  HICAtiO. 

ered  by  accident  tliat  this  inetliod  was  greatly  improved  and  the  sounds 
more  distinctly  heard  if  a  cylindrical  tube  was  interjiosed  lietween  the  eai- 
and  the  chest  wall.     The  outcome  of  this  jirinciple  is  the  stethoscope. 

The  name  of  I'ravn/.  the  liVons  surgeon,  has  been  perpetuiited  hy  the 
liypodermie  syringes  which  he  devised.  Thi>  (,'mployment  of  suitable  drnus  in 
this  instrument  is  the  method  jiar  excellence  for  relieving  jjaiu.  Willi  it 
ilnigs  can  be  injected  into  unconscious  patients.  Suicides  who  ret  use  to 
swallow  emetics  can  have  their  stomachs  emptied  most  effectually  of  their 
contents  by  a  hyi)odermatic  injection  of  apomorphine. 

The  thermometer  used  for  taking  the  temperature  of  the  liuman  body  is  so 
aiiaiiged  that  the  mercury  does  not  descend  into  the  bnlli  until  shaken  down, 
lii'nce  after  taking  tlie  temperature  it  remains  nniutbienced  until  shaken 
down.  AVere  an  ordinary  thermometer  used,  by  the  time  it  was  removed 
from  the  patient  to  the  light  the  mercury  would  descend  several  degrees. 


.^ 


.^^l 


W4 


w 


iU 


(540 


TlUUMPllS   AM)    WONDERS   OF   THE  MX'"   CENTURY 


I'astcur  bcLjaii  \\v  studies  of  Icnuciitatioii  in  IS.'il.  Tlir()iii,'li  liis  observa- 
tions, aided  by  tlic  niid'oscopi'.  liic  ojiiiiion  was  rcaciicd  tliat  iiiicro-organisms 
played  an  iiiiiiortanr  rule  in  the  causation  of  disease.  .Many  of  tlio  labora- 
tory invest i,Ljators  beeanic  imbued  with  the  spirit,  and  throui;h  their  diliyent 
observations  tln'  niicroiies  causing  many  diseases  have  been  isolated.  It 
remained  lor  Koch  to  discover  liie  tubercle  baiullus.  oi'  lliicilhis  fii/icrrii/osls, 
which  is  the  cause  of  eonsumption.  'I"he  sputum  of  a  patient,  properly 
stained,  and  examined  under  the  microscope,  will  at  once;  decide  whether 
that  individual  has  eonsumi)ti(Ui. 

llaviui;-  ascertained  that  bacteria  Avere  tin-  cause  of  disease,  .sepsis  (bhiod 
poisonin.n),  etc.,  it  then  remained  to  discover  a  metliod  of  killini,'  them,  with- 
out any  undue  injury  to  the  patient.  Sir  floseph"  Lister  bcf^an  experiments 
upon  this  hypothesis,  and  in  1S()7  was  able  to  ixd^lish  favorable  results. 
l>ut  lo  I  the  world  was  slow  to  bend  to  a  new  thought  ably  demonstrated,  and 
lor  a  score  of  years  he  was  bitterly  opposed. 

it  was  ('rawi'ord  W.  Long,  in  a  little  village  of  Alabama,  who,  in  L'>lL'.  was 
the  tirst  to  put  to  sleep  a  patient  with  ether,  and  I'cmove  a  small  gi'owtii. 
The  patient,  uixm  awakening,  had  experienced  no  pain.  This  nu'thod  of  I'c- 
lieving  pain  was  christened  ••  ana'sthesia  "  several  years  later,  by  the  distin- 
guished Dr.  Oliver  NN'endi'll  Holmes,  whose  writings  did  more  than  those  of 
any  other  Amei'ican  to  eradicate  "  child-bed  fever."  livery  wouuin  in  the 
land  owes  him  an  eternal  debt  of  gratitude.  To(iuthrie.  of  Sackett's  Har- 
bor. New  N'ork.  is  due  the  crtMlit  of  tirst  discovering  chloroform,  but  Sir 
dames  Simpson,  of  Kdinburgh.  deserves  the  credit  of  tirst  employ iu-^'  it  in 
medicine. 

The  surgeons  of  Anu'rica  laiil  the  foundation  of  gynecology,  the  progres> 
of  which  has  been  more  marked  tiian  any  department  of  medicine.     'I'lie  first 
ovariotduiy  in  the  world  was  ]ierlormed  by  Dr.  I'>]ihraim  ^McDowell  in  Ken 
tucky.  Deccndier.  LS(t',>.     This  was  ])rior  to  the  days  of  ana'sthesia  and  anti 
.sepsis,  and  a  howling  mob  awaited  outside,  ready  to  murder  the  bi'ave  sur- 
geon should  his  patient  die  during  the  operation.     ••  In  live  days."  says  Dr. 
McDowidl,  "  I  visited  her,  and  much  to  my  astonishment  found  her  engaged 
in   making  uji  her   bed."     Di'.  d.    .Marion  Sims,  our  illustrious  genius   wlm 
established  an  international  reputation,  did  much  to  promulgate  iilastic  work 
on  the  b'uiale  genitalia.     The  deeds  of  medical  men  are  soon  foi'gotten  by  an 
ungrateful   [lublio,  and  the   sons  id'  .Kscuia]iius  are  the  last  to  have  monu- 
ments erected  to  tlieir  memory.      Ibit  four  exist  in  .\morica;  one.  in  New 
York,  to  that  grand  old  gynecologist.  Dr.  .1.  ^Lirion  Sims;  one  in  Washing 
ton,  to  ])r.  Samuel  1).  Gross,  '-the  Nestor  of  American  Surgery;"  one  in 
J>ushiu'll    I'ark.  ILirtford.  Conn.,  to  Dr.  Horace  Wells,  the  discoverer  of  an 
lesthesia;  and  one  in  the  Public  ( iardeii  in  I '.ostoii  to  the  discoverer  of  ana's- 
thesia.    This  last    bears  no  name.      .Antisepsis  and  ;iniesthesia   have  played 
an  unusually  impoilant  role   in   obstetrics,  by  alleviatiu',;'  the  sufferings  nl 
childbirth  ;nid  erailicating  child-bed  fever,  thus  reducing  the  mortality  of  iiotii 
mother  and  child. 

Physiology  has   made  very   I'apid  strides  during  this  era.     IJeaunidUt.  in 
his  famous  woik.  descrilies  digestion  in  the  stomach  and  experiments  on  the 
gastric   juice.      lie  was  euaiiled  to  observe  this  in  a  voy;igeur  who  was  acci 
«leutally  wounded  in  the  stomach  by  the  discharge  of  a  nuisket,  Juiu",  ISL'L' 


:ntury 

xah  his  obsorva- 
iiiicvo-orgunisms 
ly  ol'  till'  liiUora- 
4-11  their  diligent 
en  isohitwl.  It, 
:iliis  tiilirrriiloxis, 
iiitiont,  piDlii-rly 
di'L-ido   whether 

ise.  sepsis  (l)h>o(l 
lUiiig  thein.  with- 
'gau  exverinieuts 
[■iiv()ra\)h'  results, 
lemuiistvatetl.  ami 

who,  in  isrj.  was 
n  a  small  growth, 
'his  method  of  re- 
iter.  by  tlie  tlistiu- 
nore  than  those  ot 
.(•V  woman  in  tlii' 
.  i,t'  SacUetfs  Uar- 
ilorotin'm.   hut  Sir 
^l   fuiiiloyi"-  't  ill 

)lonv.  the  i.rogres> 
UHlmiiie.    TIh'  i_i'-^' 
McDowell  in  Ken 
u'sthesia  ;nul  anti- 
UU-r  the  brave  sur- 


live  < 


lav: 


savs 


Dv. 


fouml  her  engage 


Ltrious 
lilgate  i> 


venuis   win 
histic  worl 


lH)l 


I  ior-;otten 


bv  an 


llast  to  liav<>  luonu- 


M'iea ;  one.  m 


New 


u  Washin:- 


one  ni 


;  one  1 
S\irgery 
|i<  discoverer  ol'  iin 
ivr  of  ana'>- 


l(hseoV( 


Ithesia  have  \ 


ilaveil 


tl 


le   s 


lie  luor 


iiffcnngs  ol 
talitvof  liotli 


leia. 
lexiK 


lU'aiinionl. 


"•■en 


nnionis  o 
r  who  wa 


n  til' 


luusket,  -Iinu' 


s  HIT 

IS'j: 


q 


'Iti 


'l  t 


m 


PROailESS  OF  MEDICINK 


till 


Quite  a  large  opening  remained,  whieli  Nature  eh.sed  willi  a  valve.  I'.y  i.usli- 
ing  the  valve  to  one  side,  the  interior  ol'  the  stoniaeii  could  l)e  exiiloreil. 

'rhrough  the  work  of  the  ex|ierimental  phy.siuhjgists  in  the  lalior;itories, 
the  study  ot  the  action  ol'  drugs  on  the  lungs,  heart,  liver,  stomach,  nerves! 
ete..  has  been  greatly  enhanced. 

Anatomy  is  now  being  taught  by  the  only  true  method,  and  tiiat  is  dissec- 
tion. Didactic  h-(;tures  are  given,  i)ut  tiie  sUah-nt  must  dissect  every  part  ol 
tlu'  human  body  before  he  can  ret^eive  his  degree.     Fornu-rly  graves  were 


't 


I' 


.1.     M.\I!I<)N    --IMS.     A.li.,     Mil., 
(I.iili'  Siifiri'Mii  1(1  ihi'  Wiiiiiiin'-  Ilci~|iiliil.  Ni'W  Ynrli.) 


robbed,  and  the  bodies  sold  to  the  colleges.  Now.  however,  through  legishi- 
live  enactmeiit,  uiudaimed  Ixidics  are  turned  over  tn  the  cdlleges.  where  they 
aic  preserved  either  by  injection,  a  iiickling  jirocess,  or  l)y  cold  storage. 

'I'iie  o|ibthalmologists  of  to-day  ie;ir  mitliiug  inside  noi'  outside  tlu,'  eye. 
Crciss  eyes  are  straightened,  cataracts  removed,  eyeballs  taken  out  and  glass 
cvi's  inserted. 

Tins  artiide  would  be  incomplete,  were  not  a  few  remarks  directed  toward 
tlic  trained  nurse. 

The  lirst  training  school  for  nurses  in  America  was  established  in  eounec. 
tiiiii  witli  the  Lying-in  Charity  lIos]iital  of  I'liiladel]ihia  in  ISL'S.    This  school, 
still  in  existence,  thus  has  the  honor  of  being  the  oldest  in  this  country,  and 
is  antedated  by  only  one  abroad. 
41 


h  : 


C42 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  X/X^"  CENTURY 


Tlie  generally  recognized  profession  lor  women,  that  of  the  trained  nurse, 
is  2»niftic'iil]y  of  recent  developnuMit.  Twenty-tive  years  ago  tin.'  training 
seliool  conneeted  witli  tlio  iJellevue  Ilos|)ital,  New  York,  graduated  a  class  of 
five  luirses.  This  was  a  marked  d"|)arture  in  tin;  medical  history  of  tliis 
eo\intry.  Since  then  the  demand  for  the  trained  nurse  has  been  great,  aud 
no  hospital  is  complete  without  such  a  training  school. 

The  progress  of  medicine  in  the  nineteenth  century  has  been  far  more 
rapid,  creditable,  and  momentous  than  during  any  like  period  of  the  past. 
Tills  is  true  not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  in  every  civilized  country. 
Its  entire  scope,  meaning,  and  jiurpose  have  undergone  changes  equivalent 
to  revolution.  Anticpie  sui)erstitions,  idle  theories,  foolish  sjieculations, 
absurd  ])ractices,  the  ridiculous  jealousies  and  incrimimitions  of  opjHJsing 
schools,  have  been  largely  eliminated.  jNledical  institutions  are  uiion  the 
loftiest  plane  in  their  history.  Teachers  are  better  endowed  th.an  ever  before. 
Periods  of  scholastic  i)reparation  have  been  lengthened  and  curriculums 
eidarged.  thus  securing  for  the  tields  of  jmictice  a  higher  mental  ecpiipnient 
and  more  conscionable  dt.'votion  to  duty.  Never  before  have  the  auxiliary  and 
material  agencies  been  turned  to  so  frequent  and  preventive  account.  Elec- 
tricity, the  mi(^rosco])e,  aniesthesia,  antisejtsis.  laI)oratory  experiment,  hospital 
o[)portunities.  etc.,  are  ever  constant  inspirations  to  skilled  treatmerit  and 
fresh  researches.  As  the  grand  army  of  humanitarian  workers  was  never  so 
large  as  at  the  end  of  the  century,  so  it  was  never  better  fortified  for  attack 
upon  the  enemies  of  health,  fuller  of  enthusiasm  or  more  deejdy  established 
in  tlu!  public  contidence.  One  may  not,  as  yet,  assert  that  medicine  is  riddiiiL; 
itself  of  empiricism  with  a  satisfactory  degree  of  rapidity,  or  that  it  has 
arrived  at  the  stage  of  an  exact  science,  but  it  surely  has  approached  such  a 
stage  as  nearly  as  conditions  will  allow. 

Frank  C.  Hammond. 


i  'mm 


?  • 


Ml:  1 1  (I 


TURY 


tvaiiu'tl  uvirse, 
,  th*!  tviihung 
lati'il  a  class  ol: 
history  of  this 
been  great,  aud 

been  far  more 
0(1  of  the  l>ivst. 
vilized  covmtry. 
nges  equivalent 
ill   si>eeiilatious, 
:)ns  of  opposing 
IS  are  upon  the 
than  ever  l«'fore. 
md   currioiilunis 
lental  e(iuipi»eut 
the  auxiliary  ami 
e  aecount.     Elec- 
.orimcnt,  hospitiil 
lhI  treatnuMit  ami 
l^cvs  was  never  s.. 
uvtiHed  for  atta('l< 
,le,.plY  establishea 
lUMlicine  is  ri(l(lin<^ 
,tv,  or  that  it  has 
japproacheil  such  a 

C.  Hammond. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  RAILWAY 

TiiK  railway  as  a  means  of  rapid  trruisjuirtation  and  general  intoreomnm- 
nicatiou  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  tlie  develdpment  of  niodcru 
commerce  and  civilization,  and,  after  reviewing  what  it  has  done  and  become 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  one  cannot  lielp  wisliing  lor  the  oitportunity  to 
review  the  railway  wonders  of  the  twentieth  century. 

While  the  history  of  the  railway  dates  baclv  i'ar  heyond  the  nineteenth 
century,  yet  the  railway,  as  we  know  it  to-day.  is  essentially  a  jiroduct  of 
this  century.  It  dates,  in  fact,  trom  England  in  IS.'SO,  \vli(>n  the  Liverpool  dt 
Manchtjster  Kailway.  'M  miles  long,  was  opened,  and  was  operated  from  the 
lieginning  l)y  steam  locomotives.  Tlie  Stockton  &  Darlington  Kailway,  37 
miles,  was  ojiened  in  IcSL'."*,  Init  this  line  was  intended  only  for  jirivate  coal 
traffic,  while  the  other  line  was  Imilt  for  general  passenger  and  freight  service, 
and  for  the  use  and  benefit  <d'  tlie  ])ul)lic. 

The  United  States  followed  this  lead  very  closely.  In  ISL'S  the  Delaware 
&  Hudson  ('anal  Company  built  a  lint;  from  its  mines  to  its  eaiial  at  Hones- 
dale.  This  was  a  privatt;  coal  road,  however,  and  may  best  be  compared  to 
the  Stockton  &  Darlington  Hailway.  The  first  pid>lie  railway  ojierated  by 
steam  was  the  Mohawk  &  Hudson  Kailway,  from  Albany  to  Sclienectady.  1(5 
miles,  which  was  opened  in  liS,'!)..  Tlie  f'>altimore  i^  Ohio  Railway  was  the 
first  railway  enterprise  of  more  than  local  character,  bt'ing  designed  to  open 
communication  with  the  Oliio  River,  a  distance  of  4(M)  miles.  It  was  (diar- 
tered  in  ISliT,  commenced  in  ISL'S,  completed  to  Ellicott's  .Mills  (l.">  miles)  iu 
1SI>(),  and  to  AVashington  (40  miles)  in  1S34.  It  is  one  of  the  great  monu- 
ments of  the  American  railway  system,  and  it  was  e.Kanuiied  by  government 
commissions  from  Russia  and  Austria  in  ISDI  and  1<S4".). 

In  speaking  of  the  railway  we  unconsciously  associate  with  it  the  steam 
locomotive,  since  the  two  are  so  entirely  interdeiiendent.  Kailways  ojierated 
liv  horses,  or  by  cables  and  stationary  engines,  could  never  have  becouu;  the 
great  civilizing  ami  commercial  medium  wliich  the  railway  o])erated  by  swift 
locomotives  has  become.  Similarly,  the  development  of  the  locomotive  grew 
apace,  as  soon  as  it  was  recognized  that  the  smooth  track  of  the  railway  — 
and  not  the  rough  track  of  the  highway  —  was  to  be  its  field  of  operation. 

At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  after  seventy  years  of  development, 
th(>  Avorld  has  nearly  nOd.OOO  miles  of  railway,  on  which  locomotives  of  SO 
to  110  tons  in  weiglit  (without  their  tenders)  ha>d  freight  trains  of  1000  to 
.'!(I00  tons.  Passenger  trains,  too,  are  run  at  speeds  of  40  to  7i>  miles  per 
hour  in  regular  daily  stu'vice,  aud  even  make  bursts  of  speed  at  SO  to  100 
miles  per  hour.  The  fact  that  in  1S90  Er.rope  aud  North  .Vmerica  had  about 
.".L'O.OOO  miles  of  railway  out  of  a  grand  total  of  ;)70,000  miles,  indicates  that 
this  i)hase  of  nineteenth-century  progress  has  been  due  mainly  to  ])eoples 
of  Christian  civilization,  and  besides  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 


(ill 


TJiiL'Mr/is  AM)  \voMn:iis  or  in  I::  XfX'"  cestihy 


liiilwiiys  of  Asia,  Africa,  Australia,  and  Soutii  America  liavc  Immmi  mainly 
liiiilt  hy  tilt' same  ]p('(i](li's.  'I'lic  central  rei;i(»ns  ui'  tliese  tnnr  latter  .ni'dgi'a- 
pliieal  divisions  are  tields  lor  I  weiitietli-ceiitiiry  d(!Velo|(ment. 

'I'lie  },'reat  trnnk  lines  ot  railway  cominunit'atioii  are  hardly  more  impor- 
tant than  the  vast  network  ot  l)raneh  and  minor  lines  whiidi  connect  and 
intersect  them.  These  latter  lines  hrinj,'  the  peojile  ot  smaller  towns  and 
ooiintry  districts  into  closer  rtdation  with  the  larye  cities,  the  centres  of 
industrial  and  inttdleclnal  energy,  enterprise,  and  wealth.  They  thu.s  tend  to 
reduce  isolation  and  dependence  upon  purely  local  resoiircres. 

Railways  also  serve  important  military  and  stratef,n(!  purposes.  In  India 
many  of  the  railways  have  i»eeu  built  with  a  view  to  the  delense  of  the  north- 
eastern frontier,  and  many  JMiropean  j^overnments  assume  certain  military 


Tin;  oi.u  srA(iK  1  o.\<  II. 


li  .1 


authority  over  the  railways.  The  lirst  trans-continental  railways  of  the 
United  States  and  ("ana(hi  wer(>  larLfely  assisted  hy  frovennueiit  sul)sidies  on 
account  of  their  ;^reat  importance  for  the  transportation  of  troops.  The  I'ail- 
way  also  serves  purposes  ol  jileasnre.  as  well  as  of  commerce  and  war.  Not 
only  do  the  ordinary  railways  carry  much  tourist  and  pleasure  travel,  hut 
lines  are  built  exclusively  for  such  travel.  Some  of  these  take  people  to  the 
summer  and  pleasure  resorts,  whih?  others  cater  to  the  inherent  desire  ol 
man  to  ascend  ;;reat  altitmies  and  to  lieludd  the  worhl  in  its  heauty  and 
grandeur  spread  below  them.  I''(U'  this  ]iurpose  alone  have  railways  been 
built  to  the  summits  of  the  Ifockies,  the  Alps,  and  other  mountain  r;in.;;cs. 

At  the  end  o[  the  t'cntury  the  I'nited  States  has  about  Isrt.OOO  miles  of 
railway,  which  havi'  cost  about  .S."i.">.<H»o  por  mile  and  earn  i^idolH*  per  mile, 
(ireat  r.ritain  has  about  I'l'.tMM)  miles,  which  have  cost  !«!L'2r).(»(>0  per  mil.' 
and  earn  about  .S-<*.<HIO  per  mile.  \  hiri^-e  proportion  of  this  hisrh  cost  n| 
coiistrtu'tion  is  due  to  the  hij;h  prices  for  land  and  to  the  ])reliminarv  ]iai- 
lianientary  jiroceediu'^s  which  are  necessary  in  se(!uriiij;-  the  i'i,<;ht  to  biiiM 
railways.  The  avera,i;i'  cost  jiei'  mile  vif  railways  in  different  countries  is  as 
follows  :  — 


I'liili'd  Stiitt's .*.">:;, 1)1)1)  .Swit/crlaiiil  (oi'diiuirv) 

Iiiili:!     .     .          7-"i.(lll(l  Dii           (JiKiuiituiii) 

,Iii|iaii DJ.iMill     liiKsia 

iM-ainr  . iDD.dOil  Aiisti-ia-HiiiiKary     .    . 


1i;l',."iihi 
li'i.toii 


Cii'riiiaiiv 


1(11, ."lOD     (ileal  Hi-itaiii 2-2\oii(i 


Oiu^  of  the  ;j;reat  economic  ]iurposes  of  railways  in  new  countries  is  \<< 
reduce  the  cost  of  rapid  transpoi'tation  in  bulk  far  below  that  of  slow  tran- 
portation  in  small  (juanlities.     Train  s[ieed  is  a  matter  of  secondary  impor 


r^r 


4 


I'll   mainly 

lovf  imiK^i'- 

Diiiu't'l  aiitl 

towns  and 

ci'ntves  i>t' 

lius  tend  to 

^.  In  Iniiia 
)l'  the  north- 
iiin  militiivy 


i-:VOLUTlOS   OF   THE   I! Ml. WAY 


C4."j 


ilwiiys  oV  tin' 
it  suUsiiUes  on 
,ps.  Tho  niil- 
ml  wav.  N<'> 
uvf  tiavfl.  but 
|)(.(H)li'  to  the 

lits  lu-anty  ami 
railways   Ih'''" 

litain  van-fs. 
-,.(»00  n\ili-s  "t 
,(•,.-,()()  per  mil''- 
-).(H)0  per  n\il'' 

s  liisli  ('"^^  "' 
•eliminavy  vai- 
vio'lit  to  buil'l 
countries  is  as 


Sll!'--''"" 

lii-i.riiiu 
J-2-2.IMIO 

2"2  •'>.""" 

Iconntries  is  t" 
of  sU)W  trail- 
[eomlavy  imiHU- 


tanee  in  such  cases,  tlie  tratlic  acconiiiiodation  and  capacity  of  tlie  slowest 
train  liein;4  lar  beyonil  that  ol  road  or  canal  tran>]iorlatinii.  I'rallic  will  lie 
served  liellcr  and  at  iiuich  less  i-ost  by  licint,'  carried  in  bidU  on  oOd  nules  of 
railway  at  10  luilcs  per  hour,  than  ou  l0(»  miles  of  railway  at  .'!."•  miles  per 
hour,  and  fluMi  in  small  lots  on  way;ons  or  canal  boats  at  .'J  nuh's  per  hour  for 
10(1  nnl,es. 

Tlie  ndvantai,'es  of  the  rapid  transportation  of  iicrisliable  frei^dit  by  rail, 
especially  in  ri',i;ard  to  bind  supplies  bir  cities,  were  early  n'coyiu/.cd.  and 
by  IS.II  the  trains  broui^ht  cardoails  o|  country  n.dlk  into  i.omion  every  day. 
Previous  to  this,  the  supjily  was  obiaiued  Irom  cows  kept  in  stables,  wiiich 
was  an  unsanitary  and  expensive  plan.  Auoiher  inmicdiate  result  of  railway 
service  was  that  ]  ciile  be;^'an  to  live  larther  out  (d  the  towns,  and  then 
bei;an  tlie  ,t;'rowlh  ol  the  suburban  residence  distiicls.  whicji  are  mu-Ii  a  fea- 
ture (d  modern  cities  and  city  lite. 

'I'lie  early  lailways  were  built  merely  as  local  lines,  and  there  was  little 
idea  of  their  ultimate  conneciion  or  extension.  'I'liese  small  individual  lines, 
however,  with  their  own  rate-makiny;  powers  and  systems  ol  maiia.^t'ment, 
have  been  consolidated  into  L;reat  systems,  thus  eflectini;'  material  econoiuies 
and  facilities  in  operation.  Thus  the  .Mohawk  v\:  Hudson  IJaihvay  of  l.s.".l 
was  the  first  of  a  series  of  lines  now  cnus(didated  to  form  the  New  \'ork 
Central  iJailway  ;  while  the  Liverpool  &  Mantdiester  Jtailway  of  l,S.'!(t  was 
the  bci,nniiin,!:;-  of  what  is  now  the  London  iS:  Northwestern  liailway  system. 
.Not  oidy  is  there  this  consolidation,  but  also  a  most  comprehensive  system 
for  the  intcr(dian,t;i'  of  tratlic  between  different  systems,  'i'hus  passcni^crs 
can  purchase  through  tickets  and  travel  through   from   J'aris  to  St.  J'eter.s- 


KIK^r    'rUAlN    Ol'    SIKAM    (AI!S 


liur_t,'.  or  from  lioston  to  San  Francisco,  while  freiehl  cars  can  be  sent  tlirout^di 
in  a  similar  way.  This  is  really  a  wonderfid  b'atiire  of  railway  develop- 
ineiit.  The  b>llowin!;-  are  a  few  examples  id'  the  i^M'cat  railway  systems  of  the 
worhl :  — 


I.'ailwMv. 


Mill 


Iju'ii- 
iimtivi's. 


l'il>~illf;iT 

(■ar>. 


l'"rci};lit, 


rriiii-vlvaniiKr.  S.  A.).  

eiiiiai;''!  \   N'lirtliwcsli'iii  il'.S.  A.)      

eiiiiimii,  ItiivliiiLrtdii  \'  <.»iiiiii'v  (!'.  S.  A.i.... 

\trlii~(iii,  ■r(p|ick;i  I.V  Saiilii  I'.'d'.  S.  A.i 

liirat  \Vr>tcni  (l';Mi;liiiiili 

l.Miiilciii  kV  Ndftlnvi'^liTii  il-'.iiuiaiiil) 

I'.in-,  I,yiin>i\  Mi'diliMraiiraii  (t'lainf)- • 

W.MiTii  (I''raii(r) 

Miillirrraiic'.-iii  (lialy) 

.\"itli\vi'>lcriMliuliii) 


.SSS2 

:)r)<i4 

:i847 

I4t;,(i(;() 

7!l!lll 

l:|S(i 

1170 

4!i,4S4 

74(!-J 

li'il.-i 

icii; 

4ii.7-iO 

71-Jti 

1(i:|ii 

tl.'l."! 

•J'.',H:(7 

•j.-.7i; 

1S:I7 

liiiiil 

.Vi.l.-il! 

l!ll-i 

•JSM 

844(1 

iir.,4."i(i 

.■i-"i!l4 

•J(l-24 

5S:t7 

87.:!-JI) 

.•I4ii-t 

141I-2 

4:i78 

■-'i;.487 

:trit!8 

i:tl4 

;t7iii; 

•j:).(i77 

:w7i 

llll-J 

•Jii>i 

lii,:il-2 

■1;^: 


i;, 


W! 


i  1 


!l 


11    li 


I  l:    ■  I 


'1! 


1  t      1! 


■'  n-% 


046 


T/t/UMI'llS  A XI)    WOXD/uliS   OF  TIIK  XIX'"  CEXTURY 


In  sdiiic  I'oimtrics  tin'  j,'()Vi'iiiiin'iit  owns  and  oppriitcs  all.  or  iioarly  all,  of 
till'  railways,  as  in  (ii'ianany.  r>t'lgiiiiii,  ami  tin-  Alrican  anil  Australian  culo- 
iiics.  Swil/crland.  in  IS',>.S.  dcciclcd  tliat  its  j,'()vcriinirnt  siiould  a('i|uiit'  tin! 
railways.  In  Holland  and  Italy  llii'  j,'ovfi'nuii'nt  owns  llic  railways,  hnt 
k'asi's  tlicni  to  (ppriatin'^-  companies.  I''ranc'i',  Mra/.il.  ami  the  Aij^cntim' 
l>t'|)idili('  have  hotli  slate  and  private  lines,  witli  a  j^reater  or  less  dej,M't'0 
of  state  assistaiiee  ami  control  ol'  the  lattur.  In  (licat  JSritain  the  railways 
nrc  owned  entindy  l)y  private  companlus,  but  their  operation  is  snhject  to 
Is'overnnn'nt  supervision  in  the  public  intenvsts.  In  the  I'nited  States  there 
was  at  tiist  almost  absolute  Ireedoiu  ol'  construction,  but  the  conse(|m'iit 
abuses  and  tinancial  disasters,  owin^'  to  nnnei^'ssary  lines  and  cut-throat  eom- 
]tetition,  have  led  some  ol'  the  States  to  wisely  exercise  .soim^  doj^^'ce  ol'  control 
over  railway  at't'airs.  The  interl'erenco  of  the  federal  i^foverinuent  in  railway 
al'Cairs  has  been  sli,i,dit  i)Ut  important.  In  IS(»-  it  aided  the  construction  of 
the  first  transcontinental  railway;  in  ISS7  it  passed  the  act  for  tho  rcffiila- 
tion  id'  rates,  etc..  in  interstate  traHie;  and  in  iS'.t.'!  it  passcil  the  act  makiufj 
com[)uls(n'y  the  use  of  ]power  l)iakes  and  automatic  couplers  on  frei;.;lit  I'ars. 

(loverinnent  ownership  and  operation  of  railways  is  rarely  satisfactory 
from  a  tinancial  or  a  tratlie  point  (d'  view,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  an  abso- 
liitidy  unrestricted  lailway  element  is  liabU)  to  become  a  serious  evil.  The 
best  system  is  undoubtedly  that  in  which  the  railways  arc  owned  and  oper- 
ated by  private  enterprise,  but  sul)ject  to  state  supervision,  like  steamships, 
I'aotories,  etc.  It  uiust  not  be  foi'Ljotten,  however,  that  ))rivat(!  entei'prise 
is  uot  always  available.  In  Kussia,  for  cxamide,  tlm  (h'velopment  id'  rail- 
ways would  have  iieen  but  slow  on  sucdi  a  basis;  and  in  India.  ,t,'overunu.'nt 
ba(d<in;4  was  needed  to  induce  I'.ritish  cajiitalists  to  entor  the  lield.  It  is 
unfortunate  for  China  that  neither  Ww.  ,t,'overiimont  nor  the  people  h;ive  been 
competi'ut  or  euttM'prisin.n'  eiioui^h  to  deal  with  the  railway  (piestion.  The  pre- 
sent system  of  develo])meiit  by  rival  interests  of  various  nationalities  seems 
almost  certain  to  lead  to  the  eventual  dissolution  of  the  empire  and  its  pai'ti- 
tion  amon;4  other  nations,  as  .\frica  is  already  in  larj^e  measure  partitioned. 

In  the  I'liited  States  railway  construction  has  i,'oue  by  leaps  and  bounds, 
and  thcri."  is  now  a  vast  network  of  lines.  —  main,  secondary,  bi'anch,  and 
local.  The  highest  records  of  constru(^tion  within  tlie  past  twenty  years 
were  12.S(»()  miles  built  in  1SS7,  and  11,()(»(>  miles  in  ISSL*.  while  the  lowest 
record  was  IT.'iO  miles  in  iS'.Ki.  The  t,'rowth  from  l(SS(i  to  1S',)9  has  been  a> 
follows,  the  relatively  small  increase  in  number  of  locomotives  being  due  to 
the  greater  power  of  moilern  engines  :  — 


Milnifir 

'I'oiMi.-iiri'  ciirricil 

\iM1iImToI'   (ill- 

Nunilicr  111'  IciHiMciliv 


i:i.i,(;i)(i  i,sr>,o(io 

48LMM").(lO(t  7SI»,I«I0,(HI0 

S7l,:.(Hi  j,:i:iii.(Hi(t 

■it;.4iMi  ,         :tti,(i(io 


Iiirii'!i-f, 
por  <iiil. 


88.47 
i>:>.(lli 


Perhaps  the  railway  of  most  recent  interest  is  the  first  line  in  Alask  i. 
■which  is  twenty  miles  long,  and  was  built  as  a  re.sultof  the  rush  to  the  Khm- 


\TlJltY 

,r  ui'iivlv  ivU,  of 
\u>tialii>ii  folt)- 
,1.1  lu'Muin-  tlio 
,.  v;ul\v.ivs.  \n\t 
tlic   Av^fUtiui' 

.    ,„.    less    (1<"„'IV0 

aiii  the  railways 
on  is  siilt,i'"«'f'  <'» 
,t,.,l  StiiU-s  tU.'Vf. 
(lie  cuiistMim'nt 
.Ifut-thvoatt'um- 

umt'iit  in  railway 
„.  tM.ustvvii'tion  i)t 
e-t  t'oi'  tli*^  vf-„nila- 
a  tlio  net  luukinj,' 
.  on  fivii^ht  cavs. 
•iiirlv  satisiactory 
liov  hauil.  an  absc- 
scviows  fvil.     'Hit' 
.  owHcil  and  oi"'!- 
u,  Uk."  steamsliii'S 
,,rivati!  lintt'ri.visi' 

India.  Ltovi'vnment 
•ev  tin'  ti<'ia.  It  is 
,,.  IKM.j.l.-  liav*-  l»"'i> 
nu-stiun.  'Hi.'  l.n- 
iKitionalitit'S  si-cnis 
,u|,iii«  and  its  pavt!- 
asniv  pavtitioiu'd. 

leaps  and  bounds, 
„,aavy,  l.i'anc'li,  and 
past  twenty  ycavs 
J.  wliilf  tlie  lowosi 
to  lS«>9liasbct'n  a> 
„tivi's  hoing  due  to 


i:\ofjTioy  or  the  hai/.w.w 


Ml 


189i). 


l8r.,ooo 
j,:i:io.ooo 


Ifivst  line  in 


Iiii'vcii-"', 

JlfV  iclll- 


88.47 


:t(l.:ii> 


Mask 


dike  j^'old  lielils,  'I'lii-  \v;i>  (>|ii'n('d  on  l''rliriiai'y  -<>.  IS',»'.>.  'I'lie  i^Mcat  trans- 
«'i»nt  mental  railwa\s.  Imwevcr.  arc  dI  nnnii  liioadfr  interfst.  In  IS,'!.*(  tins 
|{('v.  Sannirl  I'aiUtT.  a  iiiissinuaiy  in  tlie  N(iilli\\r,>t.  sn.','i,'i'stfd  a  r;iiluay 
t'nini  till-  Ailaiilir  to  tlie  I'afilic.  and  Dr.  Samncl  K.  Ilarlow  |irn|i()M'i|  mio 
frnni  New  N  ink  to  tlie  Coiinidiia  Itiver.  L'tHMl  miles,  to  cost,  .S|o.(i(iu  per  mile, 
und  tn  carry  tratlii-  at  alnmt  seven  ndles  per  liour.  l'"r(im  ISII  to  |S|'.»  Mr. 
.\sa  Whitney  uri4;eil  ('oni,M'es8  to  j,'rant  liind  to  aid  luni  in  Wnililin^'  a  line  I'roni 
Lake  Michi.Lcan  to  S;in  Krancisco,  liO.'IO  miles,  to  cost,  .S'JU.dOO  per  mile, 
lietween  iS.-f,'!  and  iSdl  ('oii<^'ress  iiad  surveys  made  of  tivi!  routes.  Imt  no 
detinite  action  was  taken  until  after  tiio  onlhreak  of  the  Civil  War.  in  LStU, 


hie  rusli  to 


the  Kl* 


A    IIMI.WAV    TKAIN    IN    lail.lUlM. 

wlien  the  federal  <3;overnmcnt  soon  rccorfiiized  the  importance  of  liaviii;^ 
direct  conununication  witli  tlic  I'acitic  States,  wliicli  were  at  that  time  iso- 
lated. Companies  were  orsjtanized  in  ISC.'J.  and  work  commenced  in  1sri4, 
under  <,'overnment  subsidies  and  military  aid  aiul  protection.  On  May  10, 
ISC.K.  tiie  Union  I'acitic  liailway  (from  the  east)  ami  the  Central  I'acitic  Rail- 
way (fronr  the  west)  met  at  Promontory  Point.  Utah.  llSi;  miles  from  the 
Missouri  IJiver  and  (l.'iS  miles  from  Sacrann'iito.  Cal. 

Now.  thirty  yeai's  later,  we  have  six  so-called  transcontinental  railways,  no 
<nie  of  which,  liowever.  has  its  own  line  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  ncme  of 
whicdi  run  tiirou,>,di  trains  or  ears,  in  Canada.  howevt>r.  the  Canadian  Tacifio 
Kailway  (opened  in  ISST)  has  a  throuirh  line  from  St.  dohn  and  .Montival  to 
Vancouver,  with  throu-,di  trains  daily  between  the  latter  points.  'J'.Xt.'.  miles. 
I'he  iirineijial  transcontinental  lines,  with  the  total  distances  from  ocean  to 
ocean,  are  shown  on  the  foUowin.i;  page. 


'i3 


w 


»'"! 


\H' 


■•'■' 


lir; 


i 


H 


ij. 


i  8    '  U       ' 


ill 


ill 


i 


t.5 


04.S  TlUCMl'IIS   AM)    U'OA'V^Vi'A'A'   O/-'   77/A'   A7A''"    CEM'UllY 


liailu.'iv, 


Ipillril. 


Hollll 


1.  ('iiiiailiaii  r.'irilii' 

'J.  (ileal   N'ciillirni 

:!.   N'di'llirrii  raiilii- 

4.    riiinii  I'aiiiir 

."i.   I'liii'ii  I'aiilir 

(i.  Alilii~"ii.   I'l'iiika  \  Saiua  IV  . 

7.  SuiiiluTii  rai'ilu' 


ISS;  JldilliTal  111  Vaiiniiivci-   .     .     . 

ISli:;  Si.  I'aiil  111  Siallli'  .  ... 

Si.  I'aul  111  TaiiiHia  .... 
ISiIll  ( tiualia  111  S.iii  |'raiic'i~cii      .     . 

I  liii;ilia  111  I'urllaiiil       .... 

<  liiraiiii  In  N;iii  I'laiK  iM'ii  .  . 
l^.s:i  New  Oi'.'aii^  In  Sail  !■  raiU'iMMi 


I.fiif;lli. 

T.ilal 
l)i>lailri'. 

■.'lill.'i 

l.'!l|l."i 

;ii.-i7'' 

lull! 

IHl'S 

ii-"i77 
lilNi 

•■!J4l.' 

.■Mill 
;i-j:i."i 
:il!i7 
41li4* 

*   111  Nn>.  1  ami  7  llir  lol.il  ili-laiii'i'  i-  ^rivni  frmii  Nrw  VurU. 

(If  till"  vii'iitii.s  (•(iiuiilcti'il  ;iiiil  |iartl\  ('(Hiiplcti'il  intornci'uuic  riiilwuys  iicniss 
Ci'Utral  Aiucrica.  llic  uklsi  im|iorlaiit  hv  tar  is  tlic  ranaina  railway,  in  Co- 
Iniuliia,  47.',  miles  loiii;-.  'i'liis  was  npi'iicd  as  Ioiilt  a^o  as  IS,"*,  and  was 
(iri,i;iiially  iutciulcil  as  a  link  in  a  nuilc  lictwcfii  New  \o\\s.  and  Sail  l''ran- 
<'isco,  i)l.">0  niilt's.  In  Smitii  Ann'iira  llu'rc  air  lew  railways  cif  great  ini|i(ir- 
tanee,  and  the  interior  yet  remains  nndevel(i|ied.  with  the  e.xeejition  of  the 
i^reat  phiins  id'  the  .\rt;entine  Ikejinlilie.  .\  transenntiiiental  line  between 
liiieiids  Ayres  and  N'alparaisn,  SfiO  miles,  is  nearly  e()m|ileted.  hut  work  has 
heen  stopped  for  some  years,  leaving-  ott  miles  yet  to  he  huilt  at  the  summit 
id'  the  .\iules.  An  interest iiij;-.  hut  as  yet  visionary,  sidieme  is  that  for  an 
intorcontineiital  railway  tliroin;-]!  ( 'eiitral  and  South  Ameriea.  The  distance 
I'romthe  southern  ironlierot  .Mexico  t-o  iiueuo.-^  .\yros  would  be  .")'>(>(•  miles. 
.\l)ont  iL'St*  miles  ol'  this  are  buill.  but  com|irise  many  small  lines  which 
would  have  to  Ik'  rebuilt.  The  total  cost  would  be  about  8L'l'(t.(l(KI.0(»().  at  a 
low  estimate,  and  the  total  distance  fi'om  Mew  \'ork  to  Ibienos  ,\yres  would 
be  1(>.;;(K>  miles  by  rail. 

In  l'"urop(i  thei'c  is  a  vast  and  comprehensive  network  id'  railway  lines,  but 
till'  distances  are  less.  e\-eu  St.  I'eteisliurL;'  and  Constant inople  beini^-  iiut 
about  It'iOO  and  ISOO  miles  from  Taris.  While  the  devidopiuent  of  railways 
has  been  remarkabl(>.  the  most  striking'  features  are  the  lim  s  whiidi  cross 
the  .\l]is  to  connect  the  interior  with  tl:e  .Mediicrraneaii  ports.  'I'lie  lirst  oi 
these  was  the  SemmeriuLC  railway,  on  the  route  between  X'ienna  and  'I'riestr 
(lS,"»-h.  The  Mont  Ceiiis  railway  (lSf'(7)  was  mainly  a  surface  line,  with 
heavy  inidines  operated  on  the  l-'ell  n'lip-rail  system.  Its  I'oiile  followed  the 
great  cari'ia;^'e  road  built  by  Napoleon  in  lS(l.'!-I(l.  The  railway  over  the 
lirennei'  Pass  was  opened  in  IS(iS;  in  IS71  the  .Mont  ('eiiis  tunnel  superseded 
the  highdevid  line,  and  in  bS,S(»  the  <ireat  St.(iothaid  railway  was  opened. 
This  was  followed  by  the  .Vrlberg  railway  in  ISS  I.  and  I  he  Simiilou  railwav 
is  now  under  construction. 

I'jiiope  has  the  only  railway  within  the  .\retie  ( 'ircle.  It  runs  from  Lnlea. 
on  the  (lulf  of  I'.othnia.  northwest  to  the  (lellivara  iron  mines,  li  mile> 
within  the  (dnde.  .\s  the  jiort  is  closed  by  ice  during  the  winter,  the  line  i- 
to  be  extended  to  the  .\tlantic  coast  at  Oiotcii.  (i'.r  north  latitude,  where  the 
intluence  of  the  ( lulf  Stream  keeps  the  poi'ts  (i|icii.  'I'his  end  of  the  line  will 
be  l.'!(>  miles  north  (d'  the  .\ictie  Circle. 

The  countries  of  .\sia  (with  the  exce|)tion  id'  India)  a ro  but  scantily  sup 
plied  w  til  railvays.  I'>ven  Palestine  —  the  Holy  Laud — lias,  however,  been 
invaded,  and  has  now  two  railways.     ( »ne  of  these  is  from  .laffa  (the  biblica' 


ESTURY 


1827 

11I-2S 

•J'>7T 
•2  is;  I 


;iir.7* 
;;:ini 

;!1!I7 
41114* 


Vi.vU. 

inic  vaihvi.ys  iicvoss 
iiaa  niilway,  in  <^''>- 

;,s    IS.Vt,  anil   Avas 
•ovk  and  San   Kvan- 
^•;,_vs  ol'  o-ival  iniiuiv- 
li,"  i.x('('i>tion  ol'  tlu' 
lu.ntal  liui"   bcUvcn 
|,U.t."(l.  but  work  has 
.  built,  at  the  snnnnil 
lu-in.'  is  that   b'l'  ;." 
irrira.     Th."  distaur.- 
wouhl  be  .V>'»>  i>'>l''^- 
;,y  small  lines  whu'h 
,ut.  ><'_"JO.(Hl(MIOt>.  ;it  a 

r.ufnos  Ayivs  wnnhl 

..I'  railway  lines,  lull 
iiuiui.i.lf   bein-  but 
lopiuent  of  railways 
„>  linis  whieh  en'ss 
,ovts.     The  first   nl 
/Vi.'uua  au.l  Triesle 
a,  surface  line,   wilh 
Its  icule  IdUcwed  the 
riu'  railway  *)vev  the 
,,is  tunnel  suiu'rseae.l 
1   railway  was  oiieiieil. 


1   1 


tlie  Snap 


lou  railwax 


It    I'Ulr 


iniu    mines. 
the  win 


from  lailea. 
\\    mile> 


ter.  the  lii 


le  1- 


th  hititude.  where  th 


Ins  ont 


1  „f  the  line  wnl 


are 


but  scantily  siq 


lias,  however, 


lieeii 


a. 


rom  • 


Jaffa  (thcbibl 


lea- 


<j.">() 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOSDEllS   OF   THE   XIX^"  CENTURY 


1  1 '( 


I'  i: 


\  '!     '    if  I  'l!! 


Jopli;!)  to  .TorusiiltMii,  51  miles  (1S'.>2) ;  tlie  other  is  t'roin  Ueinit  to  Damascus, 
70  miles.  JJritisli  interests  have  h^ii;,'  advocated  an  •■  all-rail-to-India"  ])ro- 
ject.  The  line  would  start  ojjposite  Constantiuoiile,  i)ass  down  the  Euphrates 
valley,  across  Persia,  and  al(iv.,i^'  the  coast  of  JJaluehistan  to  Kurraithee,  con- 
ueetiiii;'  there  with  llu'  Indian  railway  system.  This  ,ureat  system  aggregates 
1'.").(»I0  miles,  and  extends  u|>  to  the  IJolan  I'ass  and  the  Khyber  I'ass,  ou 
tlie  Afghan  frontier.  Soiitinvard.it  has  been  jiroposed  to  connect  with  the 
Ceylon  railways  liy  a  line  of  bridges  and  embankments  along  the  reefs  and 
shoals  known  as  .\dam's  Bridge. 

Owing  to  the  vigorou.s  opi)osition  of  the  government  and  people,  China 
has  but  MriO  nules  of  railway  to  its  4,L'()(I.(MM>  sfjuare  miles  and  ils  p()i)ulatioii 
of  4l'0,0()( >.(><»().  .Many  lines  are  projected,  but  are  all  in  the  eastern  portion, 
and  the  twentieth  cfMitury  will  be  well  advanced  before  the  railway  ojjcns  up 
tlie  heart  of  the  country  to  civilization,  dajjan,  the  very  opposite  of  China, 
has  encouraged  railway  construction,  and  now  has  ,")(MI()  miles  of  railway  to 
its  147. (KIO  scpiare  miles  and  its  population  of  4r».0(l( >,()()(>. 

The  most  notable  of  all  the  railway.s  in  Asia  is  tiie  great  Trans-Siberian 
railway,  now  i)eing  built  by  the  Kussian  government.  It  was  commenced  in 
1S!)1.  and  may  be  completed  by  llH).'!.  the  dislaiice  from  St.  reterslairg  to 
Vladivostok,  or  I'ort  Arthur,  being  tlien  aboii'  ."WmO  miles.  There  are  several 
large  cities  on  the  roult'.  and  the  line  does  not  pass  through  such  a  wild  and 
uninhaiiited  country  as  that  through  which  the  I'liion  I'acitic  Railroad  was 
Iniilt  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  now  open  to  Lake  l>aikal,  the  trij)  of  3li.')0  miles 
being  made  in  about  lU  days  by  the  slow  train,  or  S  days  by  the  less  freipieiit 
fast  train.  The  road  is  roughly  and  lightly  built  in  many  respects,  so  that 
high  speeds  cannot  be  maintaiiii'd.  I'he  eastern  end  of  tiie  road  will  ))ass 
through  C'hinese  territory,  thus  giving  Russia  a  firm  foothold  in  that  em])ire. 
Hardly  less  interesting  is  tlie  I'rans-Caspian  railway,  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  Samarcand.  SS,')  miles,  with  a  iiranch  ii(Uii  Merv  to  within  !).">  miles  of  tlie 
Afghan  city  of  Herat.  An  extension  to  tlu!  Persian  (iulf  is  also  jirojected. 
As  the  l"rans-Sil)orian  railway  has  developed  a  new  wheat-;.,n'()wiiig  region,  so 
the  I'raus-Caspian  railway  is  developing  a  new  cotton-growing  region. 

In  Africa  the  railways  already  extend  northward  from  Cape  Town,  tlinmgh 
the  land  of  the  lioers  and  up  to  iiiiluwayo,  the  old  Zulu  stronghold.  IIUO 
miles.  Then!  is  a  ]»ictm'es{[ue  project  for  carrying  the  line  on  to  the  .Medi- 
terranean, a  total  distance  of  TmOO  miles,  but  this  will  not  materialize  I'or 
many  years.  The  Congo  railway,  passing  the  rapids,  opens  communication 
between  the  coast  and  a  long  stretch  of  inland  navigiition.  Several  lines  are 
being  jiushed  from  tin;  east  coast  into  the  interior,  and  a  transcontinental 
railway  from  St.  Paul  de  Loando,  on  the  west,  has  been  commenced.  Imt 
there  is  not  now  much  life  in  this  latter  ])rojoct.  The  French  have  two 
favorite  sciiemes  for  railways,  —  from  Algeria  to  Timl)iictoo,  and  from  Tunis 
to  Lake  Chad,  the  latter  line  being  about  HKK)  miles  in  length. 

In  .Vustralia,  the  lines  of  the  different  colonies  are  gradually  extending  and 
connecting  to  lorm  a  coiitiuuous  system,  which  is  hampered,  however,  by  dil- 
ferences  of  gauge.  Then!  is  railway  communication  between  the  cajiitals  ol 
Queensland  (P.risbane),  Xew  South  Wales  (Sydney),  Victoria  (\Mell)ourne). 
and  Soutli  .\ustralia  (.\delaide).  The  great  stretch  westward  to  the  coast 
cities  of  Western  .\nstralia  is  yet  iu  the  future,  as  is  also  the  Soutli  Aus 


%^^wm 


TUIlY 


EVOUJTIOX   OF   THE   RAILWAY 


C51 


to  Damascus, 
to-liulia"  1)10- 
tlu'  Eui'livates 
uvvac.liee,  con- 
,om  aggregates 
lybor  I'ass,  on 
mu'ct  with  the 
;  the  reefs  and 

people,  China 
I  its  popviUitiou 
iasteru  portion, 
aiway  opens  up 
lusite  of  China, 
l-s  of  railway  to 

t  Tvans-Siberian 
IS  connni'need  in 
,t.  reterslmr;.;  to 
rhovo  are  several 
sueh  a  wihl  an»l 
iHc  Uailroad  was 

vip  of  :r-';'.t»  miles 

the  h'ss  fre(iuent 
r  ri'spects.  so  that 
„,  voad  will  l>ass 
A  ill  that  empir(>. 

the  Caspian  Sea 
^11  '.).">  miles  of  the 

is  also  projeeteil. 

rowing  region,  so 

[iig  region. 
,H'Town,thr(mgh 

stronghold.  1  lot) 
.0  on  to  the  Medi- 
,t  materialize  for 
lis  communication 
Several  lines  are 
transcontinental 
I'ommenced,  l>ut 
French  have  two 
),  and  from  Tunis 

,th. 

Uy  extending  an<l 

..however,  by  dif- 
■en  the  capitals  ot 
|oria  (Melbourne). 
A-ard  to  the  coasi 
lo  the  South  Aus 


tralian  transcontinental    line   from  Adelaide  nortliward   across   vast  deserts 
(already  crossed  by  tlie  telegraph)  to  I'almerston. 

CJreat  bridges  and  tuniKils  are  among  the  }iromiiient  features  of  the  rail- 
ways of  the  world,  but  space  forbids  entering  into  details  ol  these  works. 
Tlii'V  are  in  principle  similar  to  those  reipured  for  highways,  but  many  of 
these  great  works  would  never  have  been  uiuhM'taken  for  siieli  tratlie  ius  is 
carried  by  a  highway.  The  only  railway  suspension  briilge  I'ver  built  was 
the  Niagara  bridge,  opened  in  IS;"*,  and  rephuted  by  a  steel  arch  in  ISiKS. 
The  develoi»ment  of  bridges  and  tratlie  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the 
Victoria  single-track  tubular  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Montreal,  which 


KNTH.\N(  K   TO    ST.    COTMAKn   TCNNKI..    SWI'IV.KIU.AM). 

was  opened  in  IS.V.I.  was  replaced  in  1S<,»7-'.>S  liy  a  donble-tracU  railwiiy  and 
roadway  truss  bridge  on  the  same  jiiers.  The  steel  areli  bridge.  17<Mt  feet 
long,  across  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Louis,  cost  .S."i..".<><MHM».  The  tubular  bridge. 
(m'.L'  feet  long,  over  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Montreal.  Canada,  cost  .S7.<KHt.lMH». 
The  cantilever  bridge.  S<.H.'."i  feet  long,  over  the  JMrtli  of  I'orth.  (Jreat  I'.ritain. 
cost  .SL't.OttO.ODO.  The  cost  of  the  jiroposed  susjiension  bridge.  .'{t>(tl»  feet 
long,  over  the  Hudson,  at  New  York,  is  estimateil  at  .Sl.'i.OtM ».(»<»(>.  The  first 
railway  tuniKd  was  the  I'ortage  Tuuind.  in  I'ennsylvania.  built  in  LS.".L  'I'lie 
longest  railway  tunnel  is  the  Siniploii.  in  Switzerland.  It,  is  iL'.L'.'t  miles  in 
length,  and  is  still  under  eonstruetion.  The  next  longest  is  the  (iotliaid. 
Switzerland.      It  is  •,)..■»<>  miles  long,  and  was  opened  in  ISSL 

In  .rack  construction,  east-iron  rails  begiin  to  be  supersedeil  by  wrought 


i      .1 

I 


652 


TRIUMPHS  AXD    ]VOXD/-:i!S   OF   Till-:  XIX'"  CEXTURY 


hi 


li  ! 


iruii  ill  ISl'O.  and  many  of  tlic  early  Aiiifrican  railways  liad  strap  iron  laid  on 
tindx'r  srrin,i;t'rs.  Within  tlin  past  twenty  years  steel  has  been  nsed  almost 
exehisively.  In  plaee  of  rails  weiij;]iiiii,'  iT)  to.'!")  llis.  per  yard,  and  .'!  to  15 
feet  in  len,L,'th,  we  now  nse  rails  of  iSO  to  lOd  Ihs.  per  yard.  .">(>  to  (>(>  feet  lonLf. 
Stone  l)io(d\S  and  wooden  ties  were  first  nsed  to  siip])ort  the  rails,  and  tlie 
iiitt<'r  are  now  generally  nsed,  altliongli  metal  ties  ar(!  extensively  used  and 


RAILWAY   SKJNALS. 


date  bank  to  lS4(i.  In  1S94  there  were  thirty-five  thousand  miles  of  railway 
laid  with  this  form  of  traek.  The  next  development  will  ]irolt;ilily  he  a  per- 
manent and  continnous  eoneret(!  bed  for  the  rails  ;  as  the  present  construction, 
with  wooden  ties  laid  in  stone  or  other  ballast,  recjuires  continual  attention 
and  repair  under  the  effects  (d'  heavy  traflic. 

The  sema])hore  signal  was  introduced  in  England  by  ^\\\  ('.  IT.  (Jregory  in 
1841,  and  is  now  used  in  all  ]iarts  of  the  world,  to  govern  and  ])rotect  train 
movements.  'I'he  first  interlocking  ])lant  was  erected  in  1.S4.'},  and  the  eom- 
l)lete  plants  —  as  used  to-day  —  date  from  iNod.     Now,  ])ractically  all  impor- 


iff¥'>^*' 


)U  laid  on 
cd  alin"^*'' 
id  ;•)  to  !•"> 
feet  li'ii'r;- 
s,  and  tlio 
'  used  und 


EVOLUTION  01'  THE  RAILWAY 


(m3 


tant  junctions  are  iMjuippcd  witli  interlock! ii;4  plants,  wliieli  jjivvent  ('(intlict- 
ing  signals  and  switclies  being  so  set  as  to  lead  to  accident.  The  electric 
telegraph  was  patented  liy  (Jookc  and  Wheatstont;  in  IS.'!",  and  in  l<S.'i<>  they 
.se(Hired  its  introduction  to  govern  the  train  service  on  tlic  (ireat  Western 
llailway  (Knghind).  The  uioveiuents  were  teh-graplieil  Iroiu  station  to  sta- 
tion, and  a  train  was  not  allowt'd  to  leave  a  station  until  the  preceding  train 
had  passed  the  next  station  in  advance.  This  was  the  beginning  ui'  the 
'•block  system,"  which  is  a  great  element  in  the  sale  oi)eratiou  of  tratlic,  since 
it  maintains  an  interval  of  space  l)etween  trains.  Mr.  Hdwin  Clark's  tele- 
graph block  system  was  introduced  in  liSr).'!,  and  as  traihc  iiicrease<l  iiderme- 
diate  block  signal  stations  were  estalilished  between  the  regidar  stations,  so 
as  to  shorten  the  distances  between  trains.  This  system  is  compulsory  in 
Great  Britain  and  is  already  largely  used  in  the  L'luti'd  States.     It  was  at 


ill 


M 


AN  AMiancAN  i:xi'i;i;s<  i.ocomotivi;. 


lies  of  railway 

I,a\)ly  be  a  pi'V- 

constrvu-tion, 

Inual  attention 

111.  (Iregory  in 
jl  protect  train 
and  the  coni- 
lally  -all  i»H'"i'- 


hrst  held  that  ir  was  not  iidanteii  to  conditions  in  this  ciMintry.  where  so 
many  lines  have  Imt  a  sin',de  track.  Imt  exuerience  has  shown  that  it  increases 
the  facilitv  as  well  as  the  salety  of  operatiuLT  ti'allic  on  single  and  doulAe 
track  lines  alike. 

Steam  locomotives  w(>re  used  on  colliery  railways  in  England  as  early  as 
1S04.  when  Trevithick  huilt  an  engine,  which  was  the.  first  to  haul  a  train  on 
rails,  (ieorge  Stephenson  built  his  Hrst  locomotive  in  1S14.  ami  in  ISLT)  built 
the  '•  T.ocomotion  "  for  the  Stockton  &  Darlington  Hallway.  Horses,  station- 
ary engines,  and  steam  locomotives  were  all  i)roposed  for  the  Liverjujol  &  Man- 
chester Ivailway.  and  in  lSL".t  the  directors  olfered  a  pren\ium  of  .SLT)*)**  for 
the  best  locomotive.  Kach  engine  was  to  c(nisunn'  its  smoke,  weigh  aliout  0 
tons,  cost  not  more  than  8L'7r.(t.  and  be  cajiable  of  hauling  a  train  of  'JO  tons 
at  1<»  miles  i)er  hmir.  This  led  to  the  now  historical  trials  at  Itainhill.  in 
October.  l.SL".),  between  the  "Kocket"  (Stephenxm).  the  ••  Novelty  "  (I'.raith- 
waite  and  Ericson),  and  the  -Sans  I'areil '"  ( Ilackworth).  The  awanl  was 
made    to   the    "  Kocket "    as    the    most    jiracticable    machine,    although    the 


C54 


TRIUMPHS   AND    WONDERS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CENTURY 


1!    i 


'it  il 


ilVli 


is 


"Xovplty  "  iittiiiiicd  a  lii,i;liei'  spt'cd,  and  tht>  ••  Sans  Paivil"  was  also  a  fijood 
engine  and  continned  in  nse  for  several  years.  Segnin  introduced  the  loco- 
motive in  France  in  181^7,  having  moditied  and  rebuilt  an  old  Stephenson 
engine. 

The  first  locomotive  operated  in  the  I'nited  States  was  the  imported 
"Stourbridge  J^ion,''  on  tlie  Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal  Co.'s  liiu',  in  ISL",). 
Cooper's  "Tom  Thumb"  was  run  o)i  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  iJailway  in  ISMO, 
and  in  IS.'Jl  the  directors  of  this  road  offer(;d  premiums  of  .'ii»40(HI  and  ."jJi.'toOO 
for  locomotives.  Kach  engine  was  to  weigh  not  more  than  '.\\  tons,  to  hiive 
four  wheels,  and  to  haul  loads  of  !">  tons  at  !"»  miles  jier  hour  for  ;{()  days. 
Five  engines  were  presented,  by  Davis,  Costell,  Milholland,  Childs,  and  James, 
The  ])rizes  were  awarded  to  the  Hrst  two,  the  J)avis  engine  '•  Vork'"  being 
rebuilt  under  the  direction  of  its  inventor  and  Mr,  Ross  Winans,  while  the 
"Costell "'  was  put  in  switching  service.  In  1S,".1  the  "  Jolm  Hull"  was  built 
by  the  Stei)hensons  in  England,  and  was  ]iut  in  service  on  the  Canulen  & 
Amboy  Kail  way  (T,  S.  A.)  in  the  same  year.  In  iSiKJ  this  old  engine  was 
readjusted  and  ran  from  Jsew  York  to  Chicago,  i)lli  miles,  under  its  own  steam, 
hauling  two  cars  of  the  type  of  IS.SG. 

In  l.Sl((S  there  were  al)out  I'.t.oiM)  locomotives  in  Creat  Uritain  and  .■i(!,r)(K> 
in  the  L'nited  States.  As  a  comparison  between  tlic  littlti  engines  of  early 
days  and  the  huge  and  swift  engines  of  to-day,  it  may  be  stated  that  modern 
l)assenger  locomotives  are  now  constructed  with  as  many  as  si.\  driving 
wheels,  and  ten  wheels  in  all.  Some  of  those  in  nse  on  the  Great  Northern 
Ivailway,  (Ireat  Britain,  have  driving  wheels  of  \)~  inches  in  diameter.  On 
the  Fitchburg  Uailway.  U.  S.  A.,  locomotives  are  in  use  which  weigh  7r»  tons. 
Some  modern  freight  locomotives  have  as  many  as  ten  driving  wheels,  and 
twelve  wheels  in  all,  and  a  total  weight  of  115  tons. 

Since  the  ap])lication  of  electric  traction  to  street  railways,  it  has  fre- 
quently been  said  that  it  woidd  eventually  supersede  the  steam  k)comotive. 
In  no  instance,  however,  has  it  yet  l)een  applied  to  regular  railway  service, 
with  heavy  trains  and  long  runs,  nor  is  there  yet  any  indication  of  increased 
economy  or  etticieiun'  due  to  its  use  in  such  service.  It  is  successfully  used 
for  local  and  suburban  lines,  but  these  form  a  class  in  themselves,  and  the 
conditions  of  operation  are  very  different  from  tho.se  which  obtain  in  ordi- 
nary service.  The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Hallway  has  some  heavy  electric  loco- 
motives, but  these  are  for  hauling  trains  through  a  tunnel,  to  avoid  the  trouble 
and  discomfort  from  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  steam  engines. 

The  early  passenger  cars  were  either  open  cars  with  cross  scats,  or  had 
coach  bodies  on  four-wheel  platform  cars.  The  coach-body  cars  on  the  3Io- 
liawk  &  Hudson  Hallway,  in  iS.'il,  were  7  ft.  4  in.  long  and  ">  ft.  wide.  In 
1(S,')(!  till'  American  type  of  car  was  introduced  on  the  Camden  cS:  And)oy  Hail- 
way,  having  a  long  body  mounted  on  two  four-wheeled  trucks.  These  ears 
seated  4S  ])assengers,  and  cars  for  (!(>  passengers  were  in  use  in  \K\\),  their  cost 
being  .l!!240().  American  da,)  cars  are  now  GO  to  <S0  ft.  long,  seating  (!(>  to  (S4 
passengers,  and  weighing  from  oO  to  47  tons.  The  standard  day  ear  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Hallway  is  (!()  ft.  7  in.  long  over  all,  and  seats  ('»(!  passengers. 
Dining  and  sleeping  <uirs  weigh  from  4r>  to  (>;")  tons,  much  of  the  weight  being 
due  to  the  special  equipment  for  the  comfoit  and  convenience  of  passengers. 
and  consequently  so  much  dead  weight  to  be  hauled.     It  can  be  said  without 


-^'^'  k 


liY 

ilso  a  good 
I  the  loco- 

Stephciison 

>  iinpoi'tcd 
,t',  in  IS'.'U. 
av  in  1S.".(», 
and  !ti.-5">0a 
ms,  to  liave 
for  .'M»  days. 

and  .lames. 
I'ork '"  being 
IS,  while  the 
1"  was  i)nilt 

>  Camden  & 
L  engine  was 
sown  steam, 

I  and  .".r),r)(K) 
iiu's  of  early 

that  modern 
;  six  driving 
pat  Northern 
iameter.  On 
,'eigh  75  tons. 
T  wheels,  and 

,,  it  has  fre- 

II  locomotive, 
ilway  service, 

of  increased 

■essfidly  nsed 

lives,  and  the 
)tain  in  ordi- 
clectvic  lo<;o- 

lid  the  trouble 

lies. 
seats,  or  liad 

Irs  on  the  ^lo- 
ft, wide.  In 
Aiuboy  Kail- 
I'hese  ears 
.s;U),  their  cost 
iting  <»0  to  S4 
ay  ear  of  the 
)(•»  passengers, 
•weight  being 

Jot"  passengers. 

le  said  without 


I'lVOLUTION   OF   THE   ItMLW.W 


65.- 


dispute  that  in  no  otiier  conntry  have  the  railwavs  done  so  much  for  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  their  i)asseiigers,  and  have  charged  so  little 
thertd'or. 

in  Enrope,  tlie  cars  developed  into  the  compartiiieiit  system,  with  side 
doors,  there  being  high  transverse  partitions  with  seats  on  each  side,  so  that 
in  a  full  compartment  half  the  jiassengers  nuist  ride  backward.  The  cars 
ar(!  usually  short,  with  two  or  three  a:cles,  bnt  about  1S7-  \\\{\  .\merican  sy.s- 
tem  of  mounting  cars  on  trucks  was  introducied,  and  longer  cars  on  trucks 
are  now  somewhat  extensividy  used.  AVithin  later  years  corridor  ears  have 
been  introduced,  with  a  corridor  connecting  the  comi)artments.     Such  details 


AN   AMEUK^AN    FUKIGHT    I.OCOMOTIVK. 

as  steam  heat,  toilet  arrangements,  ainule  light,  luxurious  finish,  etc..  which 
have  long  been  a  matter  of  course  in  this  country,  are  (piite  '•  end  of  the  cen- 
tury ■'  improvements  in  Europe,  and  generally  below  the  stamlards  observed 
in  this  country. 

Sleeping  ears  were  used  on  the  Cuniberlaud  Valley  Railway  (U.  S.  A.)  \\i 
1S36.  In  l.Si"»(l,  Mr.  T.  L.  Woodrnlf  built  a  sleeping  car,  and  in  isr»7  two 
were  built  by  Air.  Webster  Wagner  and  operated  on  the  New  York  Central 
Railway.  Mr.  (Je(U'ge  yi.  rnllman  began  his  exiu'riments  in  1S;V.>.  and  in 
18(14  lie  put  in  service  on  the  Chicago  &  Alton  Railway  the  first  sleeping  car 
with  the  berth  arrangements  now  almost  universally  used.  He  pushed  the 
business  more  vigorously  than  his  predecessors  and  acquired  many  of  their 
patents.  The  I'ullmau  Palace  Car  Co.  was  orgainzeil  in  1S()7.  and  in  1S79  its 
various  works  were  all  concentrated  in  a  new  industrial  town  —  calleil  riiU- 
man  — near  Chicago.  In  1S98  the  company  owned  L',4L'S  cars,  which  were 
operated  on  121,1'.'>()  miles  of  railway,  ran  l!l(l.r)()2,7r»S  miles,  and  carried 
4,8o2,40<>  passengers.  ]\lost  of  the  cars  are  in  the  rnited  States,  but  .some 
are  in  Euro])e  and  .\ustralia.  The  Wagner  Palace  Car  (Jo.  owns  'M)  sleeping 
cars  and  14M  i)arlor  cars.  In  Europe  most  of  the  long  distance  sleeping  and 
dining  ear  service  is  operated  by  the  International  Sleeping  Car  Co..  whi(ih 
runs  cars  between  I'aris  and  Constantinople  (7L'  lionrs).  Paris  and  St.  Peters- 
burg (ll.'()  hours),  Calais  and  l>riiidisi  Cl~t  hours). 

Passenger  cars  are  now  usually  lightcMl  by  oil,  the  mineral  oil  used  in 
.\merica  being  superior  to  the  vegetable  oils  commonly  used  in  Europe.  Oil 
gas,  compressed  in  tank.i,  is  very  extensively  used,  and  gives  an  excellent 
light.     The  system  was  invented  by  .Mr.  .Inlius  Pintsch,  and  w;is  introduced 


I 


h 


i 


I 


&I  V' 


i»  Mi- 


■i;   ; 


ilJi      !: 


636 


TIUCMI'IIS    AM)    WOS DICKS    OF   THE   MX'"    CKNTritY 


in  (it'i'iiiaiiy  in  IS?."!,  and  in  tlic  I'nitcd  Stiiti's  in  ISSl.  It  is  now  appliiMl  to 
aliiMit  .S.").(iO()  cars  in  I'L'  ('(iiint  lies ;  .'tL'.OOO  ot  tlu'sc  cars  l)cin,if  in  Cicrniany, 
17.0(M»  in  (ircat  I'.ritain.  and  l."i.(HHI  in  the  Ignited  States,  'riic  tdcctric  liglit 
is  as  yet  used  only  on  ;i  lew  ot  tin-  linest  express  t  rains, the  current  l)einf^  j^encr- 
ated  either  from  a  steam  eie^ine  and  dynanio  in  tlie  l»aj,',i,'a^e  car,  or  I'roni  a 
dynamo  on  eaeli  ear.  driven  from  one  of  tlie  car  axh's.  Storage  batteries  main- 
tain tlie  liLjlit  w  lien  ihe  cars  are  at  rest.  American  cars  were  heated  by  stoves 
sit  a  very  early  date,  and  this  develo]ied  into  tlu;  hot  water  system,  with  a  stove 
and  circulatin<,'  pipes  in  each  car.  Steam  from  tlie  locomotive,  however,  is 
now  ;4eiierally  employed,  and  its  use  is  comiiuls(M'y  in  some  States.  In  Imi- 
rope  the  passen.ijers  have  to  ridy  lar;^(dy  upon  their  own  wraps  and  rugs. 

In  AnuM'iean  frei'dit  cars,  s^reat  improvements  have  been  introihiced,  in- 
ereasiuf^  the  carry inj,'  capacity  while  reducing'  the  weight.  The  cai)acity  lias 
been  increased  from  1(>  tons  of  load  in  ISTO.  to  .'tO,  40,  and  even  Ttl*  tons  in 
IS'.IK  (\\\\  in(;rease  (d'  .")<>0  to  '»(>(►  |.ier  cent).  The  weight  has  increased  only 
from  10  to  loor  17  tons  (or  ;">(»  to  70  per  cent).  .Cars  are  now  being  built 
entindy  of  ste(d.  and  while  tlitdr  iirst  cost  is  greater,  the  cost  ]ier  ton  and  the 
expenses  of  niaintenaiute  are  less  than  for  wooden  cars  of  similar  jcapaeity. 
As  sleejiing,  dining,  ])ar!or.  tt)urist.  and  other  special  cars  Iiave  iieeii  intro- 
dueed  for  passenger  trattic.  so  ndrigerator,  stock,  horse,  fruit,  jioidlry,  and 
furniture  ears  liave  been  intnxbieed  for  special  re(piirements  in  freight  tiattic. 
In  other  countries,  however,  the  use  of  smdi  special  e(pii|>iiieiit  is  much  more 


i;\riatii)U  o:-  i,ArK>r  M.ia;nN(;  (  ai; 


'^^ 


^^^_ 


:l 

Si,' 

i  ■'■■                      , 

r ' ' 

,i' 

Lli 

^ 

limited.  The  ordinary  foreign  freight  cars  are  the  same  as  those  of  oO  or  40 
years  ago,  being  short  four-wheel  cars,  weighing  o  tons,  and  carrying  S  to  lo 
tons.  These  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  handling  of  bulk  freight,  and  greatly 
increased  economy  and  facility  in  such  trallic  would  result  from  the  introduc?- 
tion  (d  the  American  system,  as  has  been  done  in  .Australia.  In  modern 
American  jiraetice,  too,  the  cars  are  e<iui})ped  with  automatic  couplers  aiai 


77-7.' 1' 

in  lU'iiuimy. 

lit  \)fin;j;  <j;i'iu'r- 

I'iir,  <>i'  i'vDin  ;i 
l)iittt'rit's  maiu- 
L'atotl  by  stoves 
m,  Willi  ■•i«tove 
,ve,  liowovfv.  is 
States.  In  l^u- 
s  and  ni^'s. 

intv(>(ln(n>il,  iu- 
'hc  capat'it.v  Uas 

even  T)*)  tons  in 
1  iucvcasfd  only 
now  bcinii'  l»nilt 
;  |,or  ton  anil  the 
similar  rai'ai'ity. 
have  Ix'i'it  intro- 
■uit.  (loultry.  and 

in  fivii;lit  tratVic. 
cnt  is  ninidi  more 


EVOLUTION   OF   THE   RAILWAY 


(1,17 


.^iJS^IWP 


■■•■  ,    ,  :-"•'■■  ^'« 


power  brakes,  tlms  ^neatly  increasin'^'  the  safety  ami  t'acility  of  oiicraiin^' 
lieavy  fast  trains.  In  IS'.KJ.  (Jon|.fress  [lassetl  a  law  mpiiriiii;'  that  iiy  .lannary 
1,  liS'.KS,  all  fri'i.i,'iit  cars  siiould  he  i'i|iii]p]itMl  wiili  autuMuitic  eonplers  and 
enough  cars  e([ui[i[)ed  with  [jower  hralves  (operated  irom  the  engine)  to  \<\\\, 


>''  1 


INTI'.RIOU   OK    A    Pfl.I.MAN    SI.KKIMNd    CAR. 


those  of  .SO  or 


4t> 


|1  earryin;. 
'ight.  am 


S  to  lt» 
I  greatly 


Ironi 


the  introd\u' 


lUa. 


T 


atie  coni 


u  moi 


liTU 


ilers  ana 


the  trains  entirely  under  the  contnd  of  the  enginenien.     The  date  was  after- 
wards extended  1 1  January  1.  KHIO. 

.\s  the  speed  and  weight  of  trains  increased,  the  dangers  due  to  lack  of 
hrake  jiower  soon  became  alarmingly  apparent,  and  minierous  forms  of  con- 
tinuous brakes  were  devised,  to  be  aitjdied  to  the  wheels  of  every  car,  under 
tlie  control  of  the  engineman.  In  ISSi),  the  liritisli  government  passed  the 
Railways  Regulation  Act.  making  compulsory  the  use  of  the  block  system, 
the  interlocking  system,  and  continuous  brakes.  In  England  and  some  other 
42 


I  I 


Gr,H 


TRIUMrilS   AM)    WOSUICllS   UF   Till-:  XIX'"   ClCSTUllY 


f"'4' 


Inrciyii  (•(iiiiitrios,  llio  ViU'iiuiii  Iji'akc  ( iiiiroiluccil  iili  mt  1S7I)  is  lar'^dy  used, 
hilt  it  is  slowtT  ill  iictiim  tliaii  tlic  niniint'sscd  air  iji'akc  ami  is  tlicruturi'  luss 
L'tlicit'iit  lor  l((ii<;'.  lu'iivy,  and  last  trains. 

'I'lic  \\'('stint;liijust'  l)rak('  is  (nit'  of  tiu'  must  iiniidrtant  factors  in  the  salV 
and  ctHciiMit  liandliiii;'  of  heavy  and  last  trains.  .Mr.  (jJcurj^'c  \Vestin,!.,'h(tiis(; 
pati'iitcd  Iiis  strai^dit-air  hraiif  in  iNtil).  liis  idain  automatic  hrakc  in  ISTI',  and 
liis  ([uii'U-action  rrci;^iil  train  hrakc  in  ISST.  wiiilc  in  IfSi)!'  lii'  introdiict'd  liis 
liij;h-s]it'('d  iirakc  for  express  trains.  Up  to  the  openiii.i,' of  IS'.)',),  tiie  \\'est- 
iii,i,dioiise  hrake  had  iieeii  applied  to  alioiit  .>."»,."»0( )  hieoniotives  and  DlL'.OOO 
cars,  (d'  wiiiidi  .■!l,."!00  loeoiiiotives,  r»(),(H)()  jiassenyer  ears  and  7.">(),()()()  frei.uht 
ears  were  on  Aiiieriean  railways.  With  this  hrake,  a  passeiii^'er  train  of  .'JtiO 
tons,  travelin.i;' at  (in  miles  ])er  hour,  can  he  stopped  in  about  4.")()()  feet  and 
about  UO  seconds,  or  in  Jl'OO  feet  and  .'!1  seconds  in  case  of  emergency.  .V 
freight  train  of  SOI )  tons,  running  at  -■!()  miles  per  hour,  can  be  stojiped  in 
about  ',).■)<)  feet  in  .'ll'  seconds,  or  in  .'KM)  feet  and  11  seconds  by  an  ••emer- 
gency" application.  Very  tew  countries  liave  apjdied  continuous  l)rakes  to 
I'reiglit  cars,  I'xcept  the  I'liited  States  and  Canada,  and  (to  some  extent) 
liussia  and  New  South  Wales. 

The  improvement  in  train  service  has  lieen  even  greater  tlian  that  in  train 
e(piipmeiit.  and  this  improvenu'iit  lias  been  in  speed,  accMimmodation.  ami 
numlier  (d'  trains,  .\niong  the  notable  runs  are  those  across  the  Aiiieri<'an 
and  European  eontiiients.  The  Canadian  I'aeilic  Railway  starts  a  train  daily 
from  each  end  of  the  line  fur  a  through  run  of  L",)(M»  miles.  In  ISSS,  a  through 
train  service  (with  sleeping  :;nd  dining  ears)  was  instituted  la'tweeii  I'ai-is 
and  Constantinople,  about  ISOO  miles,  and  through  trains  are  run  twice  a 
week  between  I'aris  and  St.  I'etersi)iirg.  1(100  miles.  'I'here  is  also  a  similar 
service  lietweeu  Calais  and  Urindisi.  ll'OO  miles,  in  connection  with  the  mail 
steamers  between  Hnuland  and  India.  In  1S'.)S,  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway 
was  completed  to  Irkutsk,  and  a  through  train  service  between  St.  Petersburg 
and  that  city.  oL'.'lO  miles,  was  coiiiiiieneed. 

Railway  trains  were  at  lirst  intended  to  have  s]ieeds  of  alxnit  lOtoL'O  miles 
2)cr  hour,  the  latter  being  looked  upon  as  almost  exccssi\'e.  but  much  hi'^her 
speeds  were  very  soon  attained.  There  has  been  almost  from  the  earliest 
days  a  ]niblic  demaiul  for  higher  and  higher  speeds,  with  eonse(|uent  rivalry 
between  the  railways.  The  I'nited  .States  and  (ircat  liritaiu  (and  France 
■witliin  the  past  U'w  years)  have  the  fastest  trains  and  l)y  far  the  greater 
numlier  (d'  fast  trains.  The  highest  ree(U'ded  train  speed  is  that  of  the  Kxpo 
sitioii  I''lyer,  270  tons  total,  upon  the  New  York  Central  Railway.  iMay  loth. 
1S'.);{.  It  ran  a  distance  of  one  mile  at  the  rate  (d'  111'  miles  ])er  lioiir.  ainl 
again,  on  the  same  date,  maintained  a  speed  of  loo  miles  )ier  lioui'.  through  ;i 
distance  id'  live  miles.  .\s  a  daily  train  be'tween  New  ^'ork  and  Chicago,  ii 
maintained  a  rate  of  (10  to  7i"»  miles  an  hour,  throughout  the  entire  DSO  mile> 
of  distance. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  S]ieed  of  •' 100-milos-an-hour."'  which  is  popularly 
looked  upon  as  a  sort  (d'  ideal,  has  been  more  than  once  exceeded,  but  it  ma\ 
be  well  to  explain  that  such  spectacular  bursts  of  S]ieeil  are  really  less  impd! 
taut  and  less  wonderful  than  the  trips  of  ."iO  to  lOOO  miles  at  speeds  averagiii  . 
r»()  to  (l.l  miles  ])er  hour  for  the  entire  journey.  Taking  into  account  ili- 
less  of  time  bv  stotis  at  stations,  by  changing  engines,  by  the  resistance  • 


•I-STUUY 

,)  is  livv'^'«'ly  usi'il, 
,1  is  llu'VL'toro  U'ss 

.lU'tovs  in  tUf  siit<' 

Imilvt'iulST'J.aiul 
hi-  iutnuluciMl  liis 
„l  lS<t'.»,  Uk'  \VfSt- 
nives  an.l  •.•1-'.'W"> 
uul  7.">t>.<H)(>  tivi-lit 
iou-^fv  train  <>l  ;'.»><> 
,l,out  4:.00  ii'ot  an.l 
ol'  euu'Vgi'ni'V.     A 
ciiu  hi'  st(>i>l»''^  "I 
•onds  l.y  iu>  ••  fnuM- 
outinuous  l)vak.'s  to 
,,\  (,„  SOUK'  i-xtent) 

er  than  that  in  train 
accomnu.aati.ui.  and 
luToss  th(>  AuH-ru-an 
V  starts  a  train  daily 
.'  In  ISSS.  a  tlir«'n;j,h 
initi'il  iK'twTi'n  I'arls 
iun>,  are  rnn  twuT  a 
.,,  is  also  a  similar 


lu'rf  i>^ 


an: 


il 


;tion  with  Uu'  nia 
luM'ian  Uailway 
St.  l\'ti'rsl)ur-- 


-Si 


■twH'en 


l';,l,out  lOto'JOmih'^ 
Live.  hut.  iinu'h  hi''h.'r 


.;t   iri>ni 


tl 


X"  car 


li.'Sl 


■nt  riva 


Irv 


|li  ciinsiMjUi 

Uritain  (and  Krano' 

la  l)v   far  the   --roater 

1,1  is' that  of  tho  Exi-o- 

ll  UaiUvay.  May  l«»th. 

,uil,.s  yvv  hour,  and 

s  YCY  hour,  tlirou-h  ;i 

V„vk  and  Chi."a!4>'-  >' 

It  the  i'utiiv  USO  mih' 


;hi(di  is  \n^\ 


mlarU 


•  xccfiU'i 


arc  rca 
s  at  sj 


1.  but  It  in; 
Uv  It 


uin 


n'Oi 


Is  avrra:- 


111- 


into  aoeouni   tli 
bv  the  ri'sistiiiuv  ■ 


nn;. 


i 


i: 


1: 

?s 

(< 

i 

*■ 

"1 

n 

•f 

.-i: 

t; 

1 

f 

1 

\ 

! 

000 


TltlUMI'HS  A XI)    WOSDKRS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CES'n'HY 


Nlii: 


loliK  ,!;rii(l('s.  etc.,  it  will  he  easily  uiitlcr.stooil  that  in  ordtT  to  iiiaiiitaiii  tin- 
avcrii'^c  .spccil  Iriiiii  start  to  tiiiisli,  the  actual  s|)t'i'(ls  must  nt'tfii  laii.i,^'  iinui 
(i(»  to  7.">  or  even  SOiiiilcs  prr  hour.  Tlici  rt'LCular  daily  trauscoiiliuciitai  train 
ol'  the  Cauadiaii  I'acitif!  Railway  has  an  iiviTa^'c  spt'cd  ot  .'id  niilt's  |icr  lioui', 
but  uiaintiiius  this  for  the  trip  ol  LMXtii  niih's.  whicii  occnpifs  \)\\  hours.  Tiiis 
is  a  tiaiu  and  a  record  of  wiiich  railway  nu'ii  in  f^cui-rai.  and  those  of  Ihu 
Canadian  l*acitie,  Railway  in  particular,  may  well  bo  proml.  There  are  no 
such  tiiron,i;h  trains  in  the  I'liitcd  States,  but  in  |S7(»  a  special  theatre  train 
was  run  from  New  Vork  to  San  Francisco  in  3  days  "■•;  hours.  In  1)SS<»,  the 
time  (d'  the  transcontinental  mails  was  ')  d.ays  .Sj  hours,  but  that  same  year  it 
was  reduced  to  \  days  Il'J  hours,  which  schedule  continued  in  force  until 
ls;»!l.  On  January  t.  1S!I',>.  a  new  mail  service  was  inaui,'urated,  making'  the 
."(Ins  miles  in  '.<S^  hours,  or  at  an  averai^e  cd'  .'>l.l  miles  per  hour,  includiu.i,'  ail 
Slops,  and  the  transfei'  of  mail  bai;s  across  Chica^'o  by  Ava,t,'on  from  one 
station  to  ;inot  liei'.  The  actual  runuiuLj  speed  is  often  (>(>  to  r.*!  miles  per 
hour  for  long  stretches,  Kngines  are  chanyed  IS  tinu's  and  iiostal  crews  7 
times. 

i*'ast  passiMc^er  trains  arc  a  pojnilar  iitti'action.  but  only  railway  nn^n  can 
fully  ap]U'eciatc  the  advantages  and  econ<imies  cd'  heavy  trains  for  handling 
freight  tratlic.  In  Europe  coal  trains  weigh  fioni  .'!(!(»  to  4<M>  tons,  but  in  tiie 
United  States  the  weight  of  coal.  (U'e,  and  freight  trains  is  from  SOO  to  L'(I(M> 
tons.  Automatic  coujilers  and  power  brakes  enable  the  freight  trains  to  i)e 
run  as  fast  as  |ias.seiigei'  trains,  with  entire  safety;  improved  cars  carry 
greater  loads,  and  more  powerful  locomotives  are  continiially  being  put  in 
service  to  haul  heavier  trains.  The  heaviest  trains  on  record  are  as  follows; 
(I  )  Pennsylvania  Ifailway.  l.'Kl  cars.  r»L'l.'{  tons,  uv  ~CM)  tons  with  engine  and 
tender;  (!')  Xew  York  Central  Railway.  Si  cars.  .■)17S  tons,  or  .'>.V.»,")  tons  with 
engine  and  teudei'.  Itoth  these  wen!  run  in  iSitS,  the  length  of  juuriu'v  being 
1(1(1  and  1  Id  miles. 

Till'  nniils  were  carried  by  rail  between  Baltimore  and  Washington  in  IS.'II. 
on  recomnuMidation  of  the  INtstniaster-General.  The  U.  S.  railway  service 
Avas  instituted  in  August.  1S(')4.  between  Chicago  and  Clinton,  and  the  follow- 
ing figures  indicate  its  wt)nderfnl  development;  — 


^lili'iij;!'  run  liy  mail  riiis   .     . 

NlllllllIT  of  IM.'lil  riii-~  .... 

N'iiiiiIht  iif  iii.'iil  cIitU-;  .  .  . 
Miles  of  raiiw.'iy  o|icriilc(l  over 
Toii^  (if  mail  carrii'd  .... 


ISHO 


2,!Mii 

Hr).;i-j(i 

;i<>)S,iHiii 


IKltS 


(W.TdJt.iiii.'l  ,  lS7,4a:).is7 
;Mi4:i 


7,!l!l!l 
174,777 
1,4:)-2,(ir)U 


% 

1 

1" ) 

;ir 

^ 

'          j 

lit; 

\ 

hi  fi 

I 

1 

m\ 

li 

Tlie  railway  express  business  was  started  in  IS.'JcS  by  ^Iv.  W.  F.  Harnden. 
on  a  suggestion  from  Mr.  Josiah  Quincy,  who  had  to  travel  weekly  from  J>os- 
toii  to  New  York,  and  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  small  packages  for  business 
acquaintances.  Mr.  Alvin  Adams  became  associated  with  Mr.  JIarnden,  and 
in  184")  formed  the  Adams  Ex[)ress  Co.  In  Great  Britain,  this  business  is 
conducted  by  the  iiarcels-jKist  and  the  railway  companies,  but  in  other  Euii - 
l)ean  countries  it  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  post-office  department. 


■Tuny 

luiiiiitaiii   the 
(Ml  ninij;"'  ti'"iii 
ililifutiil  train 
iiili'S  per  li'iur. 
,),  liours.    'I'lii^ 
,i  Uiosf  of  lii" 
Tlu'ic  uif  no 
,1  tlKMtrt'  iniiu 
In  l.SS'.).  tin- 
lat  saiiit!  y*'i"'  it 

in  t'oirc  until 
t..(\,  making'  the 
111',  ini'Uulinjf  all 
•  ;in(,ii  I'mni  on(i 
to  75  niilfs  lifi" 
I   jiostal  crews  7 

railway  nu-n  can 
ins  I'or  liandliu},' 
[)  tons,  but  in  tlic 
fv..m  S(»0  to  '.'0«'> 
.j.^ht  trains  to  l)u 
roved  curs  carry 
lally  licin^'  I'ut  in 
nl  arc  as  follows: 

with  cuj,MUO  and 
:',.V,ir>  tons  with 

of  journey  licin;4 

\slnu'„'ton  iulS:'.l. 

railway  service 

,,  anil  tiie  foUow- 


KVOLUTIOS  OF    rill-:  A'. I //JIM}' 


mi 


IHStt 


r,,-<!:i,!t!t:t 

2,!t4ii 

8r),:!-20 

:!(i«.iitio 


i«im 


187,48:i.lHT 

:!,(i4'.i 

7,!i'.i'.' 

174,777 

l,4;lv>,(iriu 


|r.  \V.  F.  HuruAcn. 
] weekly  from  l'>os- 
ca^'es  i'or  business 
iMr!  Ilarudeu,  an- 1 
l,  this  business  is 
l)ut  in  other  Kur.  • 
lepartmeut. 


A  very  reniarkalili'  featnrc  i>l  iail\v;iy  clevclnpineii!  is  lliat  Inmi  the  liei^in- 
nini,'  tliere  has  hecii  a  teiidcney  in  inereuNeil  tratlic.  lietier  sei\  ice,  and  a 
steady  re(hietion  in  rates.  In  tlie  I'nited  States  tiie  aveia,!:;e  rates  per  mile 
hinee  l.S(j7  have  been  as  fnlldws:  — 


Vt'iir 


PimKeiixHr,  ii'iiIh         Kri'iulit,  i«iit» 


ist): 

IS7II 
is7:i 

IHSd 


•.',44'J 


Vi'ur 


I  .SH'.l 
l.tJI 


IHS.'i 
ISIMP 

|s!i:, 

ISIHI 


l'ltMH>ll){l'l',  I'Plltfl 


•J.J  Hi 

J.  1117 
■J. (141 1 
J.tll'.l 


Kri'l^Li.  c  iMiti* 


l.llll 
ii.'.ill 

ii.k:i!i 

(I. Ml  III 


Wliile  the  reduction  in  ]iassen:j,er  lates  lias  lieeii  ctmiiiaratively  small,  it 
luust  lie  renienibered  tliat  the  safety,  speed,  edhilnrt.  and  serviee  havt  i^reatlv 
iniprnved.  The  marked  reihictiou  in  frei;.,du  rates  has  been  made  possiiile 
oidy  by  a  still  j:,'reater  and  more  reiuarkid)le  red\ictiou  in  the  (tost  of  tninsitor- 
tatiiiu.  This  has  been  effected  by  consnlidatidn  of  eomi>aiiies.  by  improve- 
luents  in  roadway.  brid;^'es.  etc..  and  by  tiu!  iiitrodnctiiin  of  heavier  trains, 
with  enyines  of  yreater  power  and  ears  of  greater  eaiiacity.     This  ecjonomy 


lIAt.lJiMAN    l'.\>>    ON    (  (il.ili; Alio    Mini. AM)    U.  K. 

can  be  still  further  extended.  The  reduction  in  rates  has  been  much  ,<rreater 
than  that  in  the  i)ricps  of  commodiTies.  Kates  icir  wheat  and  hay.  for 
instance.  h;ive  decreased  2.".  and  20  jier  cent  more  than  the  nmrket  prices,  and 
the  rate  for  shipping  antliracite  coal  to  tidewater  has  decreased  ."id  per  cent. 
in  the  jiiist  ten  years,  while  the  price  of  the  coal  lias  decreased  oidy  Kt  per 
cent.     Tlie  average  freight  rale  on  the  I'ennsylvauia  Kailway  in   iSltS  was 


\  >1 


iM 


I 


M^; 


ill' 


H  111: 


662         TIUUMPIIS  ASD    WONDERS    OF   THE   XJX'"  CEXTUliV 


"•'J 


H'-W 


.  !'•!: 


(l.ri.'iC)  t'l'iit  |H'r  loll  [HT  mile,  whilo  the  cost,  was  O.l'AV.)  cent.  The  clicapncss 
111' tninsiiortalmn  in  tlic  I'nitcd  Stales  is  sliown  !»y  the  I'dlluwiny  ti,L;'un's  I'ur 
KSWS:  — 

l*a>M'iipTs  farrii'il  mn'  mil.' i:i.(i(Mi.(Mi(i.(i(i(> 

'I'Mii-i  111'  Iri'l^-lit  laninl  mic  iiiili' !i."i,(l(l(l.li(lii,(l(il) 

jIcM'nii'  fniiii  |ia>.-i'iij,'cr  rcrviri' s-31,lllMi.(Hi() 

licvciii.r  ri-um   l'rrij;'lil    MTvirc StiJ,(lllll,(MHI 

l>i~laiu't'  railway  ianir>  1  |>a~>riii;ir  in  lani  >l  |>n.lil ."iiio  mill's 

Di^Iaiuc  railway  iarrir>  1  I  mi  In  rarii  s|  inuiii l.",;|(i  niili'-; 

Avrraj;!'  prnlil  prr  |ia»>rii.i:rr  (iinlmliii;;  lia.u;;ai;ii  prr  milr -J    III  ci'iit 

Avcraf^r  |irii!it  prr  tmi  |irr  iiiilr    l-l."i  ii'iil 

Tlie  lowest  iiasseiii;-ei'  rates  in  tiie  world  are  on  tiie  liuliaii  railways,  in 
KiiroiH'  the  iiasseii;,'er  rates  avera'^e  lii_L;lier  tiian  in  the  Initeil  States.  thoiij;'ii 
the  accoininodat  ion  is  ini'erior. 

K'ailwav  transportation  has  almost  entirely  superseded  liarii^f.  canal,  and 
■  ri\er  transportation.  I'xceiit  in  spi'cial  cases.  This  is  due  to  tlie  i^reatcr 
s|ieed,  tlie  Lireater  ellicieney  of  service,  tlie  ;-,'reater  carryiic^'  capaeily.  and  the 
extent  to  wiiich  spurs  and  liranehes  are  luiilt  to  enalde  cars  to  reaidi  mills, 
t'aidoi'ies.  and  other  industrial  plants.  It  was  for  a  huc^'  time  Indd  that  the 
low  rates  (d'  water  transportation  exerted  an  iidlnence  in  keepinn'  railway 
rates  down.  Imt  with  the  present  condition  of  the  latter  this  no  Ioniser  holds 
'^oiiil  as  a  L;eneral  proposit  ion.  espeeially  for  the  limited  capaeity  of  liar;_;e 
canals.  'I'iie  rales  estahlished  for  wheal  and  corn  from  l>ui'falo  to  New  ^'ork 
li\-  rail  in  I.S',l',l  are  almnt  n. '_'.'>  and  d.lS  rent  per  ton  per  mile,  whiidi  is  Imt 
little  above  the  i  ,,nal   rates,  while   lail   shipments  are   .nurh   more  advaiila- 

LTCOUS. 

The  railway  system  is  a  vast  employer  of  labor,  directly  and  indireclly. 
amlM'M'rai  million  persons  in  the  I'nitcd  .States  derive  theii' support  irom 
the  various  railway  industries,  without  takint;  into  acconnt  smdi  allied  indus- 
tries as  rail  mills.  bridLje  woi'ks.  locomotive  works.  ;;nd  car  works,  etc.  The 
numlier  of  direct  railway  eni)iloyees  (cxidusivc  td'  the  employees  of  terminal 
and  >leepinu;-car  companies,  last  lreii,dii.  lines,  etc. )  is  over  SL'O.tMMl.  or  ovci' 
I.L'  per  centdf  the  total  ]iopulation.  A  lar,'.;e  proport  ion  of  these  represent 
skilled  labor  of  a  liiL,'h  deu;ree  of  iiit(dli;.,'ence.  I'" ranee  has  about  lllo  em- 
ployees per  mile  of  railway,  and  It)  per  cent'  of  thesi'  are  women.  Tlu'  li^;- 
iires  for  the  I'nited  States  and  (ireat  lU'itaiii  are  as  follows:  — 


Mil.'- Ml' railway 

Nmiilirr  ui  i'iM]pl.iyi'i-. 

Niimliir  III  i'm|ili'\  I'l'-  ^,<■r  iiio  milr- 
.Niimlii'i-  III  rm|i|iiy.'i'~  jirr  .-.'ill  ol  |iii|iiilaliiiii 


t'liitoil  Stall's 


isim 


lS!t7 


Oreftt  Brit.iiii 


IS,-.;     I     issi) 


is'.r, 


lii:l.."i!iT      ISl.l-JS         S.illJ        lll.lil:!        -il.lTI 
7-t!i.:iii|     s-J.'I.ITii     l(l!i,i;iiii     :!Sl.il-.>i;     4il.'i,H'-' 


17!i  I  111 

I. -J  I.-.' 


l,l'-IO  I.IMIII  -J,  1117 

0.4  1.0  I  l.J 


t     i! 


'-I 


The  railway   service  especially   demands   soiiu-  better  and  more    intimate 
relation  Itct'Aeen  the  employers  and  employees  than  that  of  the  men'   imyiii'j 
and  sidliiiLC  ol    labor  lor  a  juice.      I'olli   hunianity  .uid  self-interest  have  h.i 
several  railways  in   tins  country  and  abroad  to  establish  reliid'  department- 
[irovidint,^  temporary  tiiiancial  aid  in  ca.si!  of  accident  or  sickness,  with  othci 


u 


NTuny 


m^'^^ 


will!;-  ti;4Uirs 


lur 


i:i,(HHi.no(i,oiio 
!i:).iiiMi.mio.oiio 

.^i;-j.(inii.iMin 
.■)(Hi  mili- 

•J     HI  I'.  Ml 


111   niilway: 


In 


,1  StaU'S.  Ui«iu;j,U 


canal,  anil 
to  llu'  jAivalcr 


lar'-i't' 


U' 


caiiaci 
rs  h>  i'('a< 


IV.  ami  tn>' 


iiic 


li   uiilU. 
lu'l.l  lliat    tlu 


kccniii;^'  I'i" 


Iwav 


111)  loii;4('i' 


lu-l.U 


I'aiiaci 
llaid  [o 


iiiiU'.  wliu 


tv   111  UavLi'' 
Nt'W  VorU 


h  i>  I'll! 


•h  inorc  advauia- 


Jlv  am 


1  imlin'ftly. 

ihcir  siipl""''  ''■"'" 
I  such  allu'tl  iu>hi>- 
r  works.  I'tv.     'I'l'-' 


ovt't'S  II 


I'  ItTiiunal 


S'JO.ttOO.  Ill'  "'^■'''' 


if    tlll'SI' 


n>pi't'st'iU 


bout,   lll'»  >'»'- 
'riu-  li;-;- 


as  a 

WOUH'll. 


EVdI.I'TlON   OF   THE   RAILWAY 


li(K( 


III 


ami 


wlirii  oiH'  was  staitril   li\' 


tonus  ot  ln'iH'lits  in  aiiilition.  ilic  olijccl  liriiii;'  to  imliifi'  iiicii  to  rontiiiiH'  [ht- 

i  assorialioiis  liaAc  rxisinl  in  I'aii,'- 
l  sinci'  IS.'iO.  in  Canada  since  IST.'!.  ami  in  the   rnilcii   States  siu"!'  ISSO, 

tlif    r.altiiuoic  tS:   Ohio    Kaihvii  In   IS'.IC)   there 

ciatioiis   in   llic    I'liitcil  States,   willi   an   a^',i;re,L;ate  ol' 

systems  o\\  iieil  !.""»  per  cent  of  all 

[ler  cent  of  all  tlic  railway  ciiiiiloyecs  in  the  eoiiiitry. 

ore  closiiii;-  this  review  of  railway  ilevelopmenl.  lirief  relereiiee  may  lie 


wei 


e  six  of  the 


iliiuit    1  L.'.">.( H M )  nieiuliers,     'I'hc  six   rail 


tlie  mileai^e  am 
I! 


I  liail  L'O 


iiiaile  to  certain  sjiecial  classes  of  railways. 

.Mui  NTAiN    Kaii.wavs. — Tiiese  iiiclmle  lines  either  i-olated   or    formiii;^' 


VtKW    NKAl!    VKKIM  i^V^.    ON    LINK    UK   OIJOV  \    1!\IIW\V,    I'l  UU. 


r.rciit  Uiitain 


ISSO 


IS'.I,-. 


I,.,       iii.!ii:i  -Jl.l"' 

!S1  ii.Jti  4i;'',tl'J 

1  mill  -i.l''" 

1.0  i          I--! 


li. Ill  ill 

It. -J- II I 

II. I 


liiul  more    intimate 

jif  the  men'  Imyinu 

|f-iiitcrest;  have  leil 

clief  ileiiartment- 

•Uness.  with  othn 


lart  (W  main  lim 


;i .  M"     il'ie.es  so 


linn. 


Tl 


ley  ma\'   la    upei 


<teep  as  to  reiiuire  spec 
,ileil  hy  (.\  )  caliies.  ( J! )  yiip  raih'.  i 
('allies  are  i'-;eil  lot  i  i;iiiy  <liorf  lines.  Iml  are  now  rarely  aih 
railwav  workiiiu'.  'The  L;rip  rail  system  was  first  iiseil  on 
railwav  in  ISCiT.an!  li  ,s  hecn  iisi 


,1  in  later  \-ears  in 


Iiael;  rails  were  nsi  il 
In  lS(i('»  tliev  were 


in  ISIS  on  tile  incline  near  Matlison.  1 
■;r'!  on  tlie  Mo.int  W  asliiiiufoii   railwav 


the  Marsii  rack),  tiiis  lieiii'^-  the   tirst    iiioniifaiii-climliin;^  \ 
the  .\lit  rack-rail  s.stem  w;is  iiitroilnced.  ;md  is  a  ufcut  imp 
lieeu  used  iioth  for  ordinary  railw.iy  ser\  ice  ami  for  sjiecial 
Iv'Ai'io  'rifANsir. — Stre.r.  or  s;irl'aie   iiiilways   .or  city 
1S,",1.  ill  New  ^■ol•k.alld  w  eie  ot  rr;ited  hv  ho'',,e:    ;:i,l.;   IS,.'! 

1 


lion  was  ml  rodiicei 


1.      I'".h'ctrii 


ad  loll   Wi  s     lit  re  ■liced    in 


ial  means  of  trac- 
ir  (( ')  rack  rails, 
ipted  lor  re;4nlar 
tlie  Mont  Ceiiis 
imi  New  Zealand, 
ndiaiia  (  V .  S.  .\.). 
(V .  S.   \.).  (\Mlll 

aihvay.  In  JSS.'i, 
roveiiieiit.  it  has 
iiioiintaiii  lines, 
tr.itlie  date  from 
1.  w  lieu  cilih'  I  rac- 
( lerman\  in   ISSI 


664 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WOXDIUiS   OF   THE   A' /A'"'  CENTURY 


*!)» 


Li;- 


and  ill  tlie  United  Statos  in  1SS4.  and  tlie  growth  of  this  system  was  suoh  that 
in  18!(4  it  was  in  use  on  'J(IOi>  niilos  in  this  country  and  1\)~>  mih's  in  Europe. 
Locomotives  ojx'rated  by  steam,  gas,  conipressed  air,  etc.,  have  been  used  to 
a  limited  extent.  For  higli  sjieeds  it  was  neeessary  to  remove  the  railway 
from  tlie  street  surfaoc.  The  iirst  elevated  railway  was  built  in  New  York 
in  1(S();),  and  now  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  t'hieago  liave  about  100  miles, 
operated  by  electricity  and  steam.  'Die  only  foreign  railway  on  this  system 
is  at  Liverpool  (England),  the  line  being  5  miles  long,  and  operated  b}'  elec- 
tricity. The  iirst  undergronml  railway  was  ojiened  in  London  in  1863,  and 
that  city  now  has  several  miles  of  such  railway,  mostly  operated  by  steam 
locomotives.  Two  underground  electric  lines  are  in  ojieration  and  another  is 
being  built,  liudaiiest  (Hungary)  and  Hoston  (Mass.)  have  ahso  underground 
electric  railways.  New  York  has  for  years  needed  and  demanded  a  ailway 
of  this  character;  but  pt)litical  methods  and  extravagant  demands  for  fran- 
chise rights  have  prevented  tlie  commencement  of  work  upon  the  line. 

iMiLiTARY  Kaiiavavs.  —  IJailways  cannot  be  made  available  to  any  extent 
for  tactical  imrposes,  but  are  of  great  im|)ortance  as  a  means  of  suiijily  and 
communication.  They  were  used  by  the  Kussiaus  in  the  Crimean  wav  (ISHM, 
and  were  ])roinineut  features  in  some  of  the  campaigns  of  the  A  merican  Oivii 
War  (I.S()1-(m).  In  the  Franco-German  war  (1870).  the  Germ-ui  arnv  aivan- 
ciiig  on  I'aris  was  closely  followed  by  a  military  railway,  and  in  th  ■  Suik  •;• 
campaign  of  1S08-0'.).  the  liritish  army  carried  ■with  it  the  head  of  a  railvv  .y 
communicating  with  the  base  of  sup])lies  on  the  Nile. 

J'oKTAnLK  JvAii.wAvs.  —  Tlicsc  are  narrow-gauge  lines  o:'  ligiit  construc- 
tion, tor  use  on  ])lantations,  in  lumbering  operations,  on  mgiiRvring  con- 
struction works,  and  for  pioneer  railways.  The  rails  are  rivced  to  sic^l  cies, 
iormiug  complete  sections  of  track,  straight  or  curved,  whi'^h  can  oe  laid 
down,  taken  uji.  or  shifteil.  as  recpiired.  Sucli  a  line,  of  24  incites  i^'ige.  was 
used  to  carry  passengers  around  the  grounds  of  the  I'aris  Kxhibiiion  of  18S0. 

Sine  liAii.wAYs.  —  These  are  projected  as  substitutes  for  ship  canals,  lint 
none  have  been  built  in  modern  times,  if  we  except  a  few  small  ones  f(U' 
canal  boats,  including  one  at  the  Columbia  IJivcr  rapids,  in  Oregon  (L'.  S.  A.). 
One  was  pinpnsed  tor  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  in  18(J0,  and  in  1870  Captain  Eads 
strongly  advocated  one  across  T\'huaiit'])ec  (Mexico),  to  connect  the  Atlan- 
tic and  I'acitic  oceans.  This  liii(>  would  be  about  ir>0  miles  in  length,  and 
Die  cost  is  estimated  at  S.*>0.0()0.0(l().  In  1888  work  was  commenced  on  thr 
Cliignecio  ship  railway  (Canada),  at  the  li(>ad  of  the  Uay  of  Fundy,  but  it  lia> 
never  been  comiileted.  Tlie  general  itrincijilc  of  the  system  is  to  Hoat  tlu' 
slii[)  into  a  dock  and  dejiosit  it  upon  a  wheeled  cradle  of  suitalile  form.  Tl'  - 
would  then  !)(>  raised  by  machinery  and  hauled  along  the  railway  by  a  nu.ii 
ber  of  locomotives. 

E.  E.  Klsskll  Tuatman. 


t 


U 


'URY 


vas  sucli  that 
's  in  Etivoiie. 
\)een  used  to 
tl\f^  railway 
in  Ni^w  York 
nt  KM)  luilos, 
u  this  system 
rated  \)y  elec- 
i  in  1S03,  and 
ited  by  steam 
and  another  is 
3  underground 
luled  a    ailway 
lands  for  fran- 
:he  lim^ 
s  to  any  extent 
;  of  supply  and 

A  luerioaT^  Oivii 
;in  arriy  au  van- 
in  th  ■  Sum:  \:\ 
}m\  ol  a  railv>  .y 

lijrnt  construe - 
nginov^ring  con- 
ed to  sio^l  cies, 
1.  can  oe  laid 
i>es  v".igo.  was 
il)iiion  of  IHSU. 
ship  canals,  but 
small  ones  lor 
•(.g(m  (U.  ^^-  A-^- 
'.)  ('ai)ta,iu  Kails 
nu'ct  the  Atlan- 
iii  length,  and 
nimeni'ed  «>n  lh" 
undy.  lud  it  ha> 
lu  is" to  Hoat  th. 
iM,>  form,    'ri'  ■ 
ilway  by  a  n\i.n 

i,L  Tkatman. 


lb 


^ 


ADVANCE   IN   LAW   AND  JUSTICE 

T.  IxTEKXATi(»\'.\L  L.wv.  —  Kxclusivc  riglits  asserted  in  past  centuries 
have  been  succeeded  by  freedom  of  the  seas  and  priviU'ges  on  the  rivers. 
The  principle  back  of  tlr.!  American  guns  off  the  l»arl)aiy  coasts  has  pre- 
vailed. Crinu!S  of  one  country  against  anotlier  are  punishable  in  either. 
Extradition  for  nonpolitieal  (M'imes  is  general.  E.\i)atriation  has  been  won 
for  those  who  would  change  tlieir  country.  Internal  affairs  of  countries  are 
free  from  interference  ;  but  a  rule  may  be  so  revolting,  or  so  hurtful  to 
foreign  interests,  as  to  justify  intervention.  The  ^b>nroe  doctrine  was  inti- 
mated in  the  Declaration  of  IndeiJendence,  and  lias  developed  with  our  coini- 
try.  Ilegard  for  other  nations  has  increased.  Protectorates  and  spheres  of 
influence  are  resjtected,  while  recognition  of  insurgent  States  will  not  bf 
hurried.  ])evastation  .and  weajwus  causing  neeilless  pain  are  condi'nmed. 
while  guerillas  ar(>  regulated  by  recpiirement  of  a  responsible  head,  a  badge 
recognizable  at  a  distance,  and  subjection  to  rules  of  war.  The  sick  aial 
wounded,  attendants,  and  apjdiances  are  protected  from  intentional  attack. 

Open,  unfortified  places  are  in  ])ractice  spared,  and  ransoms  no  longer 
extorted.  Twenty-four  hours  are  allowed  for  withdrawal  of  noncombatants 
from  pliices  to  lie  attacked.  Military  occupation  no  longer  confers  sovereign 
])ower  ;  and  compensation  on  the  closing  of  war  has  been  recommended  for 
l>rivate  property  of  an  enemy  used  in  military  operations. 

Impartial  noitrality  is  demanded.  Nations  once  bound  themselves  for 
troops  in  case  otliers  went  to  war.  This  has  ceased.  l'assagi>  of  troops 
through  neutral  territory  is  not  iillowcd.  I'^ven  sick  and  woumled  will  he 
denied  if  flieir  ])assage  would  relieve  a  combatant's  own  lines;  but  neutrals 
have  interned  such  refugees.  The  neutral  cannot  allow  litting  out  of  armed 
expeditions  or  eidistiin-nt  of  troops,  rb'fferson  advanced  international  law  by 
'  nauding  (ieiH't's  recall  for  such  offenses.  Carriage  of  signals,  (iisjiatclu's, 
.  persoi;s  in  military  opei'ations  is  unneutral,  and  the  I'nited  States  insisted 
tliat  this  rilled  the  Trent  atfair.  .V  belligerent's  ship  of  war  can  remain  in 
'/ort  but  twenty-four  hours,  unless  in  an  iMuergency.  like  need  of  repairs. 
V  oal  will  be  afforded  mdy  to  the  nearest  ])ort.  nor  will  a  new  supply  be  fur- 
i''>^ne.[  within  three  months.  Statutes  enforce  some  of  these  rules.  Xeutral 
trade  is  not  lost  except  on  blockaile.  although  goods  which  may  be  put  to 
military  uses  are  liable  to  seizure  as  contraband.  •'  Free  shijis.  free  goods.'' 
was  long  contended  for:  and  at  hist  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  in  iS.Vi,  pro- 
vided even  further,  as  follows:  (1)  I'rivateering  is  and  remains  abolished. 
(1!)  The  neutral  flag  covers  enemv's  goods,  with  the  exceiition  of  contniband 
of  war.  (.'»)  >s'eutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  coiar:d):ind  of  w;ir,  are  not 
liable  to  capfure  under  an  enemy's  flag.  (4)  I'dockailes.  in  order  to  be  bind- 
ing, must  lie  effectual.  Spain,  ^^'xico,  Venezuela,  and  the  rnited  States 
.'hciiiu  d  to  adhere  to  the  Declaration.    The  United  States  adopted  'J,  3,  and  4, 


660 


TRlUMI'llS  AND    WONDERS   OF   THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 


ami  ol'fert'd  to  agree  to  the  abolition  of  privateering  it'  noncontrahand  pro 
jicrty  of  tlie  enemy  were  exempted  nnder  its  own  H;ig.  Tlie  United  States 
and  Spain  refrained  from  privateering  in  tiie  reeent  war.  Private  property 
of  the  -rnemy  on  hind  has  hing  been  exempt  from  cajitare. 

II.  JjAw-M.vki.no  IioDiKs.  —  State  legishitors  were  originally  chosen  from 
landed  proprietors,  except,  perhaps,  in  I'einisylvania.  Legislatnres  fre([uently 
had  the  selection  of  governors,  judges,  and  other  high  ollieials,  but  the  Ohio 
(•onstitution  in  1802  foreshad(Jwed  the  coming  democracy.  Distrust  has  fol- 
lowed relian(;e  on  legislatures.  Their  sessions  have  been  limited  in  about 
half  the  States  to  an  average  of  less  than  ninety  days,  and  almost  every- 


001 


^f    ill.- 


..L    J  a; 


TN|)l;ri:NI)KN(  I'.    UAl.l,    ANO    SiilAKK.        WIN'I'KIi    S(  lONK. 


m 


■where  made  biennial.      Increase  of  the  members'  own  ('(jmpensation  is  foi- 
biddeii.     ThtMr  duties  av.    earelully  prescril)ed.     Common   reiniirements  aiv. 
reading  of  bills  on  tliree  days;  one  sul)ject  for  a  bill,  and  tiiat  expressed 
in  title:   recital  of  old  law.  iijion  revision;  jirohibition  (jf  riih'rs  on  appro- 
]iriatit)ns.     Nearly  half  tiie  States   re(piire  a  majority  in  each  house  of  all 
memliers  elected  tliereto.     Constitutional  restrictions  on  state  and  nnmicipal 
indclitedncss  and  loan   follow<'d  the  liurdcns  assumed  in  the  first  exultatinii 
over  inventions   in  transportation.     'IMie   I'einisylvania.  constitution,  f<u'  in 
stance,   proliiiiits    '-local   or  s]iecial  laws"  in  about  tiiii'ty  cases,  sm-li  as  in 
municipal  affairs,  descent  of  iiropertv.  judicial   proceedings,  remitting  penal 
ties,    exemption    from    taxation,   regulating    labor,    chartering   corporation- 
I'xiiindaries  between   legislative  and  judicial    pi'ocecdings  have   i)een  sinipli 
tied;  special  legislation  in  marriage  and  div(U'ce  has  been  forl)idden;  appellat' 


1' 

,ed  States 
pvoi)crty 

oson  fvoiii 
Einiucntly 
t  the  Ohio 
ist  has  i'i)l- 
d  ill  about 
iiost  every- 


ADVAXCE   LX  LAW  A.XD  JUSTICE 


667 


Isatiou  is  f<'V- 

Vnonu'iits  avf. 

jiat  cxi'vcssfil 

Icis  (in  ai>liv<i- 

hmisi'  of  all 

jiud  municili:>l 

(rst  I'XiilVatitiii 

liition,  for  in 

Is.  siifli  :>s  in 

liiltiiii;-  l'«'ii:tl 
,.,)r\ioratioii>. 

U'vu  siini>li 

Ion-,  a\>l»'llat' 


jurisdiction  has  been  taki-u  from  Senates  once  possessing  it.  The  liritish 
ilouse  (jf  Lords  retains  such  jurisdiction,  but  witliiu  it  sit  the  great  judges, 
and  tlie  lay  lords  almost  never  vote  on  appeals. 

I'aynuM'.t  of  expenses  of  niembei's  was  derived  from  Kngland,  and  althougli 
abandoned  there  has  continued  here.  .Mend)ers  of  Congress  give  attendance 
remote  from  home,  so  that  they  receive  salaries  rather  llian  compeii.sation. 
Sums  for  expenses  are  allowed  in  the  alu-r  .Vniericau  republics,  in  France, 
Australia,  Sweden,  SwitZ'^rland.  chietly  in  the  lower  houses.  Sume  are  jiaid 
by  the  local  (;onstituency,  but  this  tenils  to  create  classes.  Itepi'csentatives 
to  Congress  were  generally  electcHl  at  tirst  on  thi'  ^tatc  ticket,  and  in  sume 
States  this  continued  \iiitil  the  Congress  in  1S7L'  rcMpiiicd  district  election. 
The  Revised  Statutes  ap[ioint  the  day  (d'  their  election,  and  re([uire  a  printed 
or  writttiu  ballot. 

Jll.  TuK  CoiUTS.  —  .V   feature  of  .\nieriran  jurisprudtMice  which  excites 
the  wonder  of  iVn-eigners  is  the  power  in  tlie  courts  to  declare  legislative  or 
executive  acts   void    because  uiK-onstitutioual.      licfure  the    JJevohition  the 
Jthoili!  Fsland  court  struck  down  a  statute  (■>  atrary  to  the  [irovincial  charter; 
and  a  recent  instance  is  the  decision  sf  the  V.  S.  Supreme  Court  on  the  in- 
conw,  tax.     The    power  is  exercise(l  on   iiidiviiluiils.   without   direct  conflict 
b(!tween   the   great   departments   of    ;^dveiiimeut.     'I'he   judicial    power   has 
otherwise  widened.  '  Civil  trials  without  jury  arc  freipient.       lit  the  counties 
judges  exercise  much  iidminist rati ve  powci'.      Ilond  and  luidge  cases.  gi;mts 
of  li(pior  licenses,  appointments  to  c(hicational  and  other  otlices.  are  illusifa- 
tions.      In  what  bus  been  termed  ••  uovci-nmcnt  by  injnn<Mion."  functions  Imth 
of  the  executive  and  oi'  tiie  jury  h;ive  been  iissumcil.      I'criiiips  this  jiistiiies 
the  demand  that    all  judges  shall   be  elected   liy  the  people.      l'"re(pn'nily  the 
choice  of  juilges  was  originally  iiy  tlie  legislature,  or  by  the  goveiT.cU'.  alone 
or  with  the  approval  of   the  seniite.     The  judicial   tenure  of  otlice  has  gemu'- 
allv  been  lengthened  to  a.  tiu'iu  insuring;-  :i  long  service.      In   I'eiinsylvania.  a 
stipremo  court  judge  holds  otlice  twenty-one  years,  a  county  jiulge  ti.Mi  years. 
Age  limit  prevails  in  some  States.      In  a  democracy,  it  is  not  surprisiic^-  to 
timl  the  doctrine  sometimes  iisserted  that  juries  in  criminal  cases  are  judges 
both  of  law  and  fact.      In  certain  civil  <'ases.  the  jtiiy  is  a  crude  Init  jioweriul 
engine  for  holding  (MU'porations  to  strict  respoiisihility  ibr  the  citizens"  satety, 
although  excessive  or  unfounded  Ncrdicts  are   to  be  deplored.      .Much  of  the 
old  law  of  deoilands  has  force  to-day  in  sid»tler  form.     A  feature  to  note  in 
passing  is  the  duty  imposed  on  the  judge  to  answer  Itcfore  the  jury  ])oints  of 
instruction  frann-d  by  counsel. 

IV.  Civir.  pKocKoriM:.  —  Twenty-nine  States  mid  Territ(U'ies  rejoice  in 
escape  from  puzzling  classiticatious  by  substitution  of  simple  statements. 
Kxtreme  se[iaration  of  law  and  e(iuity  had  made  the  old  conditioii  worse. 
lv|uity  miglit  often  soften  legal  principles,  or  law  lend  vigor  to  eipiity. 
Much  of  this  has  now  iieeii  done:  had  lieen  (h)iie.  in  fact,  in  Pennsylvania, 
from  early  days.  Its  enforcement  of  e(piital>le  rights  through  remedies  at  law 
was  largely  followed  in  the  Knglish  Judicature  .\ct  of  IST."!  abolisliing  tbrms 
(if  actions  at  law  and  iuterblending  law  and  ecpiity.  This  statute  has  been 
copied  largely  in  I'.ritish  colonies.  Faiglaud  altolished  the  cumbrous  system 
uf  real  actions  in  IS.'M,  and  substitutetl  simpler  remedies  for  assertion  of 
title. 


1  !  I 


GC8 


TIUUMPllS   AM)    wax  I  )J:  IIS   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTUllY 


Ha 


f.^ 


hf 


Tlu'  simiilicity  of  prrsciit  proootliire  is  accoinpanicd  by  ability  to  reach  de- 
cision iiioif  iiroiii])tly.  1111(1  ail  old  roproacli  lias  liet'ii  j,'i'cat,Iy  lessened. 

V.  t'oKiKK  ATioN. — The  New  York  Kevised  Statutes  of  ISL'S  embraeed 
nearly  the  entire  civil  iirocediire.  and  in  IcSIS  a"('o(h'of  rroceiluie  "  was 
a(h)l>1t'il.  aUlioiii,di  the  oritfiiial  draltsiiiaii,  David  Dudley  Field,  coniidained 
bitterly  of  cliani;t's,  Fo,ty-t wo' States  now  havt;  more  or  less  eoiniilete  coih's 
of  [iractice ;  and  criminal  codes  likewise  are  numerous.  (Joditication  of  the 
braiiciies  of  substantive  law  may  be  anricijiated.  Somejhini;'  of  this  is  goinj,' 
on  in  England.  The  Hill  of  Sales  Act,  the  Employers'  Liability  A(!t,  the  J>ills 
of  Kxehange  Act,  the  Tublic  Health  (Scotland)  Act  of  1S!»7.  the  Land  Trans- 
fer Act  of  the  .same  year,  are  instances.  In  IVnnsylvaiiia.  thert^  are  codelets 
like  the  Evidence  Act  of  INS",  or  the  lUiildini,'  Law  for  riiiladelphia  of  ]S9.'>. 
Instances  could  be  multiiilii'd.  A  code  intended  for  all  the  States  on  Mc^oti- 
able  Instruments  has  bei'ii  jirepared  by  commissioners,  and  has  been  a<lopted 
ill  >«'ew  York.  Connecticut.  Colorado,  and  Elorida.  In  (Jreat  IJritain  there 
has  not  been  .general  ctuliticatiiui,  whereas  the  continental  systems  run  largely 
that  way,  even  in  substantive  law.  beinif  based  on  the  llomiin  law. 

VL  Criminal  .lriMsi'i;ri>i:N(  k.  —  The  ,i;rand  jury  is  no  lon,i;er  grand  in 
many  States ;  indeed,  less  than  twelve  members  sutlice  in  some  ;  and  their  ser- 
vice may  e"  "!<  be  dispensed  with  under  some  Western  constitutions.  Individ- 
ual maliv  I  ii,;s  been  avoided  by  the  creation  of  jmblic  ptosecutiiig  attorneys. 
'•Standing  aside  jurors"  I'esulted  from.'!;!  Edward  L,  denying  government 
ehalieiige  ex<'e]it  for  cause.  It  has  been  generally  abolished,  and  the  prosecu- 
tion ecpian  (1  L;  a  iiuiiiber  of  pereniiitory  challenges.  Pennsylvania  letains 
the  old  jM'actice.  I'risoners  may  now  testify,  but  ndiisal  is  not  to  weigh 
a',Minst  them.  The  statute  7  William  111.  allowed  counsel  in  treason  cases. 
but  England  <liil  not  extend  the  privilege  to  trials  for  other  felonies  until 
iS.'!().  Till'  courts  in  mitigation  jiermitted  counsel  to  prompt  jirisouei's  will: 
([uestioiis.  I'enn's  charter  ga\('  prisoiUM's  prix'ilt'gcs  of  witnesses  and  couu- 
si'l,  and  this  is  now  universal  in  Ami'rican  constitutions.  Many  States  pro- 
vide coiinstd  lor  jirisoners  without  means,  some  with  compensation.  "Stand- 
ing mule"  has  bi'conif  iMpiivalent  to  a  plea  of  not  guilty.  Unanimity  in  a 
verdict  is  essential  to  conviction  (d'  crime  above  misdemeanor,  except  in 
Utah,  and  then'  it  is  limited  to  capital  cases,  in  civil  and  in  minor  criminal 
casi's  alioiit  a  dozen  constitutions  in  the  iar  West  lu-  Southwest  I'ither  recog- 
nize verdict  by  jiroportioii  of  jury  or  else  empower  the  legislature  so  to  do. 
Ihighind  refuses  eriiniiial  appeals,  but  in  this  country  they  are  al,lowed.  The 
courts  (d'  this  country  lia\'e  iieN'er  been  subservient  to  military  passion,  and 
all  friends  of  the  great  French  Kepublic  must  rejoice  at  the  courage  of  tiie 
Court  (d'  Cassation  in  the  Dreyfus  case,  'i'lie  JMiglish  law  inHicted  de;illi 
i'or  1(10  crimes,  some  great  and  many  otherwise,  about  the  jieriod  of  (jiir  lvev(i- 
lutioii.  and  in  ISI'.I  this  number  hail  become  L'dO.  American  jurisprudeiice 
never  had  such  stain  (d'  blood,  yet  lO  crimvs  were  jinnishable  with  deatli 
in  Massachusetts,  and  L'O  in  Delaware,  at  the  time  of  the  Jfevolution,  and  the 


])illory.  stocks,  shears,  branding-iron 


am 


1  lash   were 


ins  existi'd.   tilled   with  everv  foulness  and   inn 


uoi 


1 

litv, 


msv. 


lorrihie 


pri 


The   older  lien 


t'Miliarv  svstem 


has  1 


leen  moi 


litied  ill  I'n  States  by  the   jiarole  system  nude 


)ollce    siiiH 


r\isi<in,  ami   in   4  the   policy  of  indeteianinate  sent 


eiices   witnii 


fixed  limits  and  ages  has  been  adopted.      ]>ertillon   and  other   methods 


'iai( 


111 


t,y  to  ri'iicli  dc- 
iscnt'il. 

ISL'S   (MuUriU'i'd 
•rocH'ilui't' "  was 
;.l(l.  comi'lahu'il 
(•(lUiiiU'tf  codes 
AticatioH  of  tUo 
of  this  is  '^o\\\ii 
it,y  A('t,tlit'l'.ills 
the  Laud  Traiis- 
ivw  arc  codidcts 
uUdplda  of  lS9o. 
states  on  Nc;i()ti- 
lias  l)ceii  adopted 
•at   r.ritain  there 
stems  nui  largely 
11  law. 

)  longer  grand  in 
,ic;  and  tUeiv^er- 
tutions.     Individ- 
i-ciUing  attorneys, 
iiying  govcrnnicnt 
l.'and  the  vrosecn- 
nnsylvania  retains 
i\  is  not  to  weigh 
I  ill  treason  cases. 
lli.T  felonies   until 
ijit  prisoners  wiili 
and  coun- 


ADVAXChJ   IX   LAW  AND  J  If  ST  ICE 


()(;•) 


Illnesses 
Manv  States  pro- 


.usation. 


>'  Staiul 


Unauiunty  in  a 


liucanor.  i 


xcei 


it   in 


ll  in  minor  crimnu 


Ihwc 


,t  cither  vecog- 


•■islatiin>  so 


are  a 


to 


yowed.    Tlie 
llitary  passion,  ami 
th(>  courage  of  tin 


aw  lu 

hcl'ioi 


Hiet 


CO 


(leiiUi 


ot  (jnr  iv 


evo- 


lean  jurisprui 


leuci 


lis 


hahic  with  death 
'vcplution.  and  the 
llorrilile  pri 


ftSV. 


The  older  pen 
Lrole  system  nndei 
lo  sentences  w 


.-itliii 


identification  have  greatly  lesscncii  crime  in  Kngland.  Tlic  law  of  deodaiid, 
whereby  the  valiu;  of  an  object  causing  accidental  death  was  forfeited  for 
charities,  was  abolished  in  Knglaiul  in  ISK!.  Socicti(>s  to  prevent  cruelty  to 
children,  or  to  animals,  attest  tiie  advaniH-  of  retiuement  and  ]inmaiiit\ . 


other   nil 


thods 


HON.    MKI.VILMC    FUI.I.KU. 
(Cliirf  Justice  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.) 

VII.  Capital  I'uxisiimkxt.  —  In  Kngland,  treason  and  felony,  ex  -pt 
petty  larceny  and  mayhem,  were  punishabh;  with  death.  The  fiction  by  which 
males  who  eonld  read  were  supposed  to  be  of  the  clergy  saved  first  offenders, 
who  escai)ed  with  branding.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  fiction  was  for- 
liidden,  and  death  imposed  on  additional  offenses,  so  that  IGO  crimes  were 
so  punishable.     In  ISliO,  the  etl'orts  of  Sir  Samuel  Komilly  and  Sir  James 


'      i). 


m 

i: 


m 


(570 


TJiWMrns   AM)    U'OXDEIiS    OF   TII/C   XIX"    CENTURY 


iMackintosli,  and  later  ul'  Sir  Jolm  Kussoll,  resulted  in  a  moi'o  mtM'ciful  S])int, 
and  sinei'  iJSdl  imirdcr.  tivason.  and  iirinu;  of  tlio  f,M'eat  docii  yanls,  have 
luHMi  the  only  caijital  ot'tVnsps.  Tin'  Anu'i'itian  colonics  were  more  Imniano, 
yet  Massaclinsctts  punished  1(1  and  Dtdawaro  L'O  crinit'S  with  death.  Since 
the  I{('voluti()n  iinprisonnient  lias  hccn  the  gcni'ral  iicnalty.  In  Maino.  Wis- 
oon.sin.  and  Colorado  capital  ]iunislini('iit  has  been  abolished  altoj^cthcr  :  in 
Khodc  Island,  excejit  where  murder  is  conunitted  by  a  life  prisoner;  in 
iMichit^an,  except  for  treason.  In  some  States,  as  in  Ohio,  the  jury  may 
avert  the  death  jienaltv.  New  York  and  Iowa,  after  exjjerinu'nts,  restored 
capital  i)unishment.  The  federal  law  imjtoses  death  for  murder,  piracy,  rob- 
bery on  the  hi.nh  seas,  rape,  treason.  The  introduction  of  de,t,'rees  of  murder 
has  reduced  the  number  of  executions.  In  New  York,  electrocution  has 
been  substituted  for  }ian_i,nn<j.  Capital  punishment  has  been  abolished  or 
qualitied  in  the  Argentine  Hepiiblic,  lielgium,  l>razil,  C'hile,  Costa  Hica. 
Ciuatemala,  Holland,  Italy,  Norway,  Portugal,  llussia,  Switzerland  (in  "ight 
cantons),  and  in  Yenezuela. 

VIII.  I'oLKK  PowKU. — Tlie  citizen  of  the  present  day  is  protected  by 
the  ])olicc  ])uwer  to  a  degree  which,  perhaps,  would  have  seemed  marvelous 
a  century  ago.  Tlie  sale  of  food  is  governed  both  in  (piality  and  cpiantity ; 
building  laws  prescribe  yards  for  light  and  air.  hcght  and  thickness  of  walls, 
and  forbid  wooden  buildings  in  many  jjopulous  centres.  Kxjdosives  are 
l)laeed  under  strict  regulations.  Health  laws  protect  from  imi)urity  of  food 
and  from  ])estilence,  establish  quarantines,  deny  the  imjiortation  of  rags, 
cattle,  etc..  likely  to  breed  disease ;  medicine,  ])harniacy.  dentistry,  and  nurs- 
ing are  i)rotected  from  ignorance;  immigration  laws  exclude  persons  or  races 
decnuMJ  uncongenial  or  objectionable;  railroads  are  subjected  to  jirovisions 
l)romoting  safety,  comfort,  and  impartiality  of  service;  lotteries,  gambling, 
threatening  letters  are  forbidden;  game  laws  ))reserve  the  various  species 
from  extinction:  women  and  children  are  guarded  by  specrial  laws.  Almost 
the  entire  botly  of  this  division  of  law  is  new  to  this  century,  and  much  of 
it  is  recent. 

IX.  Maukiki)  AVomkn'.  — In  ISOO,  a  husband  could  a])propriate  his  wife's 
])ersonal  pro})erty  not  held  in  trust,  and  use  her  realty  while  he  lived.  Ex- 
cept for  necessaries  or  for  her  separate  estate,  she  could  not  contract.  Her 
emancijiation  b(>gau  in  1.S3!),  in  Mississii)pi,  and  now  her  jiroperty,  under  the 
statutory  interests  secured  to  her  by  laws  generally  ])revailing,  is  hers  free 
from  contnd  or  interference.  This  statutory  (>stato  inclmles  i)roi)erty  inher- 
ited, or  derived  by  purchase  or  gift,  or  in  some  States  by  labor.  The  wife's 
powrr  to  contract  has  been  extended,  and  in  some  States  has  little  restriction 
besond  ])erhaps  inability  to  become  surety.  ]>efore  this  era,  some  States, 
acting  on  a  London  custom,  had  allowed  feme  sole  traders  in  cases  of  mari- 
ners" wives,  or  of  deserticm  or  neglect. 

X.  CniMtiMox.  —  Kegulation  of  the  labor  of  children  in  hours  and  employ- 
ments is  usual,  debarring  them  from  W(U'kshops  and  factories  at  certain  age> 
and  from  occiii)ations  <laiigerous  to  their  morals,  as  in  theatricals,  circuse>. 
rag  1  licking,  mendicancy,  street  music.  Laws  ]irohibit  their  entrance  iiitn 
gambling,  or  worse,  houses,  into  jiool  rooms,  or  unaccompanied  into  dance  cr 
concert  halls,  roller  rinks,  vaudeville  theatres.  ^linnesota  excludes  tliciii 
from  criminal  trials.      Sale  of  li(|uor  to  minors  is  prohibited.      Numerous 


.i  im 


UIlY 

•cit'ul  s\)irit, 
yards,  have 
)i('  Imniane, 

•ath.  ^'i>''<^ 
Maine.  Wis- 
to^n'tluT  ;  in 
^nisoncr  ;  in 
le  jury  may 
nts,  restort'il 
',  piracy,  rob- 
■es  of  uuu'ilur 
;rociiti()u  has 

aV)olishetl  or 

Costa   Ui('a, 
unci  (ill  "i'o'l't 

protected  by 
lU'd  marvelous 
and  (inantity ; 
lUiess  of  walls, 
l-:x\)losives  are 
parity  of  food 
nation  of  i'a:4«. 
stry,  and  niirs- 
iorsons  or  races 
II  to  provisions 
■ies,  ;j;ambling, 
various  species 
aws.     Almost 
,  and  much  oi 

;iate  his  wife's 
10  lived.     Kx- 
contract.     Her 
erty,  under  the 
,ir,'is  hers  free 
[iroperty  inher- 
i)v.     The  wife's 
ittle  restriction 
a.  some  States, 
cases  of  n\ari- 

irs  and  employ- 

at  certaui  a;4«'> 

"Iricals,  circuses. 

(v  entrance  int" 

l\  into  dance  ." 

excludes  thein 

i,,j1.     Xumerou- 


AlU'AXri':   IX  LAW  AX  J)  jrSTICE 


(571 


recent  statutes  prnliibit  sales  ol  ei,<rarettes,  eii,'ars,  or  tobaceo.  and  I'tali  and 
West  N'iri-inia  iorbid  sales  of  oiduni.  ()re;.,'on  and  Kliode  Island  jirohibit 
tlieir  imblic  use  of  tuliaceo.  New  Hanipshire.  Indiana,  ami  ("onneetieut 
forbid  ciiildren  over  three  in  aluishou.-es.  North  Carolina  makes  il  a  mis- 
<lenieanor  to  leave  a  child  under  seven,  and  unattended,  exposed  to  lire. 
J'rohibitin-,' emiiloyment  iueonsisteut  with  sehool  attendance  is  usual.  Coui- 
jiulsory  education  exists  in  twenty-nine  States  and  two  Territories,  and  larj,'ely 
throug)'')ut  Europe  and  the  colonies.  I''ourteen  is  the  more  freciuent  liiuit  of 
a^e.  Children's  welfare  now  determines  tlieir  custody,  rather  than  the  ri.nhts 
of  either  parent.  Laws  in  some  States  proteet  eliihlren  luore  or  less  from 
wills  made  before  their  birth  liy  parents.  .Many  States  provide  that  bastards 
may  inlierit  from  their  luother  or  from  each  other,  and  .she  from  tiiem.  and 
that  their  parents'  marriaije  lesjfitimates  them. 

XI.  J{kai,  EsT.VTi:.  —  Ownershiii  of  land  is  no  longer  embarrassed  by  joint 
tenancies,  nor  need  (^onveyancin<,'  resort  to  cund)rous  tine  and  recovery  ;  while 
transfer  has  been  further  lightened  by  title  companies  pending  tie;  adoption, 
likely,  ol  the  Torrens  systeiu  of  registration  and  eertilieate.  Democracy  has 
rejected  distinctions  of  sex  or  age  in  iidieritance.  and  the  half-blood  may 
.share  in  many  States  after  certain  degrees.  Disability  of  aliens  to  hold  lands 
has  i)cen  renujved  in  some  States,  in  others  there  are  limitations  in  acres, 
value,  or  time,  while  in  some  disability  ceases  on  declaration  of  intention  to 
beeonu'  a  citizen.  The  English  doetrine  of  tacking,  whereby  ownership  of 
earlier  and  later  incund)ranees  cut  out  intermediate  titles,  mortgages,  etc..  is 
inconsistent  with  the  American  recording  acts. 

XII.  CtU'VKKiMT.  —  Alter  i)rintiiig  became  general,  the  author  received 
sonu',  if  iiuuteiiuate,  protection,  in  England  through  the  Stationers' Companv, 
or  sjmetimes  through  })articular  privileg*.);  in  eoiitinental  eouiitries.  througii 
such  privilege.  The  statute  of  Anne  coniined  him  to  such  years,  etc.,  as  it 
specified,  and  the  courts  have  decided  with  hesitation  that  there  was  no  (.'opy- 
right  at  common  law.  The  statutory  rights  have  varied.  Sinee  IS.'ll  the 
copvright  i)eriod  in  this  countrv  is  L'S  vears,  with  II  more  if  author,  widow 
or  (diildren  are  living  at  exjiiration  of  tirst  term;  and  in  England  sinee 
1S4L'  it  is  L'S  years  or  author's  life,  whichever  is  longer. 

The  tirst  known  copyriglit  dire(!ted  to  an  author  was  granted  by  Venice  in 
14tt1.  In  17!)1  France  allowed  copyright  to  all  dramatists,  extending  it  in 
170.')  to  authors  in  general.  (Jountries  in  sympathy  with  France  adojited  the 
policy,  rrnssia  ii\  1704  extended  copyright  to  authors  represented  by  pnb- 
lishers  at  the  Frankfort  and  Leipzig  l)ook  fairs,  (ieiieral  protection  has  now 
come  about,  aided  by  consolidation  of  European  states  into  great  nations. 
International  copyright  began  with  separate  treaties;  and  the  movement 
ctdminated  in  the  iWuiie  Convention  of  1SS7,  partii'i])ated  in  by  (icrmaiiy, 
Iielgium.  Spain,  Fraiu'e,  llayti,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Tiuiis,  CJ^i'cat  Uritain,  Li- 
beria. Authors  resident  in  any  country  which  was  a  i)artv  to  the  Conv(!ntion 
may  have  c()])yright  in  the  other  countries.  The  United  States  did  not  join, 
althongh  it  had  and  since  has  had  treaties  with  a  few  nations  exchanging 
such  ]n'otection.  The  International  Copyright  Law  of  1891,  however,  jiio- 
teets  foreign  authors  but  not  foreign  ])ublishers.  it  being  recpiired  that  the 
printing  shall  be  done  in  this  country. 

XIII.  AoMiiJALTY.  —  The  difference  between  the  majestic  rivers  of  Amer- 


:m^:j 


%^''H 


072 


utiiiMi'/is  Ay  I)  \\<)M>i:i;s  or  riii-:  .y/.V"  c/csTrny 


iea  iiiid  l'',ii,^;lisli  sticiiins  was  rccdj^iii/cd  in  I  lie  ciisc  ol' •• 'I'lic  ( Ji'in'sic  ( 'liid," 
wlicrciii  llii-  Sii|irciiir  Court  rrjcctt'd  tlit-  l';ii;;iisli  ilncliiiic  thai  adiiiiiall y  lias 
nil  jm  isdii'tiim  r\ci'|it  on  tlir  seas  or  wlirrt'  tlic  tidi-s  rlili  ;niii  llnu.  'I'liis  li;is 
insured  nnilni'mily  in  tlic  ri'Linlal  inns  nt'  tiavrland  rnninn'ici',  mid  lias  |iio- 
tfctcd  siirli  \vai!'is  Irdiii  local  intnlcicnri'.  intiTiiatiiinal  rules  (o  pi'cvt'iiL 
(•(illisiniis  at  sea  have  been  joined  in  liy  tlie  I'nited  States.  \\\  acts  (d'  IS'I 
and  ISSI,  ( 'oiiijiress  i(die\ed  iiinoeeiit  sliipowiieis  oi'  lialiility  I'nr  iiiereliandise 
destroyed  l»y  lire,  and  |iiovideil  that  liaWilily  in  case  (d'  collision,  enilie/zle- 
ineiit  liy  crew,  etc.,  sliall  not  exceed  t  he  owiiei's  interest.  The  llarterAct. 
(d'  iS'.t.'i  piovides  that  on  due  dili,Lreiice  neither  owiieis  nor  (diarti'rers  shall  lie 
liable  I'or  laulls  in  na\i;4alioii  or  in  inana.ijeMieni.  nor  for  perils  of  the  sen, 
delects  in  ii^oods.  etc.,  but,  prohibits  aj^'reeiiienls  rcdieviiin  lioni  liability  Tor 
injuries  caused  by  iienlect,  in  lilliii'^'  out.  provisioiiiii.i,'  and  iiiannin.L,' t  he  ves- 
.S(d,  sfowinj;'  llie  ear^o.  or  in  carina,'  lor  or  delivery  (d'  the  same,  rarliaiiient, 
in  IS'.MI.  protected  seiilliell  I'loni  collllliercia  1  ,i,'leed  by  re(  pli  I'illi^  load  lines  to 
be  marked  on  vessels  at,  a.  liei;;lit  lixed  by  t  he  ISoard  ol'  'I'rade. 

.\l\'.  ( 'oiii'oKAi'ioNs. —  The  source  of  corpoiiite  life  was  formerly  the 
kiiiL;-;  to-day.  the  (diartcrs  are  virtually  the  i^eneral  corporation  law,  and 
special  incm'poralion  is  forbidilcn.  l'"or  a  simsoii.  minor  anieiidiiients  for  par- 
ticular companies  were  loleriited.  but-  constitutions  are  lorbiddiii^  even  these. 
.Applications  for  charters  must,  stale  such  particulars  as  name,  nature,  and 
place  of  business,  anioiiid.  (d'  stock,  limit,  id'  indebtedness,  number  and  names 
of  directors,      .\iiiiual  reports  iiiiisf  be  lodi^'cd  with  the  tax  authorities. 

Doctrines  res|ieelin,!^  corporations  liaAc  wonderfully  ciiani^ed.  'I'he  Dart- 
mouth ('olle.i^c  case  liehl  that,  cliinlers  were  contracts  and  could  not.  be  im- 
paired; and  thereafter,  by  coiistit  iitioii  or  otheiwise.  the  Statt'S  provided  that, 
all  new  (diarters  should  be  subject  to  alteration  ov  repeal,  iilt.hoiiijli  even  this 
does  not  autliori/.e  radical  chaic.4('  cd'  c(M'|M)rate  (diaracter.  .\mericaii  law  has 
recoi;ni/.ed  advanta,t,'e  (d'  freedom  in  execution  of  corporate  affairs.  It  has 
disjionsed  with  the  biirdeiisoinc  reipiiri'ment  (d'  seal  to  contracts,  and  even  in 
l''nj:;land  the  corpcu'ate  seal  is  unnecessary,  unless  in  unusual  transactions. 
The  .\meriean  courts  upliold  iiet,'oliable  notes  and  bonds  ,i,dven  in  autlKU- 
i/cd  business.  'I'lie  ciMuiiany  is  conlined  to  tlu!  business  I'or  \vhi(di  it  was 
created,  although  a  cautious  tolerance  exists  in  resju'ct  to  ndated  enttu'jirises  ; 
and  mortgaij;es  may  be  acipiired  if  for  del)ts  contracted  provioiisly  and  not  as 
a  device.  The  old  theory  was  that  a  c(unpany  could  not  be  licdd  for  misfeas- 
ance, since  it  could  not  aiithori/e  its  ai^ents  to  commit  wi-onj^;  but  corpora- 
tions are  now  ludd  for  many  torts  sanctioned  by  tliem,  such  as  tresjiass. 
assault  and  battery,  infrini^ement  of  patents,  net^liffence,  and  even  fraud  and 
lilud.  Exemplary  dania;j;es  may  be  awarded  a,i^ainst  tliem.  One  or  ;iiiotlier 
kind  lias  even  been  subjected  to  indictment,  in  cases  of  nuisance,  violation  i>{ 
Sunday  law,  maintenance  id'  disorderly  house,  habitual  omission  of  li}.jlits  or 
signals,  etc.  They  may  be  guilty  (d'  contempt.  Tln'V  may  bo  itunished  by 
penalties  and  forfeitures. 

A  corpcM'ation  outside  its  own  State  cannot  exeeed  either  its  own  (diarter  or 


tl 


le  power  gran 


ted  1 


Ike  com 


panics  of  the  other  State.     Connecting  railway 


are  sometimes  adopted  in  eatdi  of  several  States,  but  the  jKUts  remain  foreign 
to  each  other  as  respects  jurisdiction  in  the  feder.il  courts.  Foreign  corpom 
tious  are  subject  to  the  iioliee  power,  but  not  to  interference  by  the  State  i:i 


riiv 


AltVANCI-:   /iV   LAW   AND  JVSIIl'li 


i\TA 


icsif  Chit'l." 
(Uiiiniliy  luis 
vv.  Tliis  hiis 
;iii(l  liiis  1'."- 
■s  lo  iiri'Vft  t, 

■  acts  of   1S.'1 
|.  nicrcliiiu'lisc 
ion.  I'lulii'//!*'- 
„■  lliul.'V  .\«-». 
triers  slinU  ln' 

■  ils  nf  lilt'  sra, 
111  li;<l>ilit,V  '"'■ 
iiuiiii,'  till'  v's- 
,.     |'iiili;iii>fiil, 

li^r    Idiul   lllH'S    to 

s  foriufvly  till' 
ration  biw,  'i'"* 
.hufiils  for  I'iii'- 
liu^  rvfii  tlu'sc. 
nuc  luituvf.  :iii<l 
llllu'V  illKl  iii>i>»''« 

ithoritifs. 
^„-,l.     'rhf   l>art- 
roiiia  not.  lif  im- 
■,(«s  ^)Vovitli'<l  <'>''*■ 

llO\l!^ll    fVf"   ""^ 

iiii'viiMii  law  lias 
affaivs.      It  lias 
lets,  and  cvfu  in 
inal  tvaiisai'fii'ti^' 
.jlivi'U  in  author- 
or  wliirli  it.  was 
iitcd  .Mitt'ri.vis.'s ; 
,msly  anil  nof  ^'^ 
held  foi  uiistVas- 
„>;;  but  povpova- 
kiH'li  as  trcsvass. 
1  ,.v(Mi  fnuul  aii'l 
One  ov  another 
uu',e,  violation  ol 
sion  of  liKdit.>^  or 
\)(>  pnnishod  liy 


rs  ( 


)\vn  chavter  of 
iueetin<^  nulway> 
ts  venuiin  t'oreiL;" 
Koi-eign  coi'IK)!;! 
by  tlie  State  r.i 


tiieir  interstate  (^oninieree.  exeept  (!on^ress  so  antliori/cH.  (Jonipanies  imt 
en.Ljiigeil  in  inlerstat.e  eoniineiee  nor  in  ^oveinniental  serviee  may  liavn  eontli- 
tions  iilaceil  iijioii  liieii'  entry  into  a,  State,  and  may  In-  |trii('li('ally  cxeludeil 
liy  taxation.  l'io|ieily  williin  tiie  fnrei;^'n  State  is  alone  liixaitle  tiiere,  hnt 
tiie  value  of  the  fianeliise  may  Ix;  considered.  I'siiaily,  statements  are  rc- 
(inired  siiowin.i,'  location  of  a.!,'enl.  names  of  otlieers.  et<!.  Contracts  made 
lief(He  coin|(iiance  are  difl'Tcnliy  rcL^arded.  l)ein;.,'  void  in  some  States,  ;ind 
only   until   com|iliaMce   in  some  otiiers,  and  in  some  not  void  at  all  where 


STATh:,    WAK   AND  NAVY    Cl'l  MM  N(i,    W  ASMI NOTON,    ».   C. 

penalty  is  imposed.  Some  States  seek  reveiuie  liy  lax  laws  invitin<j  outside 
companies.  Thus,  liy  I><daware  law  ol  1S'.»'.>,  comjiaiiies  need  not  olili,L,'e  them- 
selves to  keep  their  ori'^'inal  hooks  nor  hold  their  meetings  there, asses.sniont 
licyond  suhsci'iption  is  forbidden,  and  taxation  is  li^ht. 

In  lSl'r)aml  1S'J7  the  free  (iri,'anization  <d'  traiies-uiuons  and  bankiiif,' asso- 
ciations was  authorized,  and  thus  was  introduced  into  Kni^lish  jurisprudence 
the  principle  of  free  association  familiar  to  the  Iioman  Uepnblic.  In  18.'}8, 
hut  mon^  osjiecdally  in  IS  J  I.  limited  jiartnershijis  with  transfi  r;')'  \  shares 
were  authorized  by  ,t,'eneral  law  ;  anil  in  lS(iL'  freedom  from  liahiiity  beyond 
subscription  was  somewhat  re(;o<^ni/.ed.  .\  birrn  of  partnership,  soriefc  inio- 
mime,  has  lieen  known  in  I''rance  for  six  hundred  years,  and  by  law  of  1S(I7 
may  be  organized  without  special  leave.  The  mana.<,'ers  alone  assume  full 
responsibility,  aiul  the  association  bears  now  a  eomiiany  name.  (Jctrmany 
adopted  tlu!  nrineiple  of  ,i,'eneral  incorporation  in  1H7(),  as  have  the  greater 
nations,  excepting  Russia  ami  ..Xustriiu 

So   early  as    17S1    New  York   cnai'ted  a  general    incorporation  law   for 

4a 


I 


m  ■   ■'< 


h^% 


!'■'  U 


m^i 


071      riuiMi'iis  AM)  \v<)M>j:ns  or  riii'.  .v/.v"  cii.sri'ny 

cliiirclit's,  ;iiiil  Inr  liiiiaiics  in  I7'.Mi  In  ISll.  wiMiltu,  '^hiss.  anil  mmuc  niln'i' 
in;innr;ictiiM'.s  were  tliiis  lavdrrd.  'I'lic  iirinciiilf  w  idi'ncil  dut,  w  ;is  jiiin|pii'(| 
clsi'W  licri',  ami  iM'caint'  i|iiitt'  i^'cnt'ial  l>v  lN."><l.  rriin>\  Ivania  a'ln|it(i|  tlic 
jiolicv  ill  1S7  I.  all  linii'^li  It-  rfli.;i(ius.  lihiai'v  aini  cliaiitaiplr  (n\L;ani,  ,ili(inN  had 
enjoyed  ,snch  law  sinci'  TlH. 

W.  l;i.i.i<iii>\.  —  Si'innrd.  la--lird.  tliinun  inln  )iii>(in.  his  t(<nj;in'  ml  (Mil, 
l»aiii.-hrd  111  sava;^)'  wnnds.  .~ni'h  was  ihc  ialc  id  Ihc  .Massacdiiisctts  (^tnakiT 
annMiL,'  the   liisl   .-clilcis,  and    Ifoui'i'  Williams  sliai'cd   iitllc  lictttT.     A  hiiii,' 

stridr  had   1 n   lakm  when,  in  KIKI.  the  .Massachusetts  idiarter  in'iiclainied 

lihert\  cd  eonseienee  Inr  all  ■•  e.\(M'|it  |iaiiists."  'I'lieii  was  llie  hraveand  'gentle. 
]'enn  seciirini;'  I'ldij^iniis  lilierly  Id  all  cnu.essiii'^'  ime  (ind.      \'et  laiadi  ev 

]tn)y;ress  was  e^senl  lal.  it'nnian  ( 'atludics  weic  exidnded  lioin  otliei  .,i'|it 
ill  New  VdiU  and  Maryland;  while  even  in  Pennsylvania  iiOflew  ('(nild  sit  in 
the  h",dsl  itiiic.  Must  III  the  Stales  re(|uii'ed  sniiie  ieliL;ii>ns  test  lur  hi,i;her 
(dliees;  M assaehu^el t s  alhiwed  iin  \i)leis  iM'  (itlirials  mil-ide  iil  the  ( 'iiiiL;'re,i;a- 
timial  ehui'ch ;  and  eliiiirh  iai'inliei'shi|)  was  esM'iitial  in  ('(Miiierticiit  and 
!New  I  lain|ishire.  in  I77f>  I 'en  lis  \  hania  ad  mil  ted  tn  the  lej^islal  iiie  any  w  liu 
lielit'ved  ill  (ind  and  in  a  tiitiire  state  ul'  fewards  and  |Minisliini  nts.  Massa- 
(duisetts  threw  down  the  harriers  lo  otliee  in  17S(».  exrept  that  until  ISL'I  the 
governor  sliduld  lie  (i|  ilie  ( 'liristiaii  tailh;  liiil  olliee-holdin^' was  limiled  to 
]'rolestant>  in  North  Carolina  until  ls;!."(,  and  in  New  llaiii]isiiir('  until  IN77. 
,Ie\\s  received  the  same  ri;_;hts  as  other  st'cts  in  Connect  iciit  in  ISl.'!,  in  .Mai'y- 
land  in  iM'o.  'I'lie  Viri,Mnia  I>ill  (d'  iJi.^hts  deidared  that  all  are  ent  it  led  to 
the  lice  exercise  (d'  r(di,L;ioii.  and  a  lew  years  alterwards.  in  I7S<">.  |)ioclainiei| 
liiiilier  111  words  written  by  .lei'lerson  that  rdii^ioiis  ojiinions  shall  ni'\ci 
iitt'ect  ii\  il  capacit  ies.  and  thai  im  man  can  lie  eoiii]iell(  i|  to  sii|i|port  ii  'ioii^ 
\\orslii|i.      The  l-ake  ici,don  was  secured  tiom  iiiolestatioii  tor  relii^ii  nii 

iiieuts  liy  the   Northwest  (trdiiiance  o|'  17S7.  and  the  ( 'oust  itntion  1\ 

seeiiiTs  all  Iroin  such  iiiteri'erencc  liy  Coiii^ress.  Imt  |iioliil)its  relij^ioiis  te^i 
lor  icdcral  otliccs  or  ostalilisliiiienl  ot  reli'^ioii  hy  Coic^rcss.  South  Caroliin 
iiiadcthc  l'']iisio|ial  the  State  chiindi  in  I77<'»,  hut  dro|i|icd  e>tal)lisliment  in 
17'.Ht,  Su]>|iori  of  ieliL,Mon  was  likewise  aholished  in  Maryland  in  1S1(».  hui 
eontiuued  in  Massachusetts  until  IS.'!.'!;  and  New  llaiii|ishire  authori/c- 
]mlilic  Protestant  teachers  of  religion.  Marylanii.  Kentucky,  and  'rennesMi 
exclude  (dern-yiiieii  I'roiii  otliee,  I'olitical  hicrai'chies  and  ]iol\  .^aiiiy  ai'e  iioi 
within  constitutional  |protectioiis.  Courts  have  deidared  Christianity  part  nl 
the  common  law:  hut  in  ]ireseut  law  iu  lorce  is  in  its  iiriuciples.  Christian 
institutions,  in  comnioii  with  other  reli,t,dous  or  charitahle  a.^jt-neies.  are  iavond 
in  ]iolicics  and  exeni|itioiis;  and  hlasjihemies.  like  railings  in  j;eneral.  aiv 
torliiddeii.  liihle  readiii;^-  in  puhiic  schools  is  generally  discretionary  wiili 
the  xdiool  hoard,  all  hoiiLih  held  ille.n'al  in  Wisconsin  :  iiiit  reli.n-ious  i;arhs  iii;r. 
not  he  worn  in  such  scliools  hy  teatdiers.  A  jiuhlic  lios|iital  may  not  I 
erected  on  seclaiiaii  ground. 

'I'lie  I'jii^lisli  cor|ionilion  and  lest  acts  exidudcil  triuu  otliee  all  without  l!  •■ 
cstalilished  ehurch.  until  '.»  (leor;.;!'  I\'. 

XVI.   SiMMAiiV  OK  ,\  DVAM'K. —  I  iicrcased  respect  I'or  the  rii^lits  ot  otlici  , 
both   iiiili\  idiiallv  and  as  nations,  characterizes  the  law  of  Ilii>  century,  a:  i 
may  he  |iercei\ed  in  every  direction.      It   has  erealed  a  new  international  la  ' 
developed  democratic  institutions  at  home  and  abroad,  almost  revolutioiii,"  : 


.V  7/ •/.')■ 


ml,  NVi*'^  luli'l'''''' 

,s  t.'i>:4'if  •■>»*  ">''• 
u.iiuM.its  (»naU.T 

lavtfi-  vn.rliiu.i.Ml 
,  bniv.'  anil  '4<'i>'l'' 

from  ntU-        '''l" 
u,,)..sv  .'nnia  sil  n. 
,,„s  t.-st  for  ln:4l'»'>- 
1,.  ..t  ll.rCnn'4ir;4a- 
„  ('„un.M't,icut    ai.a 
l,.jvislat>iiv:iny  wli" 
„islnuMits.     M;>^^;'- 
tUat  until  IS-.M  tl.r 
U,,.^  Nvas  limit  c.l  _to 
lun'.slnn'  niitil  1ST.. 
•ut  in  IS  i;-..  in  M"''>- 
;,t  all  aiv  .'Utita'atn 

in  ITSC.  iHoclaim.'a 
',,,iui..ns   shall   m;vr. 

t(p  supl' 


.rt  n 


(>U 


,\\tuti<"> 


■  liiW- 

uti- 


.hiliits  n 


lioidWr^ 


So 


\itli  Car 


oliiM 


,1  ...talilisliinrtit    u. 
l;uul  in  ISltt.  I"" 


avy 

ami 
liu'U 


tlion/i- 


Hishivf   au 
V.  aii<l  Tmnu' 


a   |.ol>tiam.v  '"■'' 
|l  Christianity  \' 

Lviufil'h' 


rt  "I 


a  14 
lini;> 


cncic 


Chnstiaii 
arc  I'avoiv.i 


ill   <4i'iu'va 


1.  ai. 


Ily  <lisfr 
It  rcli;j,i 
Ihosiiital   iii;' 


■tiouavy  wH' 
bs  m;iN 


uis  uav 


V   not 


1- 


itU.T  all  without  tl 


I't 


\h.  ri-j;ht^  of  otl 


it'i 


,f  this  I't 


ntury.  a'  ' 


lew 


intcvuatioua 


1  I; 


almost  rev 


ilutioni- 


I'OlillA    AMI    i;a>>\mu 

('I'riai  Scene  t'lum    ■  >Icr(  liiiiit  of  Veni<'i'.") 


i 


Ml 


676 


TlUUMrilS  AM)    WOXDERS   OF   THE  XIX'^"  CENTURY 


I 


(•iiniin;il  juiisiinideuco.  extended  the  police  power  in  every  direction,  and 
sciMucd  t'rccdoni  of  conscience  and  separation  of  elmroh  and  state.  It  lias 
t'niancii)ate(l  woman,  thrown  a  protectin,L,'  care  over  cliildren,  and  favored 
charities,  asylums,  houses  of  refuge.  Imprisonment  for  honest  debts  has 
been  abolished,  and  the  wretched  sight  of  debtors  imi)risoned  for  paltry  sums 
no  longer  reproaches  society.  Homestead  and  exemption  laws  preserve  the 
family.  Honest  bankrnpts  are  again  lifted  np  in  hope.  The  legal  means  of 
settlement  and  recovery  of  rights  has  been  greatly  expedited.  Kngland  has 
follow<'d  Anu'rica  in  making  lands  assets  for  payment  of  debts;  and  claims 
against  the  State  have  received  recognition  in  some  of  the  States  and  under 
act  of  Congress,  and  likewise  in  England.  Carriers  excluding  persons  as  wit- 
nesses have  been  broken  down,  first  in  Coiniecticut  in  1S4(S,  next  in  England 
in  IS,')!,  and  now  there  is  little  exclusion  unless  the  adversary  lias  died. 
Something  had  been  done  before  in  com]ielling  answers  to  written  interroga- 
tories, but  with  a  weakness  ami  lack  of  logic  that  should  have  ridiculed  the 
whole  exclusion.  L'romotion  of  uniformity  of  laws  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  State  commissioners,  who  have  drafted  a  code  concerning  negotiable  instru- 
ments which  has  been  adopted  iu  four  States.  Constitutional  amendment 
has  afforded  an  entire  race  oi)portunity  to  develoj)  from  the  low  estate  of 
slavery  into  .such  condition  as  the  future  shall  manifest.  Questions  of  civil 
rights,  duo  process  of  law,  and  ot  erpial  protection  and  privilege,  are  con- 
stantly bringing  State  laws  before  the  federal  courts,  as  do  cpiestions  of  inter- 
state coniTMercc.  Anti-pool  and  anti-trust  enactments  mark  both  federal  and 
State  law,  and  lately  have  broken  up  the  alliance  of  the  trans -Missouri 
transportation  comi)anies.  Inheritance  and  succession  taxes  were  imposed  in 
Pennsylvania  in  ISl'd.  and  now  are  found  in  sonu>  dozen  States.  The  pro- 
gressive feature,  or  increase  of  rate  with  increase  of  estate,  has  been  sus- 
tained by  high  authority.  Congress  has  imposed  such  taxes,  but  its  poAver  to 
do  so  is  in  dispute  before  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  republic  property  requirements  existed  both  for 
office  ami  for  voting.  Xew  States  came  in  with  manhood  suffrage  established 
either  by  law  or  custom.  Original  States  threw  ojten  the  polls,  —  Maryland 
in  18J(>,  C(Muu^(!ticut  in  ISIS,  New  York  in  1S21,  ^Massachusetts  in  1821'. 
The  white  lal)or  of  Virginia  was  denied  the  suffrage  in  1S.30,  but  gained  it  in 
1S,"»0.  Similar  nu)vemi'nt  in  Englan.I  is  marked  by  the  Keform  Hill  of  IS.'il'; 
and  now  n.-anhood  suffrage  is  universal  in  Germany,  France,  and  Greece,  and 
wellnigh  so  in  England. 

LuTiiEK  E.  Hewitt. 


m 


1011,  ami 
It  lias 
favovod 
.'bts  lias 
tvy  sums 
serve  the 
means  of 
land  lias 
,ul  claims 
aid  under 
.us  as  wit- 
i  England 
has  died, 
interroj^a- 
iculed  the 
}  attention 
i\)le  instru- 
unendnient 
,v  estate  of 
ans  of  civil 
;e,  are  con- 
ins  of  inter- 
federal  and 
IS -Missouri 
i  imposed  in 
(.     The  pro- 
LS  been  sus- 
its  power  to 

ted  both  for 
established 
Maryland 

Itts  in  IS'.'-'. 
gained  it  in 

muofis:'.-'-. 

Greece,  ami 
Hewitt. 


EVOLUTION  OF  BUILDING  AND  LOAN  ASSOCIATIONS 

1.     OKXKltAI,    I'KIXCU'LKS. 

"  Do  not  forget  to  i)ay  your  dues  to-night."  is  an  expression  familiar  to  the 
occu})ants  of  Hfty  thousand  l*hiladel]ihia  homes,  one  liundred  and  hfty  thou- 
sand Pennsylvania  liomes,  and  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  households  in 
the  United  States.  This  lueans  that  nearly  seven  hundred  thousand  families 
are  contributing  towards  gaining  liomes  of  their  own  through  liuilding  and 
Loan  Associations.  The  entire  membership  is  nearly  seventeen  hundred 
thousand,  of  whom  fully  four  liundred  thousand  are  women  and  children. 

The  picture  "raying  their  Dues"  is  a  representative  om.  and  in  P'uladel- 
phia  there  are  four  hundred  and  seventy-tive  such  gatherings  every  year. 
The  Philadelphia  associations  generally  meet  once  every  month,  but  in  some 
parts  of  the  State,  and  in  other  States,  many  societies  meet  weekly,  so  there 
are  fully  ten  thousand  such  gatherings  every  twelve  months  in  the  United 
States. 

The  women  have  ^  hares  in  their  own  right,  and  the  children  are  either 
paying  dues  for  their  parents  or  for  themselves,  the  father  or  mother  acting 
as  trustee.  The  boys  and  girls  know  exactly  what  nights  the  associations 
meet,  and  are  generally  on  hand  with  their  money  long  before  the  officers  are 
ready  to  receive  the  funds  and  give  receipts  in  the  pass  books. 

Wliat  is  the  meaning  of  these  gatherings  ?  To  enable  every  member  to 
become  his  own  landlord  —  to  purchase  homes  for  themselves,  by  paying 
their  money  into  a  joint  concern  for  a  few  years  until  (  5)1  one  has  saved 
enough,  with  gains  added,  to  buy  a  home,  and  in  the  ni.iantime  the  entire 
receipts  being  loaned  to  the  members  to  gain  homes  in  atlvance  of  the  final 
reckoning  or  maturity  of  the  shares. 

The  members  liave  well  learned  the  i)rinciple  thiit  money  makes  money 
if  well  used,  that  if  many  pay  rent  for  the  benetit  of  the  few,  through  the 
building  association  the  many  may  combine  together  so  as  to  put  the  rents 
into  tlieir  own  pockets. 

II.     TlIK    SVSTKM. 

For  convenience,  "a  share"  is  the  jiayment  of  .51.00  a  month,  five  shares 
.*!~».0(>,  and  so  on.  The  linal  value  of  a  share  is  arbitrarily  fixed  at  .5-00. 
The  money  received  is  promjitly  loaned  to  the  memliers,  on  whicli  the  biu-- 
rowers  ])ay  .51.00  jier  niontli  interest  on  every  .5L'00  borrowed,  until  the  hnal 
value  of  .5200  is  reached,  which  occurs  in  twelve  years  or  hiss. 

Payments 5144.()(> 

(hiins nC.OO 

Final  value .5L'(Kt.(i<> 

A  member  mav  have  borrowed  .5-0(10  from  the  association  on  ten  shares  of 


.I'll '.  , 

Pm 


"If! 


G78  TUIUMI'IIS   A.\D    WONDERS   OF   THE  XJX'"   CESTUUY 

stock  (Sl'tMl  Ih'Jiil;-  tlic  limit  Idaucil  on  each  sliait!).  iukI  tlic  shares  having 
matured,  or  Ih'coiiic  woitli  SL'OOd.  his  loan  of  SL'OOO  is  canccltMi  and  liis 
liomc  is  irt'c.  Tlif  aicnilit'r  who  lias  not  liori'owcd  loccivcs  ^^1'(M^  in  cash  I'or 
every  share  he  holds. 

The  i)iiildin,i,^  association  in  its  simplesl  torm.  and  as  it  existed  in  I'jiiladel- 
pliia  for  many  years,  took  all  its  mend)ers  in  at  one  time,  and  the  members 
paid  from  SL'  to  SL'O  each  evi-ry  month  until  the  siiares  matured.  .\t  matur- 
ity all  the  iKUidWers  received  canceh-d  mortj^a.^es.  and  the  nou-horrowi'rs 
cash  t'ni'  theii'  shares,  and  the  society  then  closed  its  al't'aiis.  Hundreds  of 
such  associations  have  wound  up  tlieir  allairs  snecessliilly. 

\'ery  many  associat ions  are  now  W(ukini,'  on  the  permanent  i)laii  ;  that  is, 
tli^'y  admit  new  memliers  evei'y  six  months  or  every  year,  the  first  sot  heinj^ 
the  tirsr  to  mature,  aiul  so  on.  (Uie  .set  goin^i;'  out  every  year  and  u  lu-w  l)at(di 
comin,!,'  in. 

Ivudi  series  is  a  separate  association  so  tar  as  the  dues  are  coiu'ernod,  but 
the  total  j^ains  are  tlivided  so  as  to  t^ive  ea(di  dues  dol'  '.ivested  a,  like  rate 
per  cent  per  annum  I'or  the  time  of  investnuMit.  The  is  really  no  jxtsitivo 
or  tinal  division  of  protits.  The  i;ains  a.re  kept  in  a  lump  sum.  anil  the  di\i- 
sion  is  on  paper  oidy  I'or  the  purpose  of  showing;'  the  jiroi^ros  made  towards 
maturity.  When  a  set  of  shares  matures,  its  pcu'tion  (d'  the  yui  '.  is  taken 
i'rom  the  accunndated  ])rofits  and  diviiU'd  to  the  stock  that  has  rt-ached  its 
tinal  value. 

Some  associations  count  all  the  loans  as  assets  and  all  the  dues  and  L,'ains 
as  lialiilities.  In  such  societies  the  borrower  puys  interest  on  his  fiUl  loan 
until  the  end,  and  .^ets  credit  bu'  [U'olit  on  his  dues  until  one  account  cancels 
the  otiier. 

( >thei'  associations,  at  the  end  of  each  year,  deduct  the  dues  paid  in  I'riuu 
the  loans  and  (diar;_;c  interest  on  the  net  amount  oidy  of  the  loan.  I>y  the 
latter  system  the  borrowers'  payments  decrease  every  year,  but  it  recpiires  a 
Idiij,"'!'  time  to  tinally  cancel  the  loan  than  by  the  former  system. 

When  there  is  a  demand  I'm'  money,  and  more  than  oih'  mendx'r  is  anxious 
to  secure  it,  the  funds  are  offered  at  auction,  and  the  nn-mber  who  bids  the 
liif^hest  premium  secures  the  prize. 

The  biddinjj;  is  i^-eneially  done  by  offerintx  so  many  cents  ]ier  share  per 
month  above  the  reipiiied  interest.  If  a  member  secures  SL'dOO  at  lO  ceids 
per  share  premium  on  ten  shari's,  his  monthly  iiayments  are:  — 

Uiifi  |HT  riiHiiiIi    Sjd.dd 

liiliTi'^t  prr  iiiunlli     Id. (Ill 

I'Tfiiiimii  |M'r  iiwiiilli l.lid 

lol:il    ?^:Jl.i)ii 

Tlie-e  payments  contiiuu'  until  the  shares  mature.  The  dues  are  tin;  con- 
tributed caiiital,  and  the  interest  and  premiums  are  the  .nains. 

III.      Til  K.I  I!    I:AI!I,V     IIISTiilJV. 

Their  early  history  in  Hie^iand  seems  to  date  back  as  far  as  17S1.      In  Mi 
Iian'4:lorirs  '•('eiiturv  of  l!irniin;^iiam  Life"  mention  is  made  of  certain  pi'- 
|)osals   bir  e>tablishin;4  a.  sociei\    lor  buildinif  on  lands  beloiii^nnLj  to  Willia 
.leiinini^rs.  I'^sip     The  society  wa.;  or^'ani/ed   iiy   rules  or  articles,  similar     i 
some  res|)ccts  to  those  ein|tloye(l  by  the  building  societies  of  to-d:iy. 


^i>^M 


TUliY 

liiii'fs  having 
I    his 
ush   iiT 


U'd    am 


10  ui  t 


I  in  J'hilaih'l- 


Uu" 


UU'Ul 


1)1 'If 


a.      At  ur.it uv- 

iioii-iitivrowi'vs 

llumln-'l^^  of 


,hiu  ;  that  i> 


tlrst  set  iu'iii', 


lU 


I  a  ni'W 


,•  batch 


t'dlU'O 


rued,  hut 
stiHl  a  like  rat»; 
iilly  uo  iM'sitive 
a.  autl  the  ilivi- 
s  uiaih'  towavils 


■ai  '   i^<  ' 


akeu 


has  re 


iicheil  iV^ 


(lues  an 


1  uains 


(lU 


his  full  loan 
.(•ount  eaueels 


lau 


l.'S   1 

lie  loan. 


hut  it  re(iui 


1  in   fi'oni 

r.y  th.' 

res  a 


item. 


ieni 
her  w 


her  i> 


i\nxiou> 


ho  hids  th 


[ts  i»er  share  yov 
000  at  10  eeiits 


qo.llO 

lO.iHt 

1.(111 


,i;-il.()(l 


dues  are  the  con- 


iis. 


aslTSl.     IhM' 
(Ic  of  certain  ] 


iV" 


Imi^ini;  t< 


Willi; 


iticles.  Sinn 
if  to-day. 


lar 


03 

c 
(i 
a 

c 


: 


GSO 


rniUMPIIS  AND    nOXDKRS   OF   TIIK  XIX'"  CEXTURY 


h 


m 


Dr.  John  lli'iuy  GiMV,  in  his  '•  History  of  tin-  L;i\vs,  Munui'rs,  iind  Customs 
of  tlie  J'c'oi)h'  of  Cliina,"  (l('scril)os  sonu'  nioncy-ltMidiu^'  societies  which  seem 
to  j);irt;ike  in  some  measure  of  tlie  character  of  bnihliug  associations,  at  least 
in  their  cooperative  ami  eijuitabh'  features.  He  tells  us  that  these  societies 
are  called  "  Ia'c  Woee,"  and  were  instituted  by  a  person  named  I'ong  Koonj,', 
an  otticial  of  j,'reat  wealth,  who  flourished  IfOd  n.  c.  duriut;  the  Hun  dynasty. 
The  money  was  loaned  to  members  and  returned  in  monthly  installments 
with  interest.  Each  member  was  compelled  to  contribute  to  the  fund  a  sum 
tMpial  to  that  which  he  contributed  at  the  first  meetin.u:.  One  of  the  rules 
was,  "Each  nu-mbcr  shall  deposit  in  a  lottery  box,  placed  on  a  table,  a 
tender  or  bid  for  the  money,  setting  forth  the  rate  of  interest  which  he  is 
disposed  to  pay  on  the  anumnt  in  (juestion  ;  that  the  tenders  shall  be  taken 
out  of  the  box  by  the  ](resident,  and  the  highest  bidder  takes  the  loan." 
When  two  bids  were  alike  the  first  bidder  took  the  loan.  A  line  was  charged 
for  non-payment  of  dues. 

IV.      AMKHICAX    ASSfMIATIONS. 

There  is  no  evidence  other  than  that  Fraidcford.  now  a  part  of  rhiladelj)hia 
proper,  saw  the  lirst  building  society  tliat  was  organized  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  called  the  "  Oxford  Provident  IJuilding  Association,"  and  was  started 
in  I.Sol,  sixty-eight  years  ago.  Jt  closed  its  affairs  in  June,  1.S41.  The 
second  Frankford  society,  of  the  same  name,  was  organized  in  February  of 
1.S41,  and  ran  out  in  August,  IS.")!'.  Isaac  Wliitelock  was  president,  Samuel 
IMlling  treasurer,  and  Isaac  Shallcross  secretary,  of  the  first  association  ;  and 
Henry  Taylor  jjresident.  Isaac  Shallcross  secretary,  ami  William  Overton 
treasurer,  of  the  second  association. 

The  Holmeslmrg  ]>uilding  Association  was  organized  in  January,  1842,  and 
closed  its  business  satisfactorily  to  the  members,  June  2."),  IS/).'].  John  l>. 
Duff,  a  lumber  counter  by  trade,  was  instrumental  in  organizing  the  first 
builtling  society  within  the  comjiactly  built  up  city  of  Philadeli>hia.  in  the 
year  1S47.  The  name  of  the  society  was  the  "Kensington  Pudding  Asso- 
ciation.*' The  society  issued  five  hundred  shares  of  stock  in  one  series, 
and  M'ound  up  its  affairs  in  ten  years  and  two  months  after  it  was  organized. 
The  first  advertisement  of  any  building  and  loan  as.sociation,  so  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  apiu'ared  in  the  Philadelphia  "Public  Ledger,"  Febriuiry  "».  1SI7. 
aiul  called  for  a  meeting  of  the  '•Kensington."  .Mr.  Dutf  died  in  iSS.'i,  and  a 
few  montlis  before  that  event  he  presented  to  the  writer  a  document  now 
known  as  "The  Old  Vellow  Poster."  It  is  the  call  for  the  first  building 
society  in  Old  Philadelphia,  a  copy  of  which  is  herewitli  jtresented. 

Mr.  Duff  seldom,  if  ever,  held  forth  in  ])ublic,  but  his  efiicient  work  was 
done  by  taking  individual  i-ases  and  converting  them  to  the  benefits  of  obtain 
ing  homes  for  themselves.  I'r('(|uently  \w.  has  been  seen  on  a  pile  of  lumbei 
with  chalk  in  hand,  demonstrating  a  jiidblem  in  building  society  arithmetir 
to  converts  to  this  system  of  saving. 

There  has  been  scarctdy  a  great  mind  in  the  country  that  has  not  niovtil 
the  lips  to  say  some  good  word  for  the  building  society  cause.  Henry  W'aii 
Peecher  in  a  sermon  said. — 

"I  thiidv  that  a  young  man  who  places  before  lumself  not  a  specidat  im 
not  a  fortune,  but  some  object  that  he  means  to  achieve,  who  selects  a  p:  • 


Li  '1  .  ■  ' 


Iii«f  the  tirst 
itliia.  ill  tlic 


s  ort^iunzt'u. 


uniont  now 
list  l)uil(lini;' 


ts  of  (ibtain 


HIEETIIVG! 

KENSillirCJTOJV 

BUILDING  ASSOCIATION 

The  SiiLscriliPM  bping  desirous  of  forming  an  Association  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the 
•nenilicrs  thereof  in  Ihe  erctiion  of  Dwelling  Houses,  or  such  other  Real  Estate  as  ihey  shall 
«Iceiu  most  advantageous,  have  concluded  to  hold  a  Meeting  for  that  purpose 

BR  nmuY  mm  220  m.  m, 

AT  7  O'CLOCK, 

«4I  the  MPensingion  Engine  Baih 

On  Queen  Street,  abt^ve  Marlborough  St' 

Where  the  objccta  of  the  Association  will  be  laid  before  tbc  Meeting.    Citizena  generalty, 

are  invited  co  attend. 

Ralph  Pilling,  Abr.  P.*  Eyre,  Henry  JHercer, 

Jo§cpli  Smith,  Ed.  W.  Gorgas,  George  Mattis, 

John  Bierly,  Alfred  Fitler,  ]9Iichael  Collar, 

John  B.  DuflT,  AlVt  T.  Eggleton  Edward  We§ter, 

Henry  Shcrmer,  Albert  Engle,  Henry  miller, 

John  Vcrdcar,  And.  Flanders,  William  Ellis, 

Samuel  Wen§ell,  Thomas  Bennett,  John  Hearney, 

Samuel  T.  Hay,  J.  R.  Fnllerloo,  Jos.  B.  JUatlack, 

Henry  Lane,  Charles  Tryon,  Saml.  Biedaman, 

Howard  Bowman  Samuel  Parcels,  J.  Shilingburg,' 

Andrew  Himes,  Edward  Owens,  James  Hill, 

Rich'd.  Fordham  Jacob  Jones,  George  Cramp, 

David  Guyant,  John  Nevling,  George  Coleman, 

Geo.  Fordham,  Henry  Hosser,  John  Fordham. 

Henry  Kriener,  Geo.  Kennerd, 

January  21,  1847. 
~  Printed  at  Boyle's  cheap  Printing  UstaUisbment,  corner  of  Second  and  Brown  streelk 

CALL    KOH    KIIIST    Hlll.UINd   ASSOCIATION    IN    I'lIILAUKLl'UlA. 


'1i: 


% 


M 


082 


Tii/rM/'Hs  AM)  \vo\h/:i!s  of  riiic  x/x'"  ciCNruitY 


ticiilar  |ii('co  ol'  proiicity  lliat  ln'  would  likf  to  own,  iiiul  aims  steadily  at 
aciniiriiij;-  it  and  works  diligently  lor  it.  and  saves  Tor  it,  will  he  almost  snn; 
to  sueeced.  I  will  say  that  every  youn;^'  man  in  a  city,  either  throu},')!  \\n\ 
instrumentality  of  Ji  huildint,'  assoeiation  when  there  is  one,  or  indeptMuhiiitly, 
when  such  an  assoeiation  d<»es  not  exist,  and  wiien  at  last,  havinif  toih-d  and 
waited  patiently,  the  deltt  is  paid  and  tiie  piece  of  property  is  earned,  is  a 
i,n'eat  deal  richer  than  the  assessor  knows  him  to  lie.  'I'lit!  assessor  t^oes 
around  and  imls  a.  valuation  upon  his  property  for  the  p\irpos(!  (d'  taxinj;  it. 
I>ut,  ah,  those  iialiits  of  industry  and  self-control;  those  wise  nu'asurin.t,'s, 
wiiich  we  call  economy,  —  all  these  the  man  has  u;ained  over  and  ahove  the 
]U'oi)erty.  He  has  saved  himstdf  fi'om  a  thousand  ti'm|)tati(uis.  lie  has  pro- 
tecteil  hims(df  a,i,'ainst  remiu'seiess  vices,  which  would  have  f^'nawed  out  his 
marrow.  .Vnd  thou,!j;h  you  call  it  meridy  aniassin;jj  property,  it  may  lie  anuiss- 
in.L;  manhood.      It  is  one  step  on  the  u^tward  way.*' 

State  oilicials  who  (doscdy  examine  the  workint^s  of  these  .societies  never 
seem  to  tire  in  their  praise.  Superintendent  Kilburn,  of  New  \'ork,  in  his 
last  annual  report,  refers  to  the  conservative  and  honestly  managed  building 
association  as  follows:  — 

"  During  the  past  year  associations  of  this  class  alone  have  returned  to 
withdrawing  members  dues  and  profits  amounting  to  .IJiS,!!!  1,(>.*>1>.  During 
the  same  period  no  less  than  fifty-seven  associations  were  engaged  in  the  jiay- 
ment  of  matured  shares,  and  JtiSl'lKTrdi  were  paid  to  mend)crs  who  ha<l  faitli- 
fidly  continued  payments  through  a  series  of  years,  and  at  last  saw  their  con- 
fidence Justified.  Iiut  these  s\ims  are  »d'  small  c(uise(iuenee  when  we  consider 
the  comfortable  homes  that  have  been  erected,  and  the  families  that  have 
Imh'u  permanently  and  comfortably  housed  through  the  facilities  for  frugality 
and  tlirilt.  for  stdf-denial  and  saving  afforded  by  them.  .My  attention  was 
recently  called  to  a  village  of  the  State  in  whiidi  it  was  said  that  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  houses  had  been  erected  through  the  agency  of  a  small  local 
assoeiation. 

"Nor  is  this  an  exceptional  case,  unless  the  element  of  proportion  be  taken 
into  et)nsideration.  In  nearly  all  the  cities  of  the  State,  and  in  many  of  the 
large  villages,  there  are  associations  that  are  models  of  their  kind,  and  are 
worthy  of  the  admiration  and  support  of  every  good  citizen. 

"Their  educational  influence,  too.  can  hardly  bt  over  estimated.  The 
workiugman  who  joins  such  an  association  takes  part  in  the  administration 
of  its  affairs  ami  learns  his  first  lesson  in  finance  from  those  of  larger  expe- 
rience, and.  who  [lerliaps.  touches  elbow  with  the  lawyer,  the  merchant,  and 
the  minister  as  they  discuss  the  safety  of  an  investment,  or  proper  auuMid- 
ment  t(j  the  articles  of  association,  ami  will  iu)t  lend  a  ready  ear  to  teatdiers 
of  socialism,  of  class  hatred,  iw  of  financial  heresi(!s." 

.\s  shown  (dsewhere,  the  nicndiers  of  the  New  Vork  societies  have  over 
."S<.">7.(KI(>.0(»(>  invested.  The  lluilding  .Association  League  of  reniisylvania.  an 
organi/ation  of  twenty-six  years'  standing.  coni]iosed  of  the  most  active  asso 
eiations  in  the  State,  some  years  ago  jiroclaimed  a  "  Declaration  of  Trin- 
eiples."  from  which  we  (piote:  — 

"  The  local  building  societies  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  are  true  eoopei 
ative  organizations,  transacting  no  business  with  the  public,  and  not  amenai)li- 
to  laws  affecting  tiiiauciul  iustitutions  that  have  dealings  with  the  [lublii  . 


:  "I 
r 


liUlLIUNd   ASD   LOAN  ASS()('/ATlo\S 


(iH.'l 


lily  iit 
,t  sun'. 

Icntly, 
(•(1  ami 
•d,  is  a 

)1'       MdC'S 

iciii^'  it. 
,urini,'s, 
ovc  thf- 
las  i>ro- 
niil.  liis 
'  aiiiass- 

s  iH'Vcr 
k.  ill  liis 
l)uililiiiK 

limed  to 

niiriiis; 

the  l»ay- 

ad  t'aitli- 

.lit'ir  coii- 
considt'i- 

hat  liavt! 

rn\<,Mlity 

tion  was 

irly  ouc- 

,11  local 

DC  taken 
uy  of  tlie 
and  are 

."d.  The 
listration 
;4('r  exiie- 
haut.  and 
V  aiiiend- 
teaeheis 

liive   over 
Ivania.  an 
Itive  asso 
of  I'rin- 

|i('  eoi'nier 
iinienali!'- 


ti 


They  enenuraj,'e  thrill  iiiiioii.i,'  tlie  \v;iLje-\v<irkers.  liel](  to  I'ri'atc  taxahh'  pro- 
jiiM'ty  in  its  hest  t'oriii —  real  fstatc.  cdueate  llit'ir  iiicnibt-rs  in  Ijusiiiess  nietliods 
am!  teach  them  liotii  how  to  save  and  liow  to  invest  money. 

'•  r>y  tills  service  tiicy  have  createij  a  state  police  of  lens  of  th<nisands  ol' 
lionifi  owners,  more  cilicieiil  forliie  protection  of  life  and  property  than  a 
standin;^  army. 

•' 'i'liey  have  lessened  tiie  cost,  for  tlie  niainteiianee  of  alms-honses,  prisons. 
and  asylums,  by  teaidiin.i,'  men  nud  women  to  lie  seil'-helpful  and  self-reliant, 
and  ill  that  way  have  lieiieiited  the  State  to  an  amount  far  exceeiliuj;  imy 
sum  that  could  he  j^atheied  iiy  taxation. 

"The  work  of  the  societies  is  done  j^ratnitoiisly  by  the  directors,  and  in  no 
other  way  could  they  be  maintained,  the  profits  resultin,!,'  from  the  services 
of  men  who,  thou,t;h  they  jwive  never  posed  as  jihilanthropists,  are  en;j;a,i,M'd  in 
le  best  kind  of  charity,  helpin;^  men  and  women  who  helii  themstdves."' 
.loseph  II.  I *aist,  a  prominent,  I'hiladelphia  buildinj,' association  ex])ert.  has 
been  president  of  the  lca;.,Mie  since  it  was  or^ani/ed. 

Other  States  have  lea,i:,nies.  and  they  are  all  combined  as  a  National 
Lea.Ljue.  whose  motto  is  "The  .\merican  Jlonie  is  the  SafcLjuard  (d'  American 
Liberty." 

At  (MU'taiu  intervals  the  national  },'overnment.  States,  cities,  and  hundreds 
of  industrial  eiiteriirises  distrilmtc  ciirnings  and  accrued  interest  t(t  tiiose 
entitled  to  the  same.  The  vast  sums  of  money  drawn  out  of  tiioiisands  of 
banks  and  bankini,'  institutions  represent,  millions  <d'  dollars  of  canceled 
debts.  Within  a  few  days  after  these  distributions  lake  ])lace,  at  least  nine 
tenths  (d'  this  money  linds  its  way  back  into  the  stron;,'  Itoxes  that  jiarted 
with  it.  Oik;  tenth  (d'  the  moiu'y  is,  perhaps,  held  in  the  ]iockets  (d'  the  ]ieo- 
]ile,  to  be  txradiially  disi)ursed  b)r  curri'iit  needs  until  tin;  next  jiay  arrives. 
I  do  not  rememlier  havinu:  received  a  statement  or  statistical  report  referriiiy 
to  the  buildinj^  association  share  in  these  distriliuiions. 

True,  there  are  no  set  dates  for  Ijuildiiii,'  societies  to  part  with  money,  but 
in  rennsvlvania,  alone  these  coiiperative  compiinies  distribute  .SL'tl,0( )(),()( 10 
annually  in  matured  sliares  and  withdrawals.  This  is  no  insit^nilicant  sum. 
To-day  their  accumulateil  wealth  (mostly  savings  <d  peo|)le  in  the  humb'er 
raiiksOf  life)  is  over  .i!!l(»7.<M )(>.()( Ml.  ;ind  in  the  I'liited  Stales  fully  .S<")<»<M)(I(I,- 
OtK),  The  annual  outij;()  for  canc(ded  shares  is  aliout  .SKl't.OOOjdOO,  or  fully 
)ii!S.(MKt,(>0<>  every  month. 

Since  thest;  associations  were  organi/.e(l,  (piite  one  thousand  tivt;  hundred 
million  dollars  have  been  returned  to  the  meiidiers  in  the  value  oj'  homes 
(dear  of  debt  and  in  cash  for  withdrawn  and  matureil  shares.  Despite  these 
vast  disbursements,  there  has  been  a  i,'radual  increase  in  their  assets  from 
year  to  year. 

r.ei,dnning  with  one  association  in  iS.'tl.  their  number  increased  in  a  small 
wav  until  ])robablv  not  over  two  hundred  societies  existed  in  1S(»(I.  l''rom 
that  date  until  the  jiresent  moment  it  is  estiinati'd  that  over  SIMMI  hav<'  been 
or<,'anized  tliron,!,diout  the  land,  inoreasiui,'  at  a  raj^iil  rate  every  year,  and 
leaviii'.^  at  ])resent,  after  closinji;  o\it  a  j^'reat  numlier.  nearly  otldO  active  asso- 
ciations distributed  among  the  States  as  follows  :  — 


i 


lie 


I" 


bli. 


1    V, 


|:^^ 


084 


TlilUMI'IIS   AM)    ]V(K\l>/':i!S   OF   THE   A7A''"  CENTUllY 


Rtatoa. 


I'riiii-vlvaiiiii 
OIiIh  ■ 

Illillnls      

Nl'W  .ll'IM'V  .  . 

Iiiiiiaiiii 

Nl'W  Yolk.  .. 
Mii-a.'lms..tls 
Mi»-uiiri .... 
('iilUciriiiil  .  .  . 

I.i«,i     

.Mulii^iaii    .  .  . 
Miiiiii'siitu 
TriiiM'^M'!'  .  .  . 
NrlinisUii    ... 
CiiiiiU'cliiiit   . 

Miiiiic      

Oilier  SliilfS. 

Tiital.'*.    . 


N(i.  of 
Huciittiim, 

MiMiib«raliip. 

AHNetH. 

I'JdO 

.'100.  IKH) 

.•i*lll,7l4.S7l 

Vlil 

i;!i7,7S7 

!l!t,770,  nil 

(iSL> 

IHII,llll:i 

7:i,;io!i,  I'.pj 

:iiiii 

1111,7:;!" 

4l.o:i,S.!t.l4 

v.\-> 

|:17,:.I(> 

;I7,IIJI.4IH 

•■117 

lOJ.iHI-.' 

:;7.mh;i.ii4-j 

|j:i 

i;:i,liii 

ii4.:ill7.Hl:i 

■J.-.:. 

4!l,lii2 

•J-',4!i7.70ii 

l.w 

111,  i:i:| 

l7,n:iM,  100 

«T 

•j:.,(i(i(i 

l>.."p|i4.77.S 

70 

•Jo.i!i7 

(1,  m."i.:!07 

till 

II.IMIO 

4.-Jii0.liiiil 

;i4 

li.  niii 

;i,77l,;i.'i4 

tiS 

ll.Sil 

:i,ri."i4,7HS 

\h 

II.  •JOS 

.•|,-.'4:t.!i;i:i 

;i:i 

.S.L'.'iO 

•J.'.U-.MMp.'l 

i!:J« 

1>H1,-_'.S4 

l(i4,.iL>o,;i(i7 

4S7-J 

I,ti42,l7« 

.1«(iO(),!l41,01!) 

fm 


It  is  t'.stiiiiatoil  tliat  of  the  above  iKinu-'d  nit'iiibcrslii])  over  .'{Un/MIO  an- 
wonuMi.  Of  tilt'  .1li(!(l(>,(l()(>,(KK»  of  assets,  at  least  .$!(»().( lOO.OOO  is  a  -^aiii  credit 
to  the  sharer.  It  is  lielievetl  that  an  average  of  at  least  three  members  of  a 
family  eoiitrilmtt?  towartl  the  payment  of  the  tines  antl  interest,  anil  althtxigh 
seventeen  luimlreil  thonsantl  names  are  on  the  bot)ks.  nearly  live  millit)n  i)er- 
sons  aetnally  contriinite. 

These  soeieties  have  tlone  more  tt)  teach  the  people  ])ractical  thrift  than 
any  knt)\vn  tievice  ever  jironnilgatetl.  Thrift  is  th'scribetl  as  ''gtxHl  liiis- 
banilry,  economical  mana,t;ement  in  regartl  to  property,  success  and  atlvance 
in  tht!  actpiisition  of  prtiperty,  increase  of  \vt>rhlly  gootls,  vigorous  growth,  as 
a  i)lant.'' 

''  He  is  a  gt)t)il  wagt)ner  that  (!an  tnrn  in  a  little  room."  —  Uishoj)  J.  Hall. 

"Ect)nomy  is  the  parent  of  integrity,  t)f  liberty  antl  tif  ease,  ami  the  beauti- 
ful sister  of  temperance,  of  cheerfulness  antl  health.  Without  ticonomy  none 
can  be  rich,  antl  with  it  few  can  be  pt)t)r."  —  Dr.  -lohnstjii. 

Wiiile  these  literary  economical  truths  ])roelaimetl  in  all  ages  by  wise  men, 
which  t]u\v  themselves  very  seltlom  knew  ht)w  to  put  into  practical  use.  havi' 
no  tloubt  t^aused  millions  to  think  antl  wtuitler  how  tt)  tlo  it,  they,  altt)gether. 
have  not  built  half  as  many  rtmntls  in  tlie  practical  latltler  of  "thrift"'  as  the 
]>iH)r  workingman  wlu)  successfully  intluces  his  next  tloor  neighbt)r  to  save 
(jue  tlollar  a  mi)nth  tmt  tif  his  /nisfr  money,  antl  with  it  subscribt;  ftir  tine 
share  of  stock  in  a  well-manageil  builtling  society.  I'uiltling  society  ad 
vt)cates  have  dt)ne  much  imbicing.  but  always  in  a  jiractieal  way.  They  hav." 
not  .ntM'fly  proclaimt!tl  that '•  economy  is  wealth  ; ''  that  "the  best  security 
for  civiliziititin  is  the  dwelling."  but  they  have  taken  the  arm  of  their  frieii'i 
anil  neighbt)r  antl  have  led  him  tt)  the  society  meeting-rtit)m  antl  sht)wn  hi  in 
just  how  they  savetl  their  own  money.  They  have  also  taken  them  into  thci! 
t)wn  homes  and  told  them.  "This  is  my  own  home,  ])aitl  for,  or  nearly  si  . 
through  the  aitl  of  the  building  stx'iety.''  In  this  way  lessons  in  the  practicr 
benefit  of  thrift  are  daily  given. 


ItY 


HCII.DISd   AM)   LOAN  ASSOCIATJOXS 


(i85 


Aiuiet"- 


illl.TI4.«7l 
'.I'.i.VTIl,  li'l 
7:t,:io'.i,  I!".! 
41,iK!H.'.i:il 
;i7,ii;!l.llS 
;I7.;1H:i.Ii4-J 
•Jl,:iil7.Hl.l 
•jj.  1117.7110 
lT.!t:iS.  I'll' 
(l,r.lil,77S 
li,V.l.">.;">7 
4  -jiiii.tii'ii 
;i,771.:i">4 
;i,r.r)j,7«s 
:i,-J»:t.'.';i"' 
•2,'.»l-2,'.'ii:i 
l(u',:Uii,:iH7 


«!(lOO,!l41,01it 


.'V_'r»,000  lUf 

;i  <,':iin  crt'clil 

iiH'inbi'VS  of  ii 

ami  aU,h<»Hi,'li 

u  miUion  i"'!- 

:al  tlivii't  than 

aml  a<lvaiuM' 
lus  growth,  as 

hop.!.  Hall. 
Ind  the  lu'iiuti- 
licououiy  none 

by  wiso  inoii, 
lical  use.  hav 
Iv.  altogcthtM. 
Vhriff  as  th.- 
Llibor  to  savi' 
IvYxho.  tor  oil" 
liir  socu'ty  ail 
They  hav.' 
h)cst  seeuiity 
f  their  tricii'l 
1(1  shown  hiii! 
licni  into  thci! 
Or  nearly  sc 
litho  practiea. 


"Kxa«nilt's  (h'liionstrato  tin;  i)ossil)ility  of  siic('t'ss."  said  Coltou  many  years 

a^'i'. 

AlexainU'r  Diinias  hroii.nlit  the  matter  home  totlie  dixtr  of  every  m:in  wlieii 
he  saiil.  "  All  the  woiid  cries,  •  Where  is  the  man  who  will  savt!  us  '.'  \Ve  want 
a  man  ! '  Don't  look  for  this  man,  yon  havj-  him  at  hand.  'IMiis  man  —  it  is 
yon  —  it  is  I  —  it  is  I'lich  of  us.  .  .  .  How  to  eonstitntc  one's  self  a  niiin  ".' 
Nothinj,'  harder  if  one  knows  not  how  to  will  it;  nothing  easier  if  one  wills 
it." 

It  would  seem  tliat  hnilding  so(.'iety  ailvocates  were  created  to  teacli  men 
liow  to  will  it.  In  this  line  of  work  thtsy  have  certainly  heen  eminently 
successful.  'l"o  what  (dass  of  citi/eiis  do  these  advocates  belong,  good,  better, 
or  best'.'  In  tluf  early  history  of  tiiese  associations  they  were  organized  and 
almost  wholly  managiMl  by  mechaniiis  and  laboring  men  :  managed  honestly, 
conservatively,  and  siufcessfnlly  ;  and  to  this  "(dass"  Indoiigs  the  honor 
of  organi/ing,  c(judiietiiig,  and  carrying  to  a  iioint  of  magnitude  and  us(!- 
fnlness,  that  commiinds  the  admiration  (d'  linanciers  the  world  over,  tho 
biiihling  societies  as  coMdiurted  in  rennsylvania  and  other  States. 

The  honest,  thrifty  home-seeker  has  proved  himself  U>  be  the  •■  best  "  cit  izen 
so  far  as  managing  a  building  so(Mety  is  conceined.  When  failures  liave  oif- 
curred,  the  main  causes  have  been  the  inti'oduetion  into  tlie  managenieiit  of 
Hnaneial  ideas  emanating  from  the  hrains  <d'  theoretical  bankers  and  literary 
economists. 

The  man  who  works  at  the  bemrli  meiiiling  slioes  has  a  better  idea  of  what 
a  dollar  will  do  than  the  man  who  has  at  his  command  Inindreds  (d'  thousands 
of  ihdlars  belonging  to  other  ]ieo|ile,  but  who  never  was  blessed  with  the 
necessity  of  earning  a.  real  dollar  i)y  his  own  lalior.  'i"he  conservative  build- 
ing society  is  one  of  good  common  sense  and  not  of  class.  It  would  bt^ 
diflicult  to  bankrupt  a  building  society  ciindiicieil  by  men  eiidoweil  with 
lioi.estv  and  good  common  sense.  Th»>  "better  citizen"  is  the  man  who 
spends  less  than  lie  earns,  jiays  his  deltts  prom|itly,  would  rather  give  his 
neighbor  a  dollar  than  steal  a  dollar  from  him.  looks  ujion  the  luune  institu- 
tion as  h(dy  and  sacred,  strives  to  own  a  home  of  his  own,  obeys  the  laws  and 
looks  th((  W(u-ld  straight  in  tiie  facie.  This  '•  class,"  without  a  penny  to  begin 
with,  caused  I'hiladelphia  to  be  known  the  world  over  as  '•  the  City  (d' 
Homes." 

In  tilt!  maiiv  interesting  cases  of  lueii  re(leenu'(l  from  the  habit  of  nnthrift 
through  the  agency  of  building  associations,  and  ]pla(;eil  on  the  road  to  moder- 
ate, fortunes,  there  are  sometimes  two  sides  to  the  st(U'y.  Hue  side  is  that 
ndated  by  the  individual  wlio  lias  been  s.ived  from  future  poverty,  and  the 
other  side  that  which  coidd  bi'  related  by  the  wif(i  and  mother,  if  sin;  did  not 
pnd'er  and  really  strive  to  hide  from  the  outside  world  the  life  she  liad  been 
leading,  its  trials  and  gloom.  The  man  simply  tells  how  many  days  in  tlu; 
week  he  ])r(d'erred  not  to  work,  aiid  how  la;  never  tried  to  save  a  penny.  'J"h(! 
wib-  could  tell  how  little  the  husband   brought  into  the  home  in  the  way  (d" 

moiu'y,  and  what   her  awful  anxiety  had  t n.     <  die  side  is  jiublic  jiroperty, 

for  it*^  is  told  liy  the  husband  f<u'  the  ](urpose  of  inducing  others  to  make  a 
new  departure  on  the  road  to  thrift  anil  home-ownersliip.  The  otlier  side  is 
supjiosed  to  be  sacred,  but  it  is  only  a  seiu'ct  in  a  sense  tliat  it  is  not  ])ro- 
clainied.     No  man  who  is  (d'ten  voluntarily  away  fnun  liis  work,  having  a 


080 


'inirMriis  .ixn  n-oyoEiis  of  the  xix'"  cextuiiy 


I 


'•yood"  srllisli  '•lime,'"  spi'iKliii.i,'  lln'  oariiiiii^'s  of  days  of  !U!tual  work,  nood 
iiniij,Miii!  tliiit  his  IriiMids  and  ii(Mglil)or.s  arc  i^niuniiil.  ol'  wliut  the  lit'o  in  liis 
Ikjiiiu  is,  tor  it  is  us  plain  to  all  as  if  tho  housi-  was  constnuitcul  of  clear  j^lass. 
Kvcry  man  of  j,'o()d  licaltli,  wiio  will  uiake  an  lionost  and  dctcrmint'd  effort, 
has  it  in  liis  jiowtT  to  cliant,'!'  such  a  lioiutf  as  lias  been  described  into  a  palace 
of  joy,  comfort,  and  happiness,  and  even  beauty. 

There  are  many  tliousands  of  men  and  wonuui  tlirouj,'hoii  the  land  who 

woidd  not  to-day  have  their  own  roof 
over  their  heads  i)ut  for  the  building 
society  and  the  thrifty  liabits  ac(iuired 
throut,'h  it. 

The  otlicers  and  members  of  theso 
societies  are  men  who  liave,  by  degrees, 
worked  their  way  on  the  ])ath  to  indo- 
])endencc.  and  they  are  highly  r<'si)ected 
by  all  who  know  them,  and  pointed  out 
as  examples  by  their  neighbors. 

McMubers  of  these  societies,  after  be- 
coming   lirmly    established    in    thrifty 
habits,    delight    in   relating   their   own 
experience  as  well  as   that   of  others.     There  are  thousands  of  interesting 
cases  on  rect)rd.  of  which  samples  arc  given  below:  — 

A  short  time  ago.  at  a  house  of  mourning,  the  meniber.s  of  the  family 
called  the  writer's  attention  to  a  girl  aboiit  lifteeii  ycNirs  of  age.  who  had 
volunteered  her  services  to  the  lamily  untd  after  the  funeral.  'I'liis  remark 
was  made;  "Our  case  is  sad  enough  (the  de.'ith  oi  a  father),  but  the  child 
you  saw  at  the  door  has  a  fatluM'  who  has  been  confined  to  the  house  with  a 
lingering  illness.  There  arc  several  younger  children,  and  one  girl  older 
than  the  one  you  saw.  'l"he  two  girls  liave  been  working  in  a  mill,  but  on 
short  time.  Their  case  is  saiMer  than  ours,  and  they  were  the  first  to  volun- 
teer to  help  us."  The  ai)ove  is  the  sail  ]>art  of  the  story,  but  then'  is  a  silver- 
lined  side,  since  ascertained.  The  father  joined  a  building  society  some  years 
ago  and  boiighr  a  house  for  .^-"(1(1,  and  while  on  las  sick  bed  received  a  paid- 
u 


now  OK  i>14()0  HOUSES. 


p  deed  for  his  home,  the  building  society  shares  having  matured. 


It 


IS  now  tweiitv  vears  since  a  ln'^'.  strong  man.  under  the  in 


tiiien 


(!»^    Ol 


strong  drink,  visited  the  otlicc  of  a  building  societv  sccrctarv  and  asked  if  a 


M 


rs. 


hail  anv  shares  in  the  societv.     The  l)ooks  were  ex;uuined  and 


an 


ithrniative  answer  was  driven.    'I'lie  next  (luestion  was,  ••  How  much  has  been 


]iaid  in  on  the  shares  V 


.Answer.  "'I'liree  hundred  and  sixty  dollar,* 


Th 


iuipiircr  brought  his  list  down  on  the  secretary's  desk  .and  exclaimed:  — 
"So  it  is  true,  is  it  '.'     1  will  stop  that  game;  thiit  woman  is  my  wife,  an 

1  have  just  heard  that  she  is  going  to  draw  out  the  money  and  run  away." 
The  secretary  measured  the  man,  and.  risking  a  tight,  determined  to  hast 

a  clim;ix. 


I'll 


'•  So  you  are  the  husband  of  Mr.- 


are  you 


;  es, 


am. 


"  .\iid  you  are  drunk 


es,  sir. 


How  long  have  you  been  drinking 


ft 


Hi 


HUILDIMI   AM)  LOAN  ASSOC/ATloys 


VHl 


rk,  noP(l 
to  in  l»i« 
•ar  ^lasrt. 
L'tl  I'lturt, 
a  palace 

laud  who 
i)\vn   roof 

huiliUng 

aiMiuired 

of  tlicso 
y  a.'grees, 
ti  to  iude- 

rcspectod 
ointed  ovit 

s. 

;,  after  bc- 

iu    thrifty 

thoir   own 

inttMostiut; 

the  family 
I',  who  hail 
"his  remark 
t  the  child 
msc  with  a 
^irl  older 
iiill,  but  ou 
t  to  volun- 
is  a  silver- 
some  years 
vcd  a  itaid- 

inHuencie  of 
asked  if  a 
lued  and  an 
|;h  has  l)efii 
ars."'  The 
led :  — 
|v  wife,  auii 
[i  away." 
\\  to  hasten 


*•  Kor  a  \on\i  time." 

'•  Have  you  jfiveii  your  wile  any  niuuey  hitely  '.'  " 

'•  No,  sir." 

'•  Have  you  u'iveii  her  any  of  tin'  money  in  this  soeiety  '."' 

*•  I  ih)n't  tiiink  1  hiive." 

'•  \'(  ur  wife  takes  in  washin;,'  and  ,1,'oe-;  our  liouse-i'h'aniuL,',  does  she  not  '.'  " 

'•  ^■es,  sir." 

••  Vnu  eat  at  honu;  without  iiayin-'  anything'  towards  the  supiiorl  of  tlie 
house  '.'  ■' 

••  Ves,  sir." 

'•  Vou  have  nice  eiiildren,  and  your  wife  take.-,  good  eaie  of  tlieni  '.'" 

'•  \'es,  sir." 

»•  \'oii  admit  tliat  all  this  is  true  ".' '' 

'•  ^'es,  sir." 

'•  Niiw,  will  von  answer  nu'  an  lionest  (juestioii  '.'  " 

'•  I  will." 

"Don't  you  think  lliat  you  are  just  the  kind  of  a  man  that  a  .i,'ood  woman 
like  your  wife  would  lie  justified  in  running  away  fnjm  '.'  " 

'•  1  do."  

The  secretary  asked  who  told 
him  tiiat  liis  wile  was  going  to 
run  away:  and  lie  answi'red  that 
it  was  a  friend. 

The  secretary  then  addres.sed 
liim  as  follows  :  — 

"  When  your  wife  comes  to 
the  society,  I  have  noticed  tli;it 
In-r  liiinds  were  sometimes  split 
and  bleeding  from  hard  work, 
and  I  know  tliat  she  is  saving 
this  money  to  keep  yon  and  the 
children  from  the  almsliouse. 
In  the  tirst  place,  you  should 
give  up  driid<ing  and  keep  iiw;iy 
Ironi  the  peojile  who  have  been 
talking  against  your  wife;  and 
tiien  I  would  advise  you  to  go 
home  at  once  and  tell  all  to  your 
wife,  iind  g(!t  down  on  your 
knees   before    her  and   ask    lier 


y 

KlTCHtN    at 

1*. 

z  > 

5'V 

h-4»- 

^                  1 

-    —    1 

1     PAKlon 
1.    9i  /^ 

fiht  Sleor 

VlTllNtf  RUOM 


_l<         — 


BEO  ROOM 
/O*  "4  ff 


in  J  Jloor, 


LOT    /v  "  &0  n 

IM  AN    OK    51411(1    not  SIS. 


pardon. 

To  the  utter  surprise  of   the 
secretary  tiie  nnm  shook  liands  witli  him  ;ind  em]iliiitically  gave  Ids  word 
that  \w  would  act  on  the  advice  given. 

Not  the  strangest  part  (d'  the  incident  is  that  the  ail  vice  was  exactly  fol- 
lowed. From  that  time  until  now  the  nnm  lias  Mhstained  from  drink.  As 
soon  as  lie  got  work  he  took  shares  in  the  society.  ;ind  in  a  few  years  three  of 
his  I'hildren  had  suliscrilied  lor  sluii'i's.  Only  recently  two  of  tiie  children 
withdrew  sluires  to  l)uy  lionu's  of  tlieir  own.     This  is  the  kind  (d'  practical 


It: 


:tih 


r.MH 


Tit/rMi'/is  .iA7>  ]y(>M)/-:iis  of  tiiic  a/.v"  </:.\rii:y 


im 


Wdik  (Idiif  liy  t'Vfry  luiililiii'^  .socifty  in  uvcry  Stiitc  in  tlio  I  iiidii,  luul  tin* 
Stiifc  as  well  as  tlic  fiilirc  ('(111111  ry  is  tlic  gainer  l»y  it. 

(M'  cinirsi'  it  goes  witiidut  saying  that  the  building  .society  knows  no  secret 
|ilaii  lor  tiie  i)ayiiieiil  ol  dues  ami  intercut  greater  tiian  tliu  lioi'rower  can 
ati'onl.  It  does,  liowever.  |M)int  ont  a  way  for  every  man  to  gain  a  home  of 
liis  own,  hut  the  price  (d'  the  lioiise  must  lie  in  kee|iiiig  with  his  income,  it' 
this  rule  is  not  ohserved  the  result  is  almost  always  failure  to  gain  the 
desired  ohject.  it  is  an  ohl  saying  that  it  is  almost  wise  to  go  in  delit  for  a 
home,  luit  it  is  decidedly  unwise  to  eontiaet  for  a  home  that  reiiuires  every 
dollar  (d  income  to  keep  it  u|i. 

Kvery  home  l)uy(  r  should  allow  himself  some  margin  in  order  to  provide 


for  the 


dlile  rainv 


ilav, 


'l"he  man  who  eaniiot  save  overtweiitv  dollars 


a  month  outside  of  actual    living  expenses  commits  a  serious  err(n'  when  he 
signs  a  contract  re(piiriiig  him  to   pay  twenty-live  ihdlars  every  four  wetd\s. 


In  d 


(ling  this  he  rolis  himsidf  lirst,  and.  second,  is  unfair  to  his 


famih 


would  lie  to  his  advantage  to  place  aside  three  or  four  dollars  out  of  the 
twenty  dollars  named  as  a  nest  egg. 

This  applies  in  particular  to  the  careful  man,  who  has  been  taught  in  the 
school  of  thrift.  The  man  who  has  been  unthrifty  nuiy  be  able  (when  he 
graduates)  to  save  thirty  dollars  a.  month  even  when  he  thinks  he  cannot 
save  anything,  ibiilding  society  inanagers  make  it  their  business  to  warn 
the  thrifty  not  to  undertake  too  mindi,  and  also  to  lead  the  unsaving  into 
habits  of  economy. 

Only  recently  a  judge  on  the  bench  said,  "  Smdi  associations,  when  jiro- 
]ierlv  coudiictcil  under  juditdons  restrictions  and  managenuuit,  are  a  hidpful 
1       ■ 


ilessiiig  and  encouiageimnit  to  any  communitv, 


lint  the  ambitions  and  ex- 


travagance of  some  borrowing  members  place  themstdves  in  ;i  burdensome 
condition.  .  .  ,  Far  better  for  the  public,  the  associations,  and  their  member- 
ship, that  many  small  loans  bt;  made  rather  than  a  few  in  number  and  large  in 
amount.  Moderate  homes  and  a  nuiderate  jiriee  should  be  the  criterion.  .  .  . 
Tludr  primary  purpose  was  and  slundd  continue  to  bt^  to  promote  industry, 
frugality,  and  saving,  and  convert  the  shiftless  and  discouraged  tenant  into  a 
self-r(diant  and  contented  home-builder.'' 

ISuilding  so(deties  since  tludr  inception  have  supplied  the  means  for  home 
jiundiasing,  but  these  com]ianies  do  not  generally  take  any  part  in  the  erec- 
tion of  liouses.  ^Fost  of  the  small  homes  in  riiiladelphia  have  been  built  by 
those  engaged  in  the  business  of  building  houses  for  sale. 

Here  is  a  picture  of  a  row  of  houses  containing  seven  rooms  eiudi.  The 
imrchase  price  is  $!14(H»  each.  The  lots  are  14  feet  wide  and  (10  feet  deep. 
The  houses  are  brownstone  and  brick.  They  have  good  e(dlars.  ]iort;iiile 
heaters,  and  lange  in  kitchen,  hot  and  cold  water  in  kitchen  and  builin 
( Ml  the  first  Hoor  there  are  three  rooms.  —  parlor,  dining-rooi  :ni  ivitcdien, 
and  (Jiitside  shed.      I" rout  door  opens  into  vestibule  ;  eiitr:  iiiorirom 

entry,   and  also   from   dining-room.     Two   front   bedroom  .    the   tiarloi 

bathroom   in  centre,  and   sitting-room   back  of  the  bathro  The  diniic; 

room  extends  i)ver  the  width  of  the  lot  less  stairway  room,  ano  receives  lighi 
from  skylight.  The  kit(dien  has  a  window  ojiening  towards  the  back  shed  01 
backyard.     A  small  toilet  room  oocniiies  a  small  portion  of  the  bacdc  shed. 

Any  person  known  to  be  prompt  in  the  payment  of  dues  and  interest  ma\ 


LliV 

lidii.  luul  till' 

iws  ni>  si'iTt't 
iM)rrii\vt'r  fii" 
lin  ;i  lioiiif  t'l" 

S   iUflMlH'.        It 

1,)  t;aiu  lln' 
,  in  il<l>t  tor  a 
•iMiuivt's  fvt'vy 

,\,.v  t.i  piovitl'' 
svciity  (ItiUius 
..vi'or  wlit'ii  lit' 

,V   fnlir  Wft'U''- 

iiis  family.      If' 
avs  out  of  tU"' 

11  taw-p'lit  \\\  tli<' 
jllil,.  (whfH  lit' 
inks  lit"  raiinot 
iisiiit'ss  to  warn 
L^  uusiiviug  ii'ito 

;,ioiis.  whfii  I'l"- 
iit.  art'  11  lifll'f'il 
iiliitioiis  anil  t'>^- 

;i  l.llVllfllSOlll" 

thfiv  iiifiiilHi- 
bfviuul  lai^'f  in 

(•vit('vit>n.  .  •  • 
iiiiotf  industry, 

,1  tenant  into  a 

means  for  litniie 
^lart  in  tlif  t-rei'- 
ve  bot-n  linilt  by 

oiiis  t'iit'li.     'I'l't' 
,1,1  r.O  ffft  tlft'ii. 
"■..Uars.  V'"'^''"^'" 


h  ant 


mi' 


Kitchen, 

iilov  froni 


the   par 


lol 


'riie   'linin 


,1  I'foer  f 
the  bi 


If 


lis,'!'' 

4ieil  oi 


liaek  shetl. 
luul  nttevest  in; 


H 

U 


< 


a 


11 


i 


¥  i 


,, . 

■,. 

m> 

iffY-v 

fiOO         TUWMPIIS  A.\l>    ]VO.\l>J-:i:s   OF   THE   XIX'"   CENTURY 

jnurhase  s'ich  a  liomc  liy  tlio  pavint'iit  of  .ii<L'(M»  in  t-usli,  and  giving  a  buiMing: 
society  nioitgago  for  tlu'  lialauci'  ()!'  tiic  |iiiicliasf  iiutni-y,  iiaiucly,  fJU'OO, 
'J'lu'  numtlily  cost  would  be  about  as  follows  :  — 

Miilillilv  lines .«(i.00 

.Mniillily  int.iT-i ti.OO 

Mnllllll.X    |m|;|| Sl-J.OO 

A  i'aiily  |ii<is|ii'roiis  building  sdcicty  will  mature  its  shares  in  twelve  years,, 
anil  at  tilt'  fud  of  that  iicrioil  the  liouu' would  be  I'rt'e  from  debt.  During 
this  tinu'  ihc  lioridwcr  nnist  pay  taxes  and  watei'  rent,  auiounling  to  some 
•jjJ !.'."■>. (10  |itT  year.     'I'hc  total  iiaynienls  would  be  aboui  us  fdllows  :  — 

I'irM  |i.i\  iiiiiil S-.>(I(I.(M» 

|)|H>   .111.1    llllrlr-l IT-JS.dd 

r.iM- .iiiil  Hiiiri  iciii ;iim.iio 

■|'..|:il .x-.'^i-.'S.Od 

This  seems  like  a  considerable  sum  of  money  for  a  house  W(uth  .fil  1(10. 
r>ul  it  must  lie  remendiered  that  the  inurower  has  li\t'd  in  the  hotise  during 
these  twelve  years,  and  that  he  has  saveil  in  rent  liial  iu'  would  have  paid 
elsewhere,  at  hM>l  .sisoo. 

II.  li.i-  inii.l .^l'l'-.'s.iio 

lie   h.l-  -a\i-.| ISIlll.dlt 

iJi.il  1-..M  mI  Ii..um' .'*4-J.S.II0 

Now  he  i^  the  full  owner  ot  his  own  home.  l>iiring  the  next  twelve  years 
lie  will  ii;:ve  iiolliiiig  to  pay  hut  taxes  and  water  rent,  and  possiidy  some 
slight  lejiairs.  at  the  most  not  over  .s  |(l(i  all  told. 

Ills  next  do(U'  nei;_;idior  is  still  a  renter,  and  pays  ."ii<|,S(iO  to  his  landlord 
'.luriiig  the  second  peiidd  named:  and  the  two  accounts  cumpared  show: — ■ 

IIclil  |.:i\i  1 Sl.Slill.OO 

II..I1M-  ..Hii.  r 4IH).()(» 

S:l\lli;; SI  4110. (M! 

This  is  eipial  to  a  s;i\ing  of.  say.  81**. 00  ;i  month  for  Ml  mouths,  and  if 
used  in  the  purcliase  of  ti'U  shares  of  building  society  stock  would  be  worth 
at  the  time  n:imed  .SL'(*00.  inste;nl  of  ."i>l  100  merely  s;ived.  'I'he  neighlMU' who 
is  ;i  tenant  is  still  paying  rent  and  owns  neither  a  stick  nor  a  stone,  while  the 
building  society  borrower  owns  one  house  free  and  ;dso  has  the  command  of 
Jj^HOOO  in  cash,  all  on  account  of  his  house-owning  ex[ierimcid.. 

V.    Tin;  i;a\(M  i;i'. 

It  is  custiMiiarv  for  the  directors  of  these  societies,  at  their  own  pxi)ense. 
to  c(debr;de  the  (dosing  of  a  successful  year,  ami  have  as  their  guests  repre- 
sentatives from  other  societies.  •• 'I'lie  biimpu't  "  includes  oilicers  from  fully 
tifty  (ronipiinies,  some  btdiig  directors  of  four  or  five  assoei;iti<ins.  At  these 
gatherings  experiences  are  related  and  subjects  for  the  advaneeiuent  of  the 
cause  are  discussed.  Kvery  individual  present  on  these  occasions  V(d\iiiteeis 
the  iid'ornmtion  that  he  owed  all  he  possessed  to  the  building  society  ami  its 
teachings. 

Wlnit  the  bottles  on  the  table  mav  have  contained,  it  matters  not  now.  for 


they  are  emi)ty  and  are  not  eajjable  of  doing  any  harm. 


M  KHAKI.    J.    IJkOWN. 


III! 

ot 
ti( 


r 


Sti.OO 
(l.W) 

t.     l>\u'iiig 

nr   U)    SUUll' 


EPOCH-MAKERS   OF   THE   CENTUKY 

EvKitv  ct'iitiirv  lias  had   its  t'i»ich-iiiakiii,i,'  characters,  —  uicii  and  women 
who  dominated  and  directed  the  thoughts,  imrposes.  activities,  and  acliievt;- 


•i-Jdll.lKI 
JHIlt.OO 

oiTh  8H«>o. 

louse  d\ivhi^ 
Id  have  i>aid 

S-2'J-S"" 
ISIIO.Oll 

twelve  years 
juissililv   some 

|0  his  hmdlord 
I  show  :  — 

sisiiii.i"* 

.lIMI.lUt 
.<  1400.00 

uontlis,  and  il 
o'.dd  Ite  worth 
ueighlx'V  who 
lone,  whih' the 
10  connuand  ol 


r  own  pxvonst>. 
ir  j,niests  vej>r*'- 
,.^.,.s  I'roin  fully 
ions.  At  tUese 
ncement  oi  the 
iions  voluntvers 
society  and  its 

Lrs  not  now,  I'ov 


AIIKA11.\M    LINCOLN. 


incuts  of  their  times.  The  nineteentli  eeidury  is  distintjuisliod  ahove  all 
otliors  hy  th(^  nnmher  and  ([nality  of  thost  wlio  came  to  stand  for  tlio  inceji- 
tion,  advance,  and  <'nlniination  of  the  world's  <,Mvat  movements  and  who 
higlily  exempliiied  in  tlieir  careers  the  enterjirise  and  genius  of  tludr  day. 


692 


TRii'MPiis  A  XI)  wax  on  as  of  the  xix'"  cextuhy 


I 


The  object  lit'i'C  is  to  (l('si,y:iiatt'.  and  make  briel'  iiieiitioii  ol'.  sinue  of  those 
who  have  fairly  eariieil  the  title  ot  eiKH'ii-inaker,  with  the  h(i|ie  of  jirovitliiig 
a  delightful  histoiie  study,  and  further  enhaueing  the  instructive  value  of  a 
volume  adilressed  to  tlie  triunipli.s  and  wonch'Vsof  the  century. 

Stati;smi:n.  Ouatuks,  am>  .Iii.-ists.  —  Abraham  Lincoln  (b.  February  11', 
ISd'.t;  d.  April  11,  ISC),"))  sprang  h\n\\  the  masses,  and  grew  up  with  their 
institutions  rather  than  with  the  learning  u£  the  schools.  Jle  grew  into 
leadershiji  liecause  he  was  one  of  the  "million,"  had  hard  sense  and  was 
true.  As  :i  forcible  exponent  of  the  senlinu'iit  of  his  jiarty  he  was  elected 
I'resident  in  1S(J1.  His  election  was  the  signal  for  secession  ami  war.  Jlis 
mastery  of  the  most  delicate  situation  iii  the  history  of  his  country  was 
superb.  His  patienee,  his  perseverance  amid  hard  trials,  his  wisdom  of 
administration,  his  adaptation  to  the  march  of  events,  his  striking  and  edu- 
cative speeeh,  his  determiuation  to  jtreserve  a  union  of  States,  all  led  grandly 
and  inevitably  to  the  crowning  act  ol  his  noble  ea)eer,  —  the  abolition  of 
slavi'ry  in  the  United  States  in  l.Sj;,'!. 

There  is  no  sailder  chapter  in  history,  and  no  greater  loss  bu'  any  nation 
or  time,  than  that  of  his  taking  olf  (after  iieing  a  .--eeond  time  honored  l)y  the 

]>residency)  at  the  hands  of  an  as.sa.ssin.  on 
the  night  of  Ajiril  14,  \^Vut. 

.b'ifer>on  Davis  (b.  June  .">,  ISOS;  d.  De- 
cember (■>.  ISS*.!)  stood  for  the  cause  of  the 
South  against  the  I'nion.  as  it  took  concrete 
political  birni  in  the  sliajie  of  the  (^'onb'd- 
eracy.  ot  which  he  beeanu'  the  only  Presi- 
dent,. Thougli.  pcrha]is.  lacking  the  ai)ility  of 
such  leadeis  as  Calhoun  and  Stephens,  he  was 
a  conscientious  and  persistent  advocate  of 
es  which  rulniinated  in  wai'.  and 


fi 

l^jf 

i\ 

^ 

w"      W^ 

f 

•*'\    .>■■''■' 

.•'■*■'■ . 

\mL 

w 

1 

tl 


le  doct  nil 


as 


chief  executive  ruled  with  eiieiuv  ami  lirm- 


ness. 


lleiirv  ("lav  (li.  Aoril  iL'.  \\ 


IlllV 


IS.VJ)   was   a   born   orator  and   natural   party 
leader.      In   statesmanship  he    was   intensely 
patriotic   and  always   able,  being  highly   in- 
formed and  skillful  in  debate,      lie  came  to  stand  as  the  champion  of  those 


.iia  l••|:n^oN   kavis. 


iis- 


doetrines  which  the  Whig  party  supported,  such  as  protection  to  home  iinl 
tries,  internal  iiniirovi'iiieiits.  and  reiMjirocity.  I'pon  the  (piestion  of  slavery 
Avhieh  agitated  Congress  during  most  of  liis  career  he  generally  assumed  an 
attitude  of  compromise,  and  fatlieretl  so  many  measures  of  a  pacifying  nature 
that  he  was  called  "the  great  pacificator."" 

.lanuarv    IS.  17SL';  d.  October  L'l.    IS,-.L')  typifies  the 


Dame 


W" 


ebsler   (b, 


gigantic  iind  impos 


ng  in   New   I'ngland  intellect  and  jihysiipie, 


Ls  earlv 


as  ISL'O  he  stood  at  the  very  head  of  .American  orators,  a  fame  soon  to  be 
followed  ill  the  ranks  of  law  and  statesmanship.  .\r  tirst  ht>  opposed  the 
doctrine  cd'  protection,  but  sul)sei|iieiitly  gave  his  sujiport  to  Henry  Clay'- 
"  Aiiierican  policy."  In  the  United  States  Senate,  he  won  the  titles  of  '-ex 
jiounder  (d'  the  Con-titiition  "  and  "supporter  ami  defender  of  the  Union." 
liv  his  inasterlv  denunciations  ot  the  doctrine  of  nullilieation. 


f  those 
oviiUuL' 


of    II 


lary  1-, 
th  their 
t>\v  into 
Hid  was 
cli-ctLMl 
;ir.     lli'^ 
iitry  was 
isdoiu  I't 
and  I'lhi- 
[  onmdly 
)Uti()n  of 

uv  uatiiiu 
imI  by  the 
sassiii.  on 

S;    d.   De- 
ist- of  the 
k  (■(luci'cte 
ic    ('iiiifed- 
.nly    I'resi- 
a\)iUty  of 
us.  he  was 
VdCiite    of 
I   wav.  and 
y  and  tirni- 

l.  .lulv  !.'".>, 


Iiiial   I'i 


iitv 


intensely 
lliiv'hiv   in- 


(n  oi 


lonie 


those 


nil 


hi>- 
)f  slavery 
■^snnn'd  an 


KI'OCIl-MAKKIiS   OF   THE   CEXTl'RY 


co;{ 


•  lames  Monroe  (li.  Apiil  L'S.  I7.">S;  d.  .hil\  4.  1S.'!1)  reached  tlie  ]iiesi(h'n!y 
twice,  mice  in  1SI7.  and  a;^ain  in  ISL'd.  Mis  last  adniinistiMtinu  was  idiarac- 
terizt'il  as  "the  era  id'  Lcood  fcclin.i;-."  durin.i,^  whicii  m-w  States  were  adniifteil, 
Khirida  was  aciiuircd,  the  J.oiiisiaiia  lionndary  detined,  slavery  ]irohil)itcd 
north  i)t'  certain  lines,  and  many  provokinj^  controversies  with  Kni^land  were 
settled,  in  ISL'."!  he  siifiialized  his  administration  l>y  promidLiatiii!,' the  now 
famous  ••.Monroe  l)octrine."  which  was  a  warniiiLj  to  Kuro[ie  Ihat  nionarchi- 


i 


in<4  na 


tare 


WILLIAM    K.    or.AllsrtiNK. 


I.V1" 


ties  th 


earlv 


soon 


niioseii 


to  he 
th. 


(•lav'> 


■nry 
jes   ol 
lie  Tnion 


'  e\ 


eal  povoniments  would   not  he  allowed  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  either 
North  or  South  .\meiica. 

.Fohn  (,Miincy  Adams  (h.  Jidy  11.  17(17;  d.  Kehrnary  L'.'!.  ISIS)  typed  the 
Kederalisni  of  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  won  the  hiLrhest 
ph'.ee  in  scholarly  statesmanship.  In  diplomacy  he  tilled  many  prominent 
and  difficult  positions  at  h>ime  and  ahroad.  As  sixth  I'resith'iit  of  the  I'nited 
States,  he  was  ooposed  hy  a  majority  in  ("oiitiress.  and  conse<iueiitly  faileil 
to' distin,i,nnsh   his   ailmiuistration.      lie  was  the   ftirerunuer  <d'  tlaise  senti- 


C04 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  A/A"'  CENTURY 


f\ 


V 


moiits  wliicli  oulmiiiiitcd  in  orgaiiizod  opposition  to  the  (lo(;trino  of  Inimaii 
slavery. 

.John  C.  Calhoun  (!..  Mandi  IS.  17SL';  d.  Mandi  .'{1.  IH^O)  was  twice  Vice- 
I'residcnt  nl'  the  I'nited  States,  and  as  Sen.ator  beciaine  the  leading,'  exponent 
of  the  do(^trine  of  States'  ri,t,dits  and  nnllitieation  of  federal  tariff  laws.  He 
ranked  witli  Clay  and  Webster  as  a  del)ater  antl  constitutional  e,\pounder, 
and  the  three  wt're  known  as  "the  (treat  Trio."  In  liini  the  pro-slavery 
ratisp  found  its  subtlest,  abh'st.  and  most  loj^ieal  defender.  With  a  fully 
stored  mind  of  highly  metapiiysieal  turn,  a  fearlessness  and  persisteney  that 
■were  matehless,  and  a  cliaraett'r  above  reproach,  lie  {,'reatly  endeared  him.self 
in  the  South,  and  his  writinijs  are  held  in  hiyh  esteem  by  men  of  his  school 
of  polities. 

IJui'us  Choate  (b.  October  1.  ITH'.t;  d.  duly  1.'{,  iS.V.t)  was  probably  the  best- 
0(piipped  scholar  of  the  ])ul)lie  men  of  the  century,  and  was  unusually  bril- 
liant as  orator,  lawyer,  and  publicist.  Next  to  Mr.  Webster  he  was  the  j^'reat- 
ost  member  of  the  Massachusetts  bar.  lie  may  be  callcMl  the  American  Lord 
Krskine. 

Count  Camillo  I'.euso  di  Cavour.  of  Italy  (b.  A>i.i,'ust  10.  ISld;  d.  .June  (>, 
]Sr>l),  found  a  lile-work  in  tlic  unification  of  the  Italian  States.  I'>y  pursu- 
iii<;  a  masterly  course  in  Ivnopean  diplomacy  he  brou.tjht  tiie  states  of  North 


It 


ilv  into  unitv,  and  linaih.  throu'di  the  efforts  of  (iaribaldi,  tiiose  of  .Sontli- 


ern  Italy  i)ecann'  united  witii  them  in  one  kin<;dom  under  the  rule  of  N'ictor 
I'-mnianuel  in  iNCiO.  'riioui^h  not  a  man  of  "blood  and  iron."  like  Uisinarck, 
he  was  the  e(pial  of  his  <freat  <icrman  contemporary  in  diplnmacy. 

William  Hwart  (lladstoue  (1>.  December  L".),  ISO'.t;  d.  May  l'.».  IS'.IS)  was 
four  tinu's  )>remiei'  .  f  Kn^dand.  .\s  orator,  political  leader  and  statesman, 
and  critic  in  the  iniiiien.-<e  ranijc  of  subjects  he  covered,  his  .itenins  was  with- 
out   parallel.      It    may   be   said   that   his   was  the  mi,i,ditiest    personality   and 


most  catliolic  and  jmiwci 


ful  intellect  of  anv  iMi'^lisliman.     lie  cliampiuncd 


III 


cause  of  < 'liristianit  V  aiiinni;-  all   natiiHis.  .sounded   the  lirst    trumpet 


Italian   liberty 


ooiin^e 


Turk 


licy  as  a   .Mdliaiinneaan   power,  raisei 


lOu'dand' 


commercial  jirosperity  In  the  hi'^liest   notch.  uni'a\elcd  the  entan,t,denients  of 


M 


eaconstield  s  ministry.  inauvMiiated  t  lie  most  astonisiiint,'  rclorms  in  all  direc- 
tions, but  especially  in  the  clinrcli.  education,  army,  and  anionjf  the  labor 
unions.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  name  any  matter  of  national  or  inter- 
]iational  importanci'  in  which  his  personality  and  trenins  were  not  felt  lor 
good. 

.Mexander   Hamilton   (I),  .lanuary    II.  17.17;  d.  duly   11.    I.S(H)  was  by  all 
odds  the  ablest   iiiiist   and   statesman  ol    the  earh  <'onstitntional  era  u\  the 


Unit. 


■d    ^tate 


1! 


e  bi'canii'  the  first    Secietai\    i 


if  tl 


reasiirv.  an( 


1  lifted 


the  finances  (d'  the  i,'overiiment  from  utter  prostration  to  liii,di  prosperity. 
As  fiscal  or.Ljanizei'  his  success  was  unjiaralleled.  and  all  after  .idministrations 
of  the  Trpasiiry  have  been  practically  alomj;  the  lines  he  first  laid  down,  lie 
was  easily  the  leader  of  that  party  which  looked  with  disfavor  on  "States' 
J{ii,dits."  and  favored  a  stroni,'  central  government. 

i'lenjamin   Disraeli.  Karl  of    iSeacoir-field   (b.   Dccemiter  L'l.  1S(»|;  d.  Ajiril 
10,  liSSl).  stood,  as  premier,   for   I''.ii'^lish   "territorial  aristoci'acy  "  and   for 


that  "  territoi'ial  exiiansion 


■hi(di  fixed  the  wide  boundaries  of   the  Indiai 


Enjpire,   ma(h'   Queen  Victoria  Empress  of  Imlia,  taught  both   Kussia  and 


KPOCll-MAK lilts  OF  THE  CENTUIIY 


ImniiVH 
ce  Vic*'- 

ws.    n« 

).shivt'ry 
I  a  fully 
'ui-y  that 
1  hiiiisi'lt' 
lis  s<'lio<»l 

Ihf  l)t'st- 
lally  l)iil- 

icaii  li'»i'l 

(1,  .h\no  <■>, 
l',y  imrsvi- 
s  of  Nortli 
.  ol'  SdUtli- 
.  (if  Vii'tor 
I'.isiiiaii'k. 

IS'.tS)  was 
statfsiiiiui, 


wiis  w  1 


th- 


ill) 


iilitv    ;iii'i 


ll|ililUi't 
IlK't     tM 


I  the 

II  nf 


||  Kn;^l;intl  s 

rlcllll'llt>  of 

1  (lirt'c- 
thf  hihor 


Ml  a 


111  or 


ii\tt'r- 


l  fi'lt    for 


ii<> 


was 


v\'\\  n 


am 
|irosi> 


III 

1  (Idwn. 


\.y  all 

f  th»' 

1  liftrd 


ritv. 


listratious 


■on 


II. 


■  State 


ll;  <1.  Al'i'il 


and 


lor 


tht'  Imliaii 
llJiissia  ami 


India  to  refrain  from  meddlinj,'  witii  Kiij,dand"s  possessions,  made  the  English 
voiee  iireeminent,  in  the  disposition  of  (,'ontiiient,al  territory,  and  <!oniplt'tely 
«h;feated  tiie  schemes  of  IJnssia  against  Turkey.  I'mler  him  tin;  middle 
classes  lost,  and  tiie  lal)oring  classes  gaiiu'd,  political  power.  J I  is  career 
greatly  heightened  the  nationiil  institutions  and  character,  as  wcdl  as  the 
international  reputation  and  |)ower,  of  his  (Miiintry. 

'riiomas  .refftu'sou  (1».  April  L',  171."!;  d.  .Inly  I,  ISLMi)  stood  in  the  past  cen- 
tury as  an  aide  exponent  of  American  rights,  ;ind  his  views  were  incorporated 


llIiiMAS    .II.KI-I-.USON. 

into  the  T)e(daralion  of  Independence,  of  which  he  was  the  acknowledged 
aiithor.  lie  c(pially  sIikmI  as  ihi'  leading  exponent  ol'  that,  political  school  of 
tlmnght  whicii  favurcd  decent  rali/at  icii.  nr  limitatinn  of  the  powers  ol  the 
central  government.  Alter  his  c  '.i-etinii  to  the  iiresideney  in  hStiO.  he  signal- 
ized   his   administration    iiy   what    is    known  as  the   l.nuisiana   imrchaM'.  lor 

■S 1  .">.()•« I.Ut t( ).      Ill   tiius  eiilarjin','  tlu'  area  of  th iiintry  liy   hoiindaries  of 

vast  extent,  he  liccanii'  o: f  tlc'  eailii'>t  and  most  enthusiastic  of  expan- 
sionists, and  that  without  lelereiice  tn  lie  niodernly  mooted  <[iiestion  of 
*•  g<ivernnient  without  the  coiiseiit  nf  the  gnverned." 

h'ichard  Colnlen.  of    I'ji-laiid   (JSMl-lsCi.'i).   was  a   humanitarian  of  great 
native  breadth  and   liiicraiitv.  largely  increased  hy  travtd  and  constant  ulj- 


em 


TIUUMI'IIS  AM)    WUMHillS   OF  THE  XIX'"   CEM'UUY 


scrvatioii.  lit'  was  a  powcriul  leader  in  the  I'aiiious  Maiichestt'r  Seliool  (if 
Kuglisli  statttsiiR'ii.  His  sliiiic  in  mndcrn  iir()j,'r('s.s  wiis  iuiirtokl ;  lirst,  in 
seeiiriiit,'  tlic  rt']ical  ot  tiii'  odidiis  I;i.\  on  corn  in  ISKi;  second,  in  arising  arlii- 
tralion  nitlier  tiian  arms  as  a  final  resort  to  settle  internationid  dispntes  ; 
third,  in  ne;^foti;itini,'  witii  Knineo  the  Coiiiuiereial  Treaty  ol'  hSCiO.  which  Mr. 
(iladslone  said  no  other  livini,'  man  uonld  have  seenred  :  I'onrth.  in  his  vi<,'or- 
ous  and  suecessfnl  opposition  ol'  all  et't'oi'ts  to  entorce  I'aii^land's  recdi^'intion 
(it  the  Soniln'rn  ('oni'ederacy  during  the  lute  civil  war. 

Trince  dtto  \\.  L.  I'.isniiirck.  of  (Jerinany  (li.  April  1.  ISl.1;  d.  Jnly  .">(>, 
IS'.KSi.  iileiided  the  unerrin,;;-  instinct,  ureal  lar-si,i;hledness.  lertility  in  inven- 
tion and  ex|iedients.  and  adroit  diplomacy  of  a  statesman,  with  alisoluti; 
t'earlessni'ss.  intiexiiile  juirpose.  indoinitalile  enerLry.  and  resistless  I'orce. 
Thoroiii^hly  (ierman.  he  was  prei'minently  and  always  I'rnssian.  and  liis 
groat  lil'e-work  was  the  aeconiiilishment  of  fJerman  unity  with  Prussia  at  the 
lunid.  This  he  aclueved  hy  the  humiliation  of  .\ustria  and  France,  and  the 
gradual  accession  of  all  the  distinctively  (ierman  states. 

Wendell  Phillips  (1S11-1S,S4)  e.xeiuplified  the  wonderful  power  of  the 
skillfully  collo(piial  in  jiiililie  speech,  and  is  a  type  of  the  American  orator 
\\\\o  devotes  his  aliility  to  correct  pidilic  aliases,  right  pidilic  wrongs,  and 
educate  the  puhlii'  mind  and  taste.  Chiefly  as  an  avowed  aholitionist.  a.s 
advocate  of  the  i em jie ranee  cause,  as  (diampion  of  t he  I ndiaiis  and  of  woman's 
rights  to  the  liallot.  and  as  untiring  mover  in  improving  the  nation's  jienal 
institutions.  .Mr.  i'hillips  most  largely  eontriliuted  to  pidilic  weal  ami  jiro- 
gress. 

.lanii's  (lillespie  lUaine  (li.  .June  ,'>1.  1S;;0;  d.  .lainiary  L'7.  IS'.K!).  whether 
serving  in  the  House.  Senate,  or  ("aliinet,  had  few  ecpials  as  a  statesnian. 
(leliater.  iitirlianii'iitarian.  or  enthusiastic  political  leader.  Though  often 
disap]iointeil  in  his  aspirations  for  the  iiresideiicy,  he  lost  none  of  that  won- 
derful power  which  lu'  had  ac<piired  by  reason  of  his  energy,  tact,  skill. 
]iers(iiial  niagiu'tism.  and  knowledge  of  jmhlic  men  and  measures.  Jle  liecame 
the  special  champion  of  the  doctrine  of  reeiproidty.  and  liy  its  practical 
application  during  .Mr.  Harrison's  admini.-tration  jiroved  its  lienelits  to  com- 
merce ami  international  trade  relations. 

r>v  his  splendid  series  of  decisions  and  opinions.  Joseph  Stofy  (S(^ptemlier 
IS.  17711;  Sopteii'her  1(».  IS  l.">)  shares  with  .lolm  Marshall  the  merit  ol  lieler- 
mining  and  of  developing  towards  its  fid  lest  capacity  the  power  of  the  I'liited 
States  Supreme  ("onrt.  as  set  forth  in  the  Constitution,  over  state  courts  and 
state  legislation.  He  also  practically  constructed  the  I'nited  States  .\dmi- 
raltv  Law  and.  even  lo-day.  his  ■'Commentaries  on  the  American  Constitu- 
tion." ill  eimiiei'tion  with  liotli  of  his  foregoing  services,  is  a  standard  work. 
He  represents  tlie  liroad  and  ]i(iwerfiil  .\nierican  judicial  mind,  which  has 
eontriliuted  so  largely  to  the  integrity  ot  the  I'liion. 

.lames  Kent  (li.  .Inly  .'il.  17(»;!;  d.  Deceniiier  IL'.  ]SI7)  was  professor,  judge 
(if  chancery,  justice  and  chief  justice  of  the  V.  S.  .Supreme  Court,  and 
chancellor  of  New  ^'ork.  He  possessed  immense  legal  learning,  and  to  liim 
is  ])rimarily  ilne  the  creation  of  New  \o\\<.  courts  of  etpiity.  His  exhaustive 
"Commentaries  upon  .Vmerican  Law"  is  accejited  at  home  and  abroad  as 
one  of  the  great  classics  of  .\nierican  law  literature. 

i'rancis  VVh;irti)n  was  born  March  7,  iSL'tt,  ami  died  February  L'l,   ISSt. 


\h. 


EPOCH-MA KKJ!S   OF   THE   CESTURY 


(J!>7 


•lidol  of 
iiist,  in 
lug  arUi- 
is|nitt's  ; 
liicli  Mr. 
is  vii^or- 
•(ii;iiiti(>ii 

July  :'.<>, 
ill  iiivcn- 

alisoliiti! 
ss    I'orci'. 

iUiil  l»i^ 
siii  lit  tlu' 


I  the 


ant 


cr  of  llio 
I'uu  orator 
(111:4s.  and 
lioiiist.  as 
1  woiiian's 
)u"s  i»'iial 
1  aiul  I'vo- 


).  wliftlui' 

statt'siiiaii. 

m^li  oltcii 
that  won- 
;i('1.    skill. 

lie  liccanu' 


ira( 


tical 


its  to  foiu- 


^ptcinlitT 

It   of  iit'l(M'- 

llif  rniti'd 

Iciiurts  ami 

itcs  Admi- 

Cnustitii- 

anl  work. 

Iwhicli  lias 


sor.  ,1 


w\'Z 


(iiul.   ami 

|ml  to  hiui 

'xliaiistivc 

iliroatl  as 


•Jl.   1SS4. 


Altlioii.uli  at  thf  ago  df  t'lnty-tliifo  lie  .'xriiaii^MMl  law  tor  tiio  iniiiistry.  lii> 
still  slioucil  tlic  li'j^al  tfii(k'iu-y  ot  his  iiuihI  in  a  loii,i,'carc'i'r  as  jirotVssor  of 
(■(■(•Ifsiaslical  and  iiitcriialioiial  law  in  r.dstdii  institiilic  ns.  lie  fiiriclicil  the 
litfratiiro  of  his  [(rofcs^idii  In  many  valiiai)li'  and  standard  works  on  law. 
iminicii»al,  state,  iialiunal,  and  inlfrnatiunal,  ami,  umler  Mr.  Cluvohuid,  was 


OTTO    v..    I.      VON    mSMAKfK. 

of  {,'roat  stM'vico  to  tin'  administration  as  I'niti'd  States  Examiner  of  Inter- 
national (,'laims  in  the  Dejiart  nient  of  State. 

Louis  Adoliihe 'I'liiers.  of  Kraiiee  (li.  April  Hi.  171t7:  d.  September  .">.  1S77K 
was  editor,  historian,  and  statesman,  and  in  the  latter  nMe  became  a  distin- 
L,'uished  leader  of  I'^remdi  thoin^ht  and  polity.  IIi>  i,'ieatest  service  tn  his 
I'oiinti'y  was  after  the  l*'ranco-l'riissiaii  war.  when  tlie  .\s>emlily  elected  liim 
'  iiief  of  the  executive,  with  the  title  of  '■  President  ol  the  b'epniilic."  In  this 
apacity  he  was  pai'ticnlarly  siic<'essftil  in  m^^ntiatinu'  the  terms  of  peace  with 
"lermany.  and  in  fultilling  all  the  conditions  df  peace. 


6»8 


TlilUMI'IlS  AM)    WOXDEItS  OF  Tllh  XIX'"  CEXTURY 


\Villi;im  McKiiilcy  (1).  .lamuiry  -'.».  IS-I.'!)  Id'ciiiiu'  a  Itfuiliiiy  olianipioii  dF 
till'  (loctriiif  of  imliistriiil  jiiotcction  at  an  early  pL'ritiil  in  his  r()ii,t,'rt'ssi()iial 
career,  in  ISS;;  Hon.  W.  |).  Kcllcy  said  of  liiin  :  ••  lie  lias  (lislaiict'd  all  liis 
colk'agiu's  ill  iiiastrriii^t;  the  details  ol'  the  tariff."  The  Tariff  .\et  of  18'.K) 
came  to  be  popularly  known  as  the  ••  .McKinley  Hill."     Eleeted  l*re.sidt'iit  in 


N. 


^ 


jf! 


IIl>\.     WIM.IAM    MiKtNI.i;V. 
tCopviiglil,  l.SlMi.  hy  V.  tiiilokmist. 


\ 


]S!)(i.  his  adiiiiiiistratioti  was  si'^nali/ed  liy  Miat  Iminanitai'ian  iiiterl'erenei 
in  behalf  of  strui,',L,ding  Cnliaii  patriots,  wiiicli  culminated  in  the  Spanisli 
American  war.  anil  the  must  unprecedented  trium])h  of  moilern  times.  It  \\\v 
the  added  distiiu'tion  of  roumlin,i,'  out  the  niiu'teenth  and  introdueini,'  tli' 
twentieth  (•(.•ntury. 

Waijuioks.  —  Xai»oleoii  Jionaparte  (Napoleon  I.),  soldier,  statesman,  an 


unnion  of 
<j;ri'ssi()u;il 
I'od  iiU  his 
el  of  1S«M) 
lusuleiil  ill 


El'OCH-MAKEns   OF   THE   CESTUltY 


('.«J9 


lOiuiicror  of  the  Kroiu-li  (li.  Auf,'ust  1  ">.  17«>'.>;  d.  May  ">.  ISL'l ).  was  tlif  t,Mt'ati'st 
of  tlu?  world's  iiiasttTs  in  tlic  art  of  war.  His  iiiiiiifidus  (Mm|iaij;iis,  coii- 
ductt'd  with  ii  brilliancy  never  before  eipialed.  liad  for  tiieir  object  the 
lumiiliation  of  tlu!  countries  of  Kurope.  and  tiie  establishnu-nt  of  an  imperial 
policy  in  wliicli  France  sliould  be  supreme.  'I'liis  lie  came  very  near  to  etfect- 
inj,'.  in  spite  of  closely  combined  and  persistent  opposition.  None  of  the  fre- 
([uent  coalitions  formed  to  thwart  liis  ambitions  and  stay  his  martial  pro>,'ress 
jiroved  absolutely  olfeetive  till  that  of  .March  L'."i,  LSI.".,  was  fornu-^l.  which 
l)Ut  an  army  of  TOM.OOO  men  in  the  field  a,<,'ainst  him.  It  was  a  part  of  this 
army  that  he  met  at  Waterloo.  .June  IS,  ISI";.  where  defeat  awaited  liim.  to- 
gether with  the  ('(ilipso  of  hi.s  gigantio  jnHueneo  and  phenomenal  genius. 


V 


onANTs    ■rilMli.     lilVl-.l!>ll)|      l)l;l\l..     M.W     VOIIK    ( 


iutert'ereiio 
tbf  Spanish 


inie 


Itl 


lii' 


Itroducing  tli 


Itatesmun.  im 


Ulysses  Simpson  (Inint  Cb.  April  L'7.  iSL'L*:  ibdnly  'J.'l.  lSS.">i.  graduated  at 
West,  I'oint  and  had  a  bi'iet  iiiilirary  extiei'ience  in  the  Mexican  war.  On 
the  breakiii'^-  out  of  the  Civil  War  he  ret'iitcred  the  i'"ederal  service  from 
<'ivil  life,  and  by  exceptional  fertility  of  resource  achieved  a  series  ot  victo- 
ries in  the  West  which  h'd  to  his  cduiinaiid  ol  all  th(>  I'liioii  forces,  with  the 
specially  conlerred  title  of  lieiiteiiatit-ucnfial.  a  title  sidise(piently  raised  to 
that  of  geiii'ral.  ily  the  brilliant,  iicrsi-^lent.  and  simultaneous  campaigns  he 
carrieil  through  in  the  Kast  and  West,  he  further  cliiu'lied  his  title  as  one  of 
the  W(M'ld's  greate.-t  generals,  and  euiicd  the  contliet  with  honorable  peace. 
He  was  honoreil  twice  with  the  ])residency  of  the  nation,  anil  through  the 
1 1  \  ing  period  of  recciiistruction  his  wise  statesmanshi])  cemented  the  I'lnon 
his  sword  iiad  preserved. 

Arthur  WcllesK-y  Wellington  of  F.nghind  (ii.  .May  1,  ITti'.t;  d.  September  L'LJ, 


7<K) 


rnnJMi'ns  AS  I)  wosiums  of  tiiic  xix'"  chxrrh'y 


IN.VJ).  ;itt;iiii('(l  liis  liiNt  rcjil  niilitaiy  (list iiictioii  in  tin-  iMiiipiii^'iis  ol'  tlif  Kiii,'- 
lisli  ill  Iiiiliii.  lie  liirliiiT  iiddrW  to  iiis  liiiiic  in  liif  (';iiii|)iii;^'ii  ii^Miii>t.  I''niiic(> 
iiitlic  S]iiiiiisli  ]ifiiiiisiiiii,  r»iit  liis  i^rcalcst  ^rlnry  as  a  warrior  was  nMclinl 
ill  1st  I,  uliiMi,  with  lli«-  aid  of  tli*'  I'riissian  iiiaislial  liliiclitT,  he  (idi'atrd 
>i'aii()li'()ii  at   tilt-  lit'cisivf  liattlc  of  Waterkxi.     He  was  alii'iwanls  lioiiorcd 


DiKi-:  OK  \vi:i,i,in(;tov. 

witli  a,  scat  in  tlic  House  of  Lords,  and  as  I'liiiu'  Minister  ol'  tlic  Tory  I'iirty, 
luit  his  statt'sniansliip  proved  to  he  of  an  inferior  iind  unpopuhir  or(h'r. 

Ilehmilh  Karl  lieniiiard  von  Moltke.  of  (ieriuuny  (h.  Oetoher  L'(».  iSdO;  d. 
April  L'J.  IS'.M  ).  was  tlie  world's  j,'reatest  exponent  of  strictly  seientiiie  war- 
fare, lie  made  the  I'riissian  army  a  mo.-t  iiowerfiil  and  dangerous  luaehine. 
and  led  ir  triumphantly  ai^ainst  Denmark  and  .Viistria.  liy  dint  of  strict 
oi\i,'anization  iind  drill  he  made  the  armies  of  the  (Jerinau  ("onfedoratioii 
e(jiuilly  effeetive,  as  was  shown  in  the  Franco-Cierinau  war  (1870-71).  whieh 


m 


i  Ihi'  Kii^'- 

st    iMllllCt' 
.    (Irl.Mtftl 

s  lidiioriHl 


i:i'(i(U-M.\Ki:ns  or  rin-:  rijsrrny 


7(11 


Tory  i)avty, 
KinltT. 

'»(•,.  ISOO:  il. 
lii'iititu-  \v:ii- 
lus  inat'liiiM', 
lut  of  strict 

ItniVdonitioii 

|)_71).  which 


was  il  scrii's  nt  lirillianl  viriurifs,  fiidmi,'  with  the  caiiitulatidH  of  Paris  and 
tiic  dnwiilall  III'  Napnlrnii  111.  aiid  iiis  I'liipiii'.  His  L;rr:itiii'.-s  hi_v  in  tin'  lart 
tliat  I'nol.  soiii'r  caicidaiidii  alwav-  doiniiialid  iiis  ,'ri'atrst  audacity  nf  plan. 

SiiiKiii  lliilivar,  or  r>nli\;iry  I'mitc  (h.  .Iidy  -."•,  17S,*i;  il.  |»crciiiiicr  17.  JS.'IO). 
Justly  earned  the  siiriiaiiii'  nl'  •■The  Ijlierator."'  Tiic  lir^t  and  ^'realesl  nt 
tlinse  Suntli  Anicviean  iiatiints  ulmstrneU  ai,Minst  tlu'  tyrannical  eninniiil  sys- 
tem of  Spain,  iie  achieved  the  independence  of  thi;  three  States  ol'  Colond)ia. 
Itolivia,  ami  I'ern.  secured  their  rec()'.,'nition  hy  the  civili/.ed  world,  and  lived 
to  govern  llu'Ui  with  the  wisdom  and  mmjeration  id'  a  wi>e  e.M'culivo. 


I'or.NT  VON  Moi.rKi;. 

Kohert  K.  Lee  (\>.  January  1'.>.  IS(»7;  d.  (icioi.er  iL'.  lS7i»V  i^raduated  at 
West  Toint,  and  was  in  the  eniistant  niiliiaiy  .-er\  ice  nt  the  I'liited  States 
till  the  hreakin.;- ciiit  of  the  Civil  War.      Ileilien  iransrerre!   his  services  to 

the  ( 'oiil'ederacy,  and  siieedily  1 ainc  the  hi'^he^t    exponent  of  its  military 

Jpowers.  llolioralile,  just,  elieil^etic.  peisi>te|it.  ^kililul  in  nttensive  or  deiell- 
sive  warrare,  seliooled  in  strale;,'y.  full  id'  devics  and  cond)inati<iiis  to  over- 
come desperate  situations,  lie  jirolnn'^'eil  a  linpelrss  strueule  to  an  a-loundiii'^ 
dc'^'ree.  and  met  defeat  and  Mirrcnder  without  ili>lioncu.  lie  readilv  ranks  as 
one  of  the  world's  e;rcatest  '^'enerals. 

I.ajos  (Louis)  Kossuth  oi  llun-ary  (b.  Aiu'il  'J7.  iSdi';  ,1.  Maivl,  '.'(>.  IS'.ll). 


il 


702 


riilVMrilS  AND    WOSItKliS  OF  THE  XIX'"  (KMUHY 


Hi 


1^ 


[i|*i 


as  writer,  lawyer,  and  statesiiiaii.  eaiiie  to  stand  lor  llmij,'arian  freedom. 
Alter  llie  deelaratinii  ul'  iiiile|ieiiden(;e  (d'  liis  eoimtry  in  I.S4".>.  lie  Iteeaiiie  its 
military  and  pdlitieal  ruler,  Itiit  was  t'oreed  liy  Itiissian  intervention  and 
doniestie  rivalry  Iroin  Iiis  liif,di  place,  and  escaped  to  I'orei^'n  lands  to  pass 
the  iialance  (d'  Ids  lite  in  elocpient  but  fruitless  appeals  in  litdiiill  of  his  euiisu 
aiul  people. 

(linseppe  Oarihaidi,  of  Italy  (1..  .Inly  4.  1S(>7;  d.  -lune  L',  iSSli).  tyjied  tho 
restless,  daring'  soldier,  the  ininulsive  statesman,  and  the  enerj^rtic  deteiider 
(d'  freedom,  lie  shareii  Connt  Cavonr's  (lesin-  for  a  free  and  nnited  Italy, 
and  gi'cw  to  lie  a  Lfreat  popnlar  hero.  I'pon  his  eaptnrct  of  the  two  Sicilies, 
\w  presented  them  to  \'ictor  Kinnianiiel,  ihns  consummating'  his  lite  dream 
of  unitieation,  and  his  desire  for  a  },'overnment  in  wluch  the  wishes  of  tlio 
jieople  were,  to  .some  extent,  recoj,'ni/ed. 

Navvi.  IIi:koi;s.  —  Stephen  Deeatnr  (h.  Jannary  .">,  I77*.t;  d.  March  L'L',  IMLM*) 
attaineil  the  raidi  (d  <'aptain  in  the  V.  S.  Navy  for  his  ^'allant  exploit  of 
hnrnint,'  the  rri,i,'ate  IMiiladelphia  in  the  harbor  cd'  Tripoli,  after  she  had 
iieeii  captured  by  the  Tripolitans.  He  won  fiiilher  lame  as  commodore  in 
tliewar<pf  I.S|'_'.  ;inil  au'ain  in  the  war  with  .\l'.:icrs.  Tunis,  and  Tripoli.  (,>uick 
to  cdmprehcnd  enicri^encies  and  |>roiu|pt  in  action,  he  was  a  t\  pe  (d  the  dash- 
in;;'  and  alps<i]ul('ly  learh'ss  Ameiican  seaman.  True  to  his  lii-ry  nature,  lie 
founil  hi>  death  in  a  duel  with  Commodore  l!arron. 

Oliver  Ha/ard  I'erry  (b.  An-rnst  L'.'l.  ITSi");  d.  AnKUst !'.'{,  ISl'tj  was  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  l'.  S.  Navy  for  the  remarkable  couraLfe  and 
dash  wluch  eventuated  in  the  mejnorable  victory  over  the  liritish  lle»'t  in  Lake 
Krie,  September  Kt.  iSl.').  This  victory  gave  the  Americans  contnd  of  the 
(Jrcat  iiakes  and  hastened,  mcu'e  than  any  sin,i;le  event,  the  eon(]iiest  of  the 
Northwest  and  the  end  of  the  War  of  INI'J.  lie  saw  further  honorable  st-ivice 
as  commander  of  the  .Mediterranean  sipiadritn,  and  died  at  I'ort  Spain,  on 
the  island  of  Triiddad.  of  yellow  b'ver. 

David  Dixon  I'ortcr  (b.  .lune  S.  ISj;;;  d.  February  t.'J,  IS'.tl)  <,'rew  and  riiiened 
,i,'radually  into  one  id  the  j^'reat  naval  captains  (d  the  idneteenth  century. 
J  lis  couraL;e  and  ener<,'y,  larj,'e  experience,  and  intimate  knowledj^e  of  the 
riveis  and  .seaeoasts  (d'  the  country  lifted  him  for  the  f,'reat  emeri,'encies  cd" 
the  Civil  War.  .Many  of  tin;  vicdories  of  tht;  Uidon  arnnes  in  the  West  were 
due  to  liis  (iitoperation  with  jx'Hiboats.  ile^'reatly  aided  in  the  initial  uiecess 
of  Farragnt's  expedition  up  the  .Mississipf)i,  the  reduction  of  Vicksburg,  and 
otlier  stron.u'hohls  n])on  Western  waters.  The  greatest  victory  of  Ids  life  was 
the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher,  lie  wrote  a  history  of  the  IJ.  S.  Navy  .luring  the 
war,  a  work  (lonimeiided  by  all  naval  nations.  Un  the  deatli  of  Farragut, 
1870,  he  reached  the  high  rank  of  admiral. 

David  (Jlascoe  Farragnt  (b.  .Tuly  .^j  l.SOl  ;  d.  August  14.  1870)  supplies  tht^ 
highest  ty])e  of  the  skillful,  cautions  American  naval  commander,  backed  up 
by  extraordinary  dash  and  boldiu'ss.  His  signal  achievements  during  the 
Civil  War  were  the  destruction  of  the  Conf«'derate  Heet  in  the  Mississippi, 
the  captnre  of  Xew  Orleans,  the  passage  of  the  forts  at  I'ort  Hndson  and 
the  batteries  at  Vicksburg,  and  the  captnre  of  Mobile.  For  his  brilliant  and 
successfnl  services  the  r.ank  of  vice-admiral  was  especially  created  for  him  by 
the  government,  and  afterwards  that  of  admiral. 

John  Adolf  Dahlgreu  (b.  November  13, 1809;  d.  July  12, 1870)  was  a  prime 


lUY 

ill    flCt'lloUI. 

I  h«'caiiio  its 
ciitioii  iuid 
mils  to  pass 
lit'  his  cause 

).  typt'tl  tlio 
tic  (li'tViiiltT 
iiitcil  Ilaly, 
I  Ao  Sii'ilirs, 
;  lilr  ilrcaiii 
islics  of  the 

rchl.'l.',1Hl.'<l) 
t  cxphiil  III" 
Iter  she  liad 
)iiiiiiiMlon'  ill 
ipoli.  t.>iii<'lc 
of  thi-  (lasli- 
ry  iialiiit'.  lie 

,vas  rcwardt'il 
coiira;;*'  and 
1  Ih'ct  in  I^akt' 
)ntrol  of  tlie 
(jiu'st  of  the 
iialilt'sfrvicc 
itrt  Spain,  on 

.valid  ripened 
ntli  century. 
h'd<,'e  td'   the 

liicri^eneies  of 
u'  West  were 

Initial  iiiccess 

ickshiirn,  and 

If  his  life  was 

y  .iiirinj,'  tlie 

of  Farrajj;nt, 

supjAios  the 

;r,  backed  np 

during   the 

Mississippi, 

Hudson  and 

I  brilliant,  and 

[d  lor  him  by 

was  a  i)iinie 


Ei'OL'ii-MAKuns  or  HIE  iKsrrnY 


703 


agont  in  dcvidojiint,'  tlie  Naval  Ordnaner  hepartiiii'iit  and  iis  works  at  Wash- 
ington. He  invented  and  made  the  well-known  Daiilgren  giins.  During  the 
(!ivil  War  lie  coiiiiiianded  the  Soiifii  Atlanlie  lilockading  sipiadron,  df  some 
ninety  vessels,  and  did  splendid  seiviec  for  the  rnion  cause.  He  was  author 
of  many  naval  articles  and  hooks,  sonii'  ot  tie-  lailer  licing  used  us  text  books 
by  the  government. 

Itaphael  Sciiimcs  (b.  September  L'T.  ISIt'.t;  d.  .\iigiiNl  ."Hi.  |S77)  types  more 
fully  than  any  oilier  the  naval  ilash  and  elHciency  ol  the  t'onlederacy.  in 
liim,  as  commander  of  the  Sumlcr  ami  .Mabaiiia.  the  iiiercliiint  maiiiic  ol  i  lie' 


(IKN.    (lirsKI'lM-;    <i.\IUIiAI.I)I. 

United  States  found  its  direst  enemv.  and  his  exploits  ujion  tlie  ocean  won 
for  him  a  fame  which  overshadowed  those  of  even  higher  rank,  but  whose 
services  were  limited  to  narrower  lields  of  naval  activity. 

Admiral  (Jeorge  lUnvey  (ii.  December  LMJ,  IS.'IT)  acipiired  considerable  naval 
oxperiiMice  in  the  Civil  War.  At  the  breaking  out  of  ho.stilities  with  Spain 
(1S'.>8)  he  was  in  command  of  the  V.  S.  sipiadron  in  Kastern  waters,  and  was 
ordered  to  destroy  the  Spanish  Heet  in  the  harbor  of  Manila.  Mis  attack  was 
prompt  and  daring,  and  it  ended  in  one  of  the  most  notalde  victories  in  tlie 
history  of  naval  warfare.  In  a  few  hours  the  entire  fleet  of  Spain  in  the 
Orient  was  swept  away,  together  with  lier  power,  and  the  I'niteil  States  was 


704         TIUUMPllS  AM)    WOXDims   OF   THE  XIX'"   CEXTlltY 

plaot'cl  in  possession  of  a  niMV  ami  Mia,',Miili<'t'iit  island  t'niiiirc  whose  nuiinte- 
nanee  ami  i;overnnient  niav  eliaMy:e  tlu'  whole  history  of  the  Orient,  if  not 
of  the  world. 

Admiral  Sampson's  eontrihution  to  the  eentnrv's  pro,t,'ress  lies  in  tiie  line 
of  skillful  jirejiaratioii  for  emeri.;('iicies,  and  promptitude  iii  nieetiu},'  them. 
lie  heeame  an  epocji-maker  in  ilie  history  of  the  I'nited  Stales  by  means  of 
the  !,'reat  and  decisive  vietiwy  over  the  Spaniards,  won  by  the  Heet  under  his 
eommand  in  the  waters  off  Santiai^o. 

I'lii:.',-  iii:i!s  AM>  Ti:a(  iii:i!s. —  The  liev.  .lames  MeC'osh  (b.  Ajiril  1.  ISll  ; 
d.  NovtMuber  (J.  IMIU)  was  an  able  leader  of  that  !j;reat  s(diool  of  literary 
men.  sehoh'.rs.  edueators.  and  ai^i^csssive  p,.ielieal  thinkers  which  this  century 
t'hietly  si-ems  to  have  ]iroduced. 

Mis  contribution  to  modern  proLjress  lies  mainly  .-donfjr  tiiree  lines  :  — 

First,  in  his  etforts  to  obtain  tlu'  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  establish  it. 

Second,  in  his  most  suceessiul  adnduistration  of  tlu'  affairs  oi  Princeton 
Collej,'!'  while  he  was  president    if  that  institution. 

Third,  by  his  numerous,  (uigiiiai.  and  }(o\verful  writing's,  chiefly  controversial 
and  piiilosoj)hical. 

The  liev.Clmrles  llodue  (li.  Deeember  L'S.  17'.>7:  d.  .lune  1").  1S7S)  wasatine 
examiih'  of  ihi'  motU'rn  expositor  oi  tlie  ilotjnias  of  Calvinism.  Stronjj;  in 
conviction  and  persistent  in  purpose,  a  clear,  logical  thinker  and  writer,  '  • 
naturally  became  a  very  poweilul  leader,  his  iuHuence  beinj,'  particularly  feit 
in  establishint,'  the  jiresent  exalted  position  of  the  Presbyterians.  es])ecially 
of  the  old  .school  division.  This  iuHuence  was  wielded  partly  from  his  chair 
as  I'rofessor  of  Didactic,  Kxe<j;etic.  ;iiid  Polemic  'l'heolo;j;y.  and  especially  in 
the  famous  Princeton  Ifeview.  ^hich  owes  its  i,'reatness  chietly  to  his 
«'ditorship  and  cunt rilmtions. 

Philip  Schaff  (b.  ISl't;  d.  (October  L'O.  tS'.i;i)  is  a  type  of  the  .scholar  who. 
throu;j;h  profound  rese:irrh  and  iuterpretidion.  has  created  an  epoch  in  theolot,'y 
by  his  contributions  to  the  nineteenth  century,  mainly  in  historical  and  ex 
e<j;etical  biMUehes, 

Henry  Ward  P>eeelier  (ii.  dune  L'l.  ISI;;;  d.  March  S.  ISST)  easily  earned 
the  reputation  of  the  i^rcatest  pulpit  orator  of  his  day.  As  pastor  of  Ply- 
mouth (Coui^rei^ational)  Church  in  New  \'ork.  his  !:,'einus  and  remarkiible 
eloipience  .ittracted  and  held  on  ..;  the  largest  coni;re,y:ations  in  the  I'nited 
States.  Spoidaneity.  tact,  emotion  were  eh  nients  of  his  oratory,  and  these 
were  always  supplemented  liy  force,  dejith.  subtilty.  and  <piick  i,M'asp  of  intel- 
lect and  lie;irf.  His  vers.it  ility  was  pheiiomi'nal.  .lournaiism.  literature,  jiol- 
itics.  social  life,  iihilanthropy.  parochial  orL;ani/ation,  and  even  a;^n'iculture 
and  many  other  branches  w<'ri  touched  upon  by  liini,  and  all  with  results 
V  iryint,'  from  excellent  to  ext  raordinary. 

i:alph  Waldo  Kmer.Min  (1).  May  L'."».  ISO.'?:  d.  April  J7.  ISSL')  i)assed  tlirov„ii 
the  career  of  teache:and  preacher  to  thatid'  ;,'enei'al  writer,  lecturer,  and  jioet. 
He  should  prol)alily  i)e  classed  with  the  metaphysicians  or  philosopheis.  His 
publication  of  ••  Nature  "  in  IS."..")  marked  a  new  era  in  .Vmeriean  thouLilit.  From 
subscipuMit  addresses  and  woiks  may  be  dated  the  intellectual  movement 
which  was  calleil  'friiiisri'in/riifn/isiii.  i[\\i\  which  w;is  a  reaction  against  for- 
malism and  tradition.  He  kicked  the  method  essent  ial  to  the  foundation  ot 
a  new  philosophy,  but  his  wiuks  forma  [lermaiitMit  addition  to  the  hi,diest  lit 
erature  of  the  human  race. 


RY 

St'  mainte- 
ii'iit.  it'  iu)t 

in  the  line 
tii\K  tlii'iii. 
y  iiu'aiis  t)f 
t  under  his 

ril  l.l.Sll; 

of  literary 
his  eentiuy 

.'S  ;  — 

establish  it. 
I'  I'rincoton 

DUtroversial 

S)  was  a  tine 
Strong'  in 
(I  writer,  '  ' 
.ieuhirly  leit 
iS.  esi)eeially 
)in  liis  fliair 
•speeially  in 
eHy   lo    his 

cholar  who, 
in  the(ili);.,'V 


lea 


1  and 


ex 


(isily  earned 

.tor  of   I'ly- 

reniark:il)le 

the  I'nited 


an( 


I  tl 


lese 
tel- 


1- 


asj)  ot  m 
|t'ra(nre,  ito 

ni,M'ie\iltnre 
Kvith  results 


iset 


Uh 


ro' 


Icr,  and  imet. 
l)|ihers.  Mis 
|n;^ht.  From 
luovenient 


ains 


t    I'or- 
ndalion  ol 
liij;hest  lit 


l>n 


EPOCH-MA  Kims   OF  TIIIC  CENTURY 


IQTt 


CHAHI.KS   n.    SPI'IIC.KOV. 


I'idllips  IJrooks  (li.  Ih-i-einher  l.">,  IS.'!,!;  d.  .lanwary  L'."!,  ISIK!)  was  one  of 
those  phenomenal  preaein'rs  of  the  century  wlio  won  the  lu'iirim,'  and  hearts  of 
liis  auditors  liy  lars^'eness  and  liberality  of  thought;  s|iiritnality.  earnestness, 
self-saeriliet',  and  great  love;  and  by  lu'anty  and  poise  of  eharaeter.  lie 
.seldom  preMehcd  doctrine,  but  relied  on  tiic 
etUcacy  of  ardent  exhortation,  and  the  find- 
ing and  kindling  of  the  good  in  each  audi- 
tor. 

Cliarles  H.  Spurgeon  (b.  ,1  nne  !!>.  IS.'!!:  d. 
fFanuary  .">1.  JS'.tL')  stands  as  a  tyjie  of  the 
great  popular  preacher  and  leader  in  ciiarita- 
ble  work.  With  I'.aptist  views,  \w  revived  his 
own  denomination  an<l  exerted  a  helpful  in- 
fluence on  all  others.  No  divine  of  his  time 
swayed  so  resist  Icssly  the  innnensc  audicu'es 
he  attracted,  liis  plain  sermons  were  alv,;iy3 
lightened  with  happy  illustrations  and  deliv- 
<'red  with  rare  power  and  personal  magiu'tism, 
iind  lliey  had  the  exceptional  ipiality  of  retain- 
ing much  of  their  charm  and  persuasiveness 
when  in  print. 

Kriedrich  Froebel  of  Thuringia,  (iermany  (b.  .\pril  L'l,  ITSli;  d.  June  2. 
1S.">L'),  was  a  born  edueator,  and  his  great  life-work  lay  wholly  in  that  direction. 
He  studied  not  so  much  to  get  knowledge  of  particnlar  branches  as  to  dis- 
eover  their  natural  \inity  ami  hidden  connection,  lie  was  theatlvoeate  of  the 
new  education,  and  i>ushe(l  the  .system  of  l'estalo/,/.i  far  beyond  its  author's 
dreams.  According  to  Froebel,  man  and  nature  are  governed  by  the  sann; 
laws;  and,  by  his  observation  of  both,  he  reached  his  idea  of  what  man's 
development  should  be,  and  how  to  accomplish  it.  'I'me  development  nnist  of 
course  protM'ed  from  within,  from  self  activity.  .\nd  as  every  age  of  man  is 
complete  in  itself,  its  periect  developnu'nt  can  come  from  only  such  ilevclop- 
nu'iit  in  the  preceding  age.  Hence,  the  necessity  of  properly  training  and 
educating  young  children.  'I'his  co\irseof  reasoidng  resulted  in  his  invention 
of  the  kindergarten  system,  together  with  his  self-sacritii-ing  (h'votion  in 
training  teachers  iui.'  in  his  Imroie  perseverance  notwithstanding  bitter  op- 
j)()sition,  or  inditterenci . 

Victor  Coi'sii;.  rf  -'.ance  (b.  Novend)er  L'S,  171)1';  d.  dune  to,  1S(>7),  was  a 
renowned  ep.  ■!  naker  of  the  century  in  founding  the  school  of  systematic 
etdi'eticism  in  piiilosophy.  His  system  sets  forth  a  doctrine  of  catholic  com- 
prehension and  toleration  of  olli -rs.  Few  nn-n  did  more  in  othcial  and 
private  life  to  ailvance  the  cause  of  geiu'ral  edn<'-ition  in  i'^rance. 

William  Wilberforee.  of  Fngland  (b.  .\iigust  L'J.  IT.V.t;  d.  . I nly  *_'<).  IS."..",), 
ivith  Pitt  and  Clarkson.  leil  in  the  cause  (jf  freeing  the  slaves,  being  himself 
the  greatest  type  of  the  Knglish  al)olitionist.  i-'or  forty-six  years  he  main- 
taiiu'd  unceasing  and  relentless  warfare  against  slaveiy.  and  his  priceless  gift 
to  the  present  century  was  the  final  ami  complete  exti'n'tion  of  slavery  and 
of  the  slave-tradi'  in  the  Firitish  possessions. 

HisToitiANs.  — William    11.   I'rescott   (I).   May   11.   ITIM;;    d.  January  L'7. 
IH.V.))    proved   himscU'  to  l.e  an  epoca-maker  in  the  sense  that   lie  combined 
4& 


11  'I 


71X5 


TRIUMI'US  AXD    WONDERS   OF  THE  A/A'"   CENTURY 


tli(!  woitli  of  history  with  tlic  brilliiuicc  and  fascniiation  of  tlio  novel,  ami 
clevel(i]n'il  the  t'litircly  iit-\v  field  ol'  Spain's  career  at  honi"  and  in  her  colo- 
nies. His  ••  {""erdinand  and  Isabella." '•  (;oni[nest  of  Mexieit,"  '-Cominest  of 
I'em,"  and  ••  History  of  I'hiiip  11,"  all  obtained  a  world-wide  circnlation,  and 
both  placed  'vnd  ke[)t  their  author  in  the  highest  rank  of  modern  American 
historians. 

Kran(;ois  1'.  G.  (Juizot,  of  France  (1).  (►ctober  4,  17.SI;  d.  Septendier  l;{, 
1S7I).  was  both  statesman  and  historiiin.  In  tiic  foriiier  ca[iacity  he  held 
several  important  public  positions,  and  from  l.S  tO  to  1847  was,  as  Minister 


n. 


Wir.I.IAM    WIMIKHKOIU  K. 


m 


of  Foreitrn  Affairs,  reallv  at  the  head  of  the  iiovornmont.      Ills  nnmy  in'o- 


1' 


relorms 


bronLrht  on  the  revohition  of  1S4S  and   the  dethronement  of 


.onis 


'hili 


IM' 


'hcnigl 


1   riinkint:  as  one  ( 


)f  the  «:reatest  ol    l''rench  states- 


men, his    hit,d'<'«^'   iiiid    most    endnring    rejmtation    rests    on    his    historical 

I  the  chief  of  which   is  his  '-(ieneral 

His  works    are    classics  of   historical 

the  modern  nu'thod  of  treatiic,'  historv. 


writim,'s.  wliicli  are  very  numerous,  anc 


History  of  Civilization  in   K\irnpe. 
research,  and  inspirintr  forerunners 

.lames  Anthony  Fronde  (b.  OctnOer  L'."..  ISIS;  d.  October  L'O,  ISiM)  ranks 
as  one  of  the  brii;litest  of  Kni^hnKTs  writeis  and  historians,  tlioni^di  not  one 
of  the  most  reliable.     His  writin,i;s  are  characterized,  in  the  main,  by  ultra- 


m 


: 


VURY 

\i  novel,  iiiul 
in  Ikt  cdlo- 
'(.'oiniiiost  (if 
(Mihitioii.  iind 
i'Vii  AiiK'rii'iiii 

optrinbt'v  l.'J, 
icity  Ik'  lit'ld 
s,  as  Minister 


Ki'<)cn-M.iKi:ns  of  the  cestuiiy 


707 


Pn)U'stanti.->ni :  iiiid  in  liis  two  must,  iiuportant  works.  "  Tho  En,i;lisli  in 
Irt'laiitl  in  tlif  I.Sili  ( 'ciitiii"  ."  and  "'riic  History  of  Kii^jland,"  lie  ciidi-avors 
to  jnstity  Ills  cnunlry's  seven'  treatment  of  tiie  Irish  liomaMists,  to  establish 
Henry  VI 1 1,  as  the  chief  elianqiioM  of  Knglisii  indeiicndcni'e.  and  also  to 
l)esto\v  upon  In-r  nnnisters  nnieh  of  the  credit  popnlarly  snpposod  to  belong 
to  Ijhieen  Kli/abetii. 

.lolm   K.    Moth-y   (b.   Massiicjmsetts.  April   1."..  iSj 4;  d.  Kni;land.  May   L'!», 
1.S77)  ty[)ities  the  patient  and  painstaking  seareher  lor  truth  in  tlie  develoi»- 


IHOMAS    It.    M.\(  ACI.AV. 


His  many  pvo- 

-tlironcnient   o£ 

Virnch  states- 

bis    historical 


his  '-llenr 


ra\ 


•s  o 
Irea 


f   historical 
tin:,'  history. 
I'Jt).  IS'.U)  ranks 
thougb   not  one 
main,  by  ultra- 


mont  of  national  history  ;  and  also  the  symjiathetie.  graphie.  and  sjiirited 
painter  of  the  scenes,  events,  and  chanieters  which  he  presents.  His  ••  IJi.sp 
of  the  Dutch  l{epnblic."  •' History  of  the  rnite(l  Netherlands,"  and  *' Life 
and  Death  id'  dohn  of  liarneveld"  are  all  \indeniably  srreat  coidributions  to 
\\w.  historical  literatun?  of  the  present  century,  iiesides  being  monuments 
to  the  exacting  toil  and  research  of  yeiirs. 

Jlenry  Thomas  Ibickle.  of  lOngland  (b.  Novendter  L'l.  1S2'J:  d.  :\ray  I'D, 
iSCiL')  is  a  eons]iicuous  type  of  the  patient  and  h>arned  historian.  His  prin- 
eijial  donation  to  modern  progress  is  ••  The  History  of  (.'ivili/.ation  in  Eng- 
land." a  work  whose  novel   theiuics  created  an  e| h   in   tlie  philosophy  of 


;l  I 


708 


TlilUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  A'/A'"'   CENTURY 


history.  ;iii(l  cu.  .1  forth  much  coiitrovj'rsy.  According  to  liini,  civilization 
was  (hio  not  so  much  to  moral  or  religious  influtMicc  as  to  material  causes, — 
soil,  climate,  i'ood,  atniosplicrc  etc. 

(Jeorge  JiaiKiroft  (h.  Octolter  .'».  ISOO;  d.  Jumiarv  17,  ISOl)  was  equally 
renowned  as  statesman  and  historian.  As  a  member  of  I'resident  I'olk's 
cabinet,  he  was  instrumental  in  founding  the  Naval  .\cadcmy  at  Annapolis 
and  the  Naval  <H)servatory  at  AVashington.  As  minister  to  Prussia  he 
negotiated  several  foreign  treaties,  and  ably  conducted  the  settlement  of  the 
'•  Northwest  ISoundary  "  ijucstion.  I>mi  his  great  life-work  Wiis  his  »•  Jlistory 
of  the  United  States,"  on  which  he  labored  untiringly  till  liis  de.ath.  It  is 
the  most  e.\h.austive,  |thilosophic.  and  inspiring  of  our  natiouiil  histories. 

Hichard  llildnith  (b.  June  L\S,  1S()7;  d.  dune  11.  ISOA)  was  one  of  the 
century's  valuable  coiitriiaitors  to  the  welfare  of  the  I'nited  States  by  his 
'•  History  of  Uanks."  his  many  works  on  morals  and  jxditics,  and  chiefly  by 
his  great  life-work,  "The  Jlistory  of  the  Tnited  States,"  a  production  of 
great  labor  and  masterly  detail,  but  somewhat  heavily  written. 

Thomas  llabingtou  .M.acaulay,  of  Kngland  (b.  October  '2i\,  l.SOO;  d.  l)e- 
cend)er  L'S.  1S.V.)),  was  noted  as  essayist  and  statesman.  IJut  his  genius  lay 
especially  in  history,  in  which  line  \w  was  eiuibled  to  furnish  the  world  witli 
his  great  life-work,  that  most  remarkable  and  valuable  "  History  of  Englaml," 
which  (piickly  attained  a  circulation  never  before  cfpialed  by  any  similar 
publication.  Though  at  times  ])artisan  and  jiartial,  he  was  still  fortunate  in 
throwing  his  great  strength  on  the  side  of  right. 

KoiToKs.  — Horace  (Jreeley  (b.  February  .*i,  iSll  ;  d.  November  29,  1S72) 
was  founder  of  the  '•  New  York  Tribuiu\"  He  took  rank  as  oiu'  of  the  ai)lest 
editors  of  his  day.  and  stood  the  foremost  jiolitical  ailvocate  and  controver- 
sialist of  his  time  in  America.  He  made  of  his  ))aper  a  splendid  jiroperty, 
and  through  it  exercised  an  influence  that  reached  far  down  ainoui,'  the 
masses.  He  lost  much  of  his  jiopularity  by  his  advocacy  of  un:versal 
amiu'sty  and  impartial  suffrage,  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  and  ;rradu- 
ally  drifted  into  the  Liberal  l{ep\iblican  party.  This  ]>art\.  in  alliance  with 
the  Democrats,  placed  him  on  the  presidential  ticket  in  1.S7L*.  He  was  di.s- 
astrously  defeated,  and  died  from  the  effects  of  hard  caiuj)aign  work  and 
grief. 

.James  fiordon  IJennett  (b.  September  1.  J71)."i;  d.  June  J.  1S71.*).  founder  of 
the  *•  New  York  Herald,"  was  the  most  spirited  and  dariu','  of  those  ])ioneers 
who  revolutionized  the  journalism  of  the  century.  In  his  paper  he  broke 
away  from  high  prices  and  jirosaic  metliods.  autl  inaugurated  the  era  of  chea]) 
])rices,  racy  news,  and  independent  expression.  He  ju-acticaliy  developed 
the  i)resent  organization  of  newsboys,  the  use  of  the  telegraph  in  securing 
news,  and  the  American  system  of  JCuropean  and  war  correspondence. 

AVilliam  Cullen  I'.ryant"  (b.  NovcMuber  .'!.  17'.»4;  d.  .hme  IL'.  1S7S)  united 
the  scholarship  of  the  general  literature  ami  the  grace  of  a  ])oet  with  the 
genius  of  a  high-toned  ami  brilliant  editor.  He  gavi'  to  his  ])a])er.  the  '•  New 
"N'ork  Kvening  i'ost,"  a  raid<  and  influence  seldom  attained  in  journalism,  efi- 
]>ecially  when  it  is  considered  tiiat  its  patrons  were  chieHy  of  the  educated 
aiul  higher  l.'usine.ss  cla.sses.  He  representeil  the  cleanest  and  most  intellec- 
tual joiirniiiism  of  the  century. 

.John  W.  I'orney  (b.  Se]iteml>er  L'o,  1IS17  ;  d.  December  1),  ISSI)  was  founder 


EPOCH-MAKERS   OF  THE   CESTURY 


709 


lizatioii 
uses,  — 

oq\).ally 
t   I'olk's 

llUiHH)Us 

issia  h»! 
it  ol'  the 
History 
li.  It  is 
rios. 

i>  of  the 
?s  l)y  his 
hictiy  hy 
Lictioii  of 

);   (1.  l)e- 

rt'iiius  hiy 
■Olid  with 
KiiKlfHul," 
ly  similar 
rtuiuitf  in 

29, 1S72) 
the  abh'St 
coiitrover- 

pi«i]«'rty, 
iu..n!,'  the 

(iijvcrsal 
nil  _'va<lii- 
i;nict"  with 

f  was  (lis- 

work  and 

I'oiiiider  of 
|>  ])ioneers 
he  hroke 
\\  of  cheaj) 
liU'Vfloped 
]i  st'curiiiij 
|i('t'. 

'S)  \niite(l 
with  the 
I  he  '•  New 
lialisui,  »>«- 
•  ('(hieati'il 
^t  intellec- 

U  founder 


and  owner  of  "Tlu'  IMiiliidelphia  I'ress."  Tlie  journalism  of  tlie  century  fan 
hoast  no  more  indefatij,'ahle  and  brilliant  i)en  than  his,  nt)r  did  any  journal 
of  his  day  oeeupy  a  more?  coninumdini;  plane  amid  the  diseussions  incident  to 
the  Civil  War  and  suhsiMiuent  jierioiis  of  reconstruction,  lie  was  als(j  editor 
and  owner  of  the  Washiiii^'toii.  'V  C,  "Chronicle."' 

Charles  .Vnderson  hanii  (I).  Au-^MistS.  ISI'.I;  d.  Oetoher  17.  l.S'.>7)  is  an  in- 
stance of  a  scholar  and  itiU)iicist  wlm  found  a  true,  though  late,  outlet  for 
his  j,'«Miius  in  the  realm  of  independent  journalism.  I'lider  his  editorship 
and  man;i<^fenu'nt  the  ••  New  York  Sun  "'  liecaiue  tiie  model  news  medium  of  the 
country,  and  its  editorial,  tinancial.  and  other  depaitments  were  conihieted 
witii  an  ahility  and  eonseicntiousness  that  commanded  tiie  widest  conlidence. 
He  was  associate  editor  of  "'rhe  New  American  Cyclo[)a'dia,'' and  comi>iler 
of  the  adnnrahle  ••  llouseiiold  Iiook  of  I'octry." 

Joseph  Medill  (h.  Ajirii  C.  ISL';;:  d.  Man-h  l(!,  ISIK))  rose  to  tlie  hiirh  rank 
of  editor-in-chief  and  princi[)al  ownerof  "The  (;hie!ijj;o 'I'riliune."  tlirouj,di  tho 
sehoolinj^  alTorded  liy  connection  with  several  minor  papers.  No  man  of  the 
century  was  more  tlioroiij^hly  iiiiliued  with  tlie  tiue  editorial  instinitt.  Of 
di,u;nitied  and  ]n'udent  expression,  liroad  and  keen  thou;j;ht.  ever  alive  to  the 
privileL;t's  and  power  of  the  press,  lie  made  Ids  journal  a  nuulel  (»f  e.Keellenee 
in  all  its  varied  de[iartnn;nts  as  well  as  a  colossal  property. 

doseph  Pulitzer  (h.  1S47)  was  founder  and  editor  of  '-'I'Ik!  St.  Louis  Post- 
Despatch."  and  afterwanls  liecame  owner  and  editor  (d'  ''The  New  York 
World."  Like  the  elder  ISennett  he  ranks  as  one  of  tiie  dashiin,',  daring 
editors  of  the  eentiiry,  whose  aim  is  to  i^aiu  notoriety  and  extraordinary  cir- 
culation for  his  journal  hy  stroui,',  and  often  vituperative,  attack  upon  public 
men  and  tliin<,'s,  and  by  tireless  elforts  to  secure  j,'eneral  news  (d'  a  iniicpie 
and  sensational  (diaracter,  at  whatever  cost. 

Murat  Halstead  (b.  ISL'M)  rose  to  editorial  distinction,  and  became  a  strong 
factor  in  the  life  of  the  middle  West,  throuLrh  his  connection  with  the  "Cin- 
cinnati Commercial,"  wliidi  he  raised  to  a  nourishing  tinancial  condition,  with 
immense  ]>ower  in  municipal,  state,  and  national  pcditics.  In  ISDll  he  became 
editor  of  "The  Standard- L'nion,"  Mrooklyn,  \.  Y. 

Whitelaw  IJeid  (b.  October  27,  LS.'>7)  is  a  type  of  the  highest  class  of  .Vm- 
eriean  political  editors,  and  represents  the  best  in  that  kiml  of  .American 
j<mrnalism  which  aims  to  be  both  alert  ai^l  catholic  in  its  efforts,  witlumt  tho 
sensationalism  of  jiersonality.  exaggeration,  or  th.  horrible.  Next  to  Mr. 
(ireeley,  whom  he  succeeded  as  editor,  he  will  best  be  remembered  in  con- 
nection with  "  Tlie  New  York  Tribune,"  and  ha-s  made  his  jimrnal  a  great 
power  along  nearly  all  lines,  jtarticularlv  those  political. 

S<iKN"nsTs.  —  Sir  Charles  Kell.  (d  Scotland  (li.  November  17,  1774;  d. 
Ajiril  2i),  1SI2),  is  a  shiningexaniple  <d'  patience  and  ','eniiis  for  investigation, 
discovery,  and  deduction  in  medical  science.  The  nervous  system  was  his 
particular  forte;  and  he  discovered  the  most  important  principle  that  the 
iirain  is  diviiU'd  into  two  parts,  each  having  its  corresponding  division  in  the 
spinal  marrow,  and  that  one  set  (d  nerves  conveys  sensations  from  the  body 
to  the  brain,  ainither  carrying  back  to  the  body  and  its  muscles  the  command 
oi'  the  brain,  ami  finally  that  nerves  convt>yitn,' different  sensations  ari^  con- 
nected with  dilferent  parts  of  the  brain.  He  was  a  remarkable  surgeo'i.  a 
brilliant  lecturer,  and  a  medical  author  of  nniveisal  fame. 


710 


TRIUMPHS  AM)    WOSDHHS  OF  THE  MX'"  CENTURY' 


Samuel  1).  (Jross  (b.  .Inly  S,  ISO.'*;  d.  May  (>,  ISMt)  ranked  as  one  of  the 
epocli-niakers  in  lii.s  profi'ssion.  As  pliysiciun,  surgeon,  and  lui'dicul  author 
he  showed  a  lofty  aim,  strict  devotiitn.  marked  originality,  and  ))owerful 
intellect.  His  numcrons  works  (MJinmandcd  \vt)rld-\vi(U'  attention  and  became 
accei)ted  standards.  Two  of  them,  at  least,  were  the  first  of  their  kind  ever 
imblished  in  America. 

(Jeorge  0.  L.  K  J).  Cuvier.  of  France  (b.  .\\igust  LVJ.  ITdU;  d.  May  I."., 
1KV2),  exhibited  in  his  career  the  immense  reformation  and  advance  in  natural 
liistory  during  the  first  three  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  ex- 
})ande(l  tlie  system  of  comj>arative  anatomy  as  tiie  imly  true  basis  of  natural 
history,  and  from  an  iitterly  chaotic  and  unintelligible  heap  of  dry  facts 
concerning  animal  structures  lie  finally  deduced  the  underlying,  natural 
principles  of  unity,  in  tlieir  classification  and  division.  He  also  establislied 
many  ])ositive  laws  of  geology  and  ]>aleontiih>gy  and.  by  his  vast  discoveries 
and  daring  conceiitions  tliereiii,  developed  the  comparatively  new  .science  of 
fossil  animal-life  to  an  extent  hitiierto  undreamed  of. 

Charles  Ifolx-rt  Darwin,  of  Euglanil  (b.  Feltruary  l.'{.  ISdO;  d.  Ajuil  IS,  1S9.'{), 
was  one  of  those  well-ecpiipped  and  persistent  scientists  wjiose  investigations 
led  to  the  nnidern  doctrine  of  the  origin  and  evolution  of  specit>s  by  means 
of  naliiral  selection  and  jjreservation  of  favored  races  in  tiie  struggle  for 
life.  His  coiu'lusions  were  at  first  bitterly  rejected,  especially  i)y  religious 
scientists,  but  ere  the  end  of  the  century  canu'  they  met  with  wide  accejit- 
ance.  Only  such  a  genius  and  i)atienee  as  his  could  iiave  collected,  arranged, 
and  inter])reted  the  gigantic  mass  of  facts  out  of  which  he  slowly  deduced 
his  conclusions. 

Louis  J.  1{.  Agassi/.  (1).  May  2S,  IS07;  d.  I)eceml)er  14,  iST.'i).  was  the 
prenuer  of  his  day  as  a  scientist  and  naturalist.  Of  wonderful  jdiysical  and 
mental  power,  vast  enthusiasm,  untiring  industry,  and  exci'ptional  propen- 
sity for  research  and  orderly  arrangenu'iit.  lie  developed  the  modern  science 
of  ichthyology.  ])i'opounded  lU'W  and  acci'])ted  theories  of  geology  and  of 
glacial  systems,  and  established  the  niagniticeut  Museum  of  Natural  History 
at  ("anibridge,  Mass.  Astonishingly  jirolific  as  a  writer,  he  remains  a  con- 
stant source  of  inspiration  to  nattiralists  and  scientists. 

Samuel  ('.  !■'.  Hahnemann,  of  (iermany  (b.  April  11,  ITo.");  d.  .Inly  L',  IiSl.'l), 
was  an  epoch-maker  iu  the  field  of  medicine.  I>y  ISL'O  his  tlieories  ami 
jtublieations  had  awakened  universal  interest,  and  the  homn'opathic  system 
had  become  an  established  school,  Despite  the  long  and  bitter  war  between 
,allo]iathy  and  honueo]»athy,  it  is  certain  tliat  the  latter  has  contril)uted 
largely  to  lender  mediciiu'  free  fnuii  many  old-time  methods  of  an  indefeii- 
'-ible.  if  not  actually  iiarmful  or  dangerous  kind. 

Horace  Wells,  of  Hartford.  Conn.  (b.  .lanuary  L'l,  ISlo;  <1,  .laiiuary  It. 
1S48),  w.as  a  dentist.  His  use  of  nitrous  oxidt;  (laughing  gas)  to  render  the 
extraction  of  teeth  painless  led  to  its  fuller  ajijilication  as  an  aiuesthetie  in 
surgery,  and  hence  to  the  discovery  of  modern  amesthesia  liy  ether  and 
chloroform.  Though  robbed  of  the  honor  of  his  discovery  by  others,  the 
dentist  Wells  is  no  less  a  contributor  to  mankind  of  one  oi  the  greatest 
boons  of  the  century. 

Louis  Tasteur,  of  France  (li.  Decendjcr  17,  1S1.'-I;  d.  Septendjer  L'K,  ISlt,")). 
gave  new  direction  and  iiui»ulse  to  chemistry  vaiA  pathology  by  the  discovery 


;  of  the 
1  autliur 
lowerful 
,  becaiiu' 
iiul  I'vor 

^iiiy   l.i, 

I  iiiitunil 

lltMX- 

iiiitunil 
Iry   i;u't!H 

nat\niil 
Uiblislit'd 
scoverics 
iiiencc  of 

IS.IS'.KJ), 
^ti^atitnis^ 
by  luciiiis 
u^'f^lc  for 
iiilitrious 
le  ac'tH'i>t- 
an'ai>j?«'(l. 
y  (UmUici'(1 

.  Avas  llu' 
vsical  and 
il  ]>r(iiH'ii- 
rn  scii'iicc 
y  and  of 
i  History 
lis  a  CDii- 

'.',  LSI;'.). 

orics  and 
lie  systt'iu 
|r  hi'twct'ii 
l)iitribiit«'d 

II  iudi'ft'ii- 


EPOCIl-MAKEliS  OF  THE  CENTIHY 


711 


liHiarv 


IclK 


14. 

lor  the 


^tbctii'   ill 
'thcr  and 


h-rs. 


tl 


le 


irrcatcst 


L'H.  IS'.r.). 
disoovi'rv 


that  fermentation  arose  from  niicro-orgaiiisiiis,  anil  also  that  disease  was,  iu 
many  instances,  diu'  to  the  presein'O  of  bacilli  in  blood  or  tissue.  He  fol- 
lowed this  with  his  system  of  culture  and  inoculation,  by  means  of  which 
he  performed  most  miraculous  cures  of  even  such  a  viidous  disease  as  hydro- 
phobia. The  Pasteur  Institute  in  I'aris  stands  a  monument  to  his  genius  and 
philanthropy. 

I'mi.ANrnuoiMsTs.  —  Htephen  Girard  (b.  May  24,  IToO;  d.  December  L*(), 
1(S31)  was  crabbed,  unai)proachable,  penurious,  irreligious,  yet  strangely 
liberal  in  large  public  or  charitable  affairs.  Twice  he  helped  tlie  government 
with  largo  loans.  I'ublic  charities  and  improvements,  hospitals,  and  paradox- 
ically enough,  even  churches,  wore  indebted  to  him  for  miiniticent  gifts.  The 
greatest  monument  to  his  philanthropy  is  (lirard  College,  founded  by  a 
beipiest  of  iJ!»,S,(MMt,()(M),  for  the  education  of  j)0()r  whiti;  male  orphans. 

Janu'S  Smithson,  of  England  (b.  about  J  "(Jo;  d.  .Fune  L'7,  ISL",)),  was  pos- 
silily  the  first  philanthropist  to  bestow  a  large  endowment  upon  the  L'nited 
States.  With  the  sum  of  .iji.jIM^OdO  to  iijiOOO.OIMt,  which  came  to  it  from  this 
benevolent  foreigner,  the  young  republic  founded  and  endowed  the  splendid 
Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington  for  the  spread  and  increase  of  know- 
ledge, thus  putting  Mr.  Smithson  in  the  highest  rank  of  the  world's  benefactors, 
and  erecting  an  imperishable  monument  at  another  turning-point  in  the 
l)rogress  of  civilization. 

Cieorge  I'eabody  (b.  I-Vbruary  IS,  l"*.).") ;  d.  Novendier  14,  1S()<))  ranks  as 
one  of  the  century's  greatest  philanthroj)ists.  Among  his  noblest  gifts  were 
$!.■{,;■»()(»,(»()()  for  free  education  and  the  training  of  teai'hers  in  the  Southern 
States,  .'ii!l.()()0,()((0  for  a  siMontitie  institute  at  l>altiiiioro,  large  sums  to 
Harvard  University,  and  a  great  amount  to  his  native  town.  l;.'>vers,  Mass., 
for  educational  jmrpuscs.  ])ying  in  Knglaiid,  he  left  .*iL',r)(Mt,(M)()  to  London, 
to  found  workiiigmeii's  homes. 

.'  )hn  .Jacob  Astor  (1).  duly  17,  17<>.');  d.  March  L".),  1S4S)  used  much  of  his 
colossal  fortune  in  iihilaiithropy.  I'erliaps  his  largest  single  gift,  at  least 
tin  h  by  which  he  is  best  known  as  a  benefactor,  was  the  sum  of  .*!4(M»,(t()0  to 
found  the  .\stor  Library  of  New  ^'ork  city.  This  noble  institution  is  con- 
ducted on  the  public  plan,  and  contains  nearly  .'iOlt.Oi Id  volimies. 

.1  imes  Lick  (b.  August  L'.">,  17i)<>;  d.  October  1.  lS7r»)  amassed  a  fortune  in 
California,  out  of  wliicii  lie  provided  a  trust  fund  for  certain  imblic  and 
charitalile  purposes.  I'liis  fund  amounted  to  .S.").<MM»,(lO(»  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  To  him  is  due  the  famous  iiick  Telescope  in  the  I'niversity  of 
California,  which  cost  .1ii7tlO,()(M>;  Ihc  Culiforiiia  School  of  .Meclianic  Arts, 
cosi.iiig  .*!.'')4<M)()0 ;  the  free  pulilii  liaths  of  San  Kraucisco,  costing -SloOjOOO ; 
and  nunieroiis  otlier  charities  and  benel'actiiuis. 

Lcland  Stanford  (b.  March  !>.  lSl'4;  d.  dune  L'O,  ISIK!)  acipiired  a  great 
fortune  in  California,  inspired  by  a  dream  at  the  time  of  bis  little  son's 
death,  he  deteriiiined  to  found  and  endow  an  institution  of  learning  in  his 
State.  The  result  was  the  Leland  Stanfonl  Junior  I'niversity,  who-c  direct 
endowment  was  princely,  and  whose  indirect  endowment  is  i-xiiected  to 
amount  to  .ijil'd.ddl^OOt)  or  more. 

Florence  Nightingale  was  born.  May,  ISL'.'s  in  Florence.  Italy,  of  Knglish 
])arents,  and.  jiroinpteit  by  philanthropic  instincts,  turned  her  attention  to  the 
relief  of  humanity.     Alter  study  in  various  nursing  schools,  she  was  sent  at 


M 


712 


TJilf/MI'IlS  AN  J)    WON  mens   OF  TlIK  XIX'"   CENTURY 


the  licad  of  a  corps  of  tiiiincd  iiiirscs  to  ciiic  tor  tlir  sick  iiiul  woumlcd  sol- 
diers of  tilt!  CriiiitMii  wiir,  in  wiiicli  i«isitiiiii  siic  dis|iliivi'd  niiirvtdous  cnrifry 
und  iibiiity.     A  giatfiul  |iul)liij  suljscrilii'd  lor  iu-r  :i  It'stiiiioiiial  of  )iiil'."»(i.(MMI, 

wiiicii   sill'  dt'vott'd  to  the  foiiiidiiig 


.-•.^5^^' 


h 


ri,<HlKX(  K    NI(1IIT1N<;ALE. 


of  a  traiiiiiijj;-scliotil  ior  nurses. 

Clara  I'.aiton  (h.  aiiont  ls;!(>)  left 
a  elerlisliip  in  Wiisiiinj^'ton  to  en- 
j;a,i,'e  in  tiie  work  of  alleviiitin},'  tlie 
siifferin,i,'s  of  tiie  soldiers  of  tlie  Civil 
War.  on  tlie  liiittlelields  and  in  hos- 
pitals, a  work  she  performed  with 
rare  enerj^y  :ind  sell-siieriliee.  Sht* 
afterwards  aided  the  (irand  |)iichess 
of  i>:i<len  ill  estahlishinir  her  hospi- 
tals diirinu'  the  l''raiie(i-l'riissi:m  war, 
and  Wiis  dreorati'il  with  the  (Jdld'.'ii 
Cross  of  r>adeii  and  the  Imii  Cross 
of  t ieriiiiiny.  In  ISSl  she  orj^anized 
the  .American  Ked  Cross  Society,  for 
which  she  secured  an  interniitioiial 
treaty  K'\''"n  ^^  protection.  She  per- 
formed splendid  service  in  camp  and 
lield  during  tlie  Spaiiish-Aiiiericaii 
war. 

.lohii  1).  Itockefeller  (1).  IS.",'.))  is  il 
sidendid  example  of  tliose  many  and 
noble  American  millionaires  who  have  responded  with  astonisliin„'  liberality 
to  the  i>romptiii,t,'s  of  their  philanthropic  natures.  The  reeonstniction  of 
the  Chicago  Cniversity,  the  founding  or  eiitlowment  of  other  jaiblie  institu- 
tions, and  of  numerous  charitable  benefactions.  tog«'ther  embracing  the 
e.vpenditiiro  of  many  millions,  are  magniticeiit  monuments  to  Mr.  Kockefeilers 
share  in  ]>romoting  the  progress  of  his  country  during  the  last  (]iiarter  of 
the  nineteenth  eeiitury. 

Afatthew  Vassar  (!.'.  April  20,  179L';  d.  June  L'M,  iSdS)  founded  Vassar 
College,  X.  Y.,  in  1S('>1.  A  brewer  of  large  fortune,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
ere(!ti)ig  and  endowing  a  college  for  women,  wherein  education  could  be, 
obtained  either  moderately  or  gratuitously,  and  which  should  be  undenomina- 
tional. To  this  end  he  gave  land  and  .*«  t-S.O(K>  for  buildings  and  etpiipment. 
Again  he  gave  !j!.'!(>().000.  ( >ther  niemliers  of  his  f;iniily  added  to  his  gifts, 
till  .SI.* >(((».(>()(»  and  more  were  expended  in  buildings,  a|ti)aratus,  etc.,  and  the 
endowment  iiinounted  to  over  .*<  1.0(1(1.(100. 

Tvvi'.NToiis.  —  (Jeorge  Stephenson,  of  l*'ngland  (b.  June  *.).  17S1  ;  d.  August 
ll*,  IS-IS).  was  the  tirst  (ISI  I)  to  construct  a  satisfactory  locomotive  steam 
engine.  In  iSlo  he  introdiu'ed  the  steam  blast  into  his  second  locomotive. 
In  ISL'L'  he  built  and  operated  his  lirst  railway,  eight  miles  long.  In  ISL'9 
his  engiu'',  named  the  li'o(^ket,  was  driven  at  the  rate  (d'  twenty -nine  miles  an 
hour.  He  invented  a  .safety  lamp,  which  is  still  in  use  in  Knglish  collieries. 
A  natural  genius  and  self-taught  mechanic,  he  refused  knighthood,  but  has 
received  by  common  consent  the  title  of  the  father  of  railways. 


';<: 


oiis  cntTK'y 

i  !ii('_'r.(».o(i(>, 

I,.    fulMltlillt? 

irst's. 

t,   1S:!(»)  left 

.viiitiii},'  Uie 

„f  thf  ("ivil 

aud  ill  li'"^- 
fnruifd  with 

(•ritiff.  Slit' 
ami  Uuches* 
.r  her  hnsiii- 
l'r\issiiui  \v:ir, 

11    tin'  (inlll'll 

„.  Iron  Cross- 
she  t>r:j;iiiii>''''^ 
^s  Society,  for 
iiitcriKttioiiiil 
i(.n.    Slifi't'i-- 

,.  in  ciuiil'  ''"'^ 
iiish-Aiiirrii'iiu 

,.  (I,.  1S:5'.»)  is  a 
iiisf  inmiy  and 
uii„'  ri\»i'iaUly 
oiistructioii  of 

,ul>lic  institu- 
i.iui)ra('iii!,'  the 

.  Kockt  f.'lU'i's 

[last  ti\iarU'r  of 

l.undi'd  Vassar 
,-,.,1  tlu'  iiU>a  of 
ixi'wn  «'oiild  l'« 
lie  \intl»'iioniiiia- 
liul  CMHiiviiit'iit- 
1(1  to  liis  k'i't^' 
etc..  aiul  the 

ItsI  ;  d.  A\it;"st 
Iduiotivc  steam 
Liil  loeoniotive. 

]l.,ng.  1"1«--' 
Iv-uiiie  miles  an 
Llisli  eoUieries. 
lit  hood,  but  has 


EPOCH  MA K Jilts   OF   Till':   CKS'TURY 


7i:j 


iJieiiard  'S[,  Hoe  (h.  Septeniiier  ll'.  iSll.';  d.  .luiie  7.  iSSCi)  eoiii|iletely  revo- 
lutionized the  art  of  printin;^'  l»y  the  invention  of  his  ••  lijilitnini,' "  rotiiry 
press,  in  1M(>.  This  marvel  was  eapal)h'  of  priiitini,'  1.'(),<MM)  impressions  an 
hour.  Afier  many  eostly  experiments,  witli  a  view  to  prinlin,ij  hntji  sides  of 
a  slicet  at  once,  he  evolved  his  \vel)-perfeetin,i,'  press,  wliirh  drew  the  paper 
from  a  roll,  perhaps  miles  in  lenj^th,  at  the  rale  nf  1(100  I'l't-t  a  miinile, 
printed  hotli  sides  simidtaneously,  and  cut  and  folded  the  sheets  at  the  rate 


n.AUA    UAUTON. 

of  20,000  per  hour.  Suhsecpient  improvements  have  t;iven  his  machines  a 
mueh  larger  Ixmrly  eapaeitv. 

Klias  Ilowt*  (1).  .JuiH'  0,  1810;  d.  Oetober  .'».  1St!7)  eontrihuted  the  se\vin<,'- 
maeinne  to  tht;  century's  triumphs  and  wonders.  thoui,di  it  is  allep-d  that  the 
honor  of  inventing  both  the  eye-pointed  needle  and  the  loek-stiteh  belon^js 
to  Walter  Hunt,  between  whom  and  Howe  lont,'  liti.i,'ation  prevaih-d,  finally 
resulting  in  the  recognition  of  the  IS-K!  jiatent  of  the  latter.  Modilieations 
and  improvements  by  more  recent  inventors  have  mad(f  the  sewing-machine 
the  household  boon  of  to-day. 

Cyrus  W.  Field  (h.  Xovend)er  ?t{\  iStO:  d.  duly  IL'.  ISOL')  made  the  j)ro- 
blem  of  a  telegraphic  cable  across  the  Atlantic  an  aim  of  his  life.  For  thirteen 
years  be  labored  with  wondi;rful  faith  and  perseverance,  and  at  last,  after  a 


«.?'.'». 


1  ^®  j  ''■' 


714 


TRIUMI'IIS  AM)    WOSDKUS   OF  TlHi  XIX'"  VKNTUIiY 


s:'ii('.s  of  (Icfi'iits  and  mortil'yiii!,'  liiiliiros,  HiiccccdtMl  (lS(!(i)  in  laving'  ii  cuhlo 
that  tlnirou'^'lily  solved  the  pnililcni.  Siiicf  then  .sul)niiirint'  tclcijrapliy  has 
iM'conic  oiip  ol  t\u\  most  usft'ul  and  iiowerful  I'luitors  in  the  privutt'  and  puldio 
life  of  tilt'  world. 

Samuel  V.  It.  Morse  (h.  A\)\\\  IT,  171M  ;  d.  April  1'.  |K7l')  eontrilmted  to 
th«  century's  triumphs  and  world's  civilization  by  that  brilliant  and  persist- 
ent series  of  investit,'atioMs,  which  resulted  in  the  first  practieal  telejjraph, 
lie  l)rou,t,dit  his  invention  belore  the  world  in  IS  14,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
j,'()vernment  set  up  a  line  of  forty  miles  between  \Vashinj,'ton  and  lialtimore. 
over  whieh  dispat<'hes  suecessfully  passed.  May  I'l,  ISI 1.  From  this  nionu'iit 
his  triumph  was  eompletc,  and  he  became  the  recipient  of  many  Hatt^'rinj,' 
<listinclions  at  home  and  abroad. 

.lohn  KricssiMi  (b.  duly  .'{1.  ISO.'};  d.  .March  S,  1.S<»'.»)  <'il her  invented,  or  lir.st 
made  practical,  the  steam  lire-enj,'ine,  the  artilicial  draujjjht  for  locomotives, 
the  reversible  locomotive,  the  '•  link-motion,"  the  calorie  enj,Mm',  and  the 
screw  proix'Uer.  J)iscourai,'ed  in  Knirland,  he  camu  to  the  United  States  in 
]S,'51>,  where  he  revolutionized  naval  warfare  by  applying  the  screw  projudler 
to  the  I'.  S.  S.  Princeton,  and  eniployiny  a  ran<,'e  tinder.  In  lsr»4  he  in- 
vented the  .Monitor  iron-dad  on  principles  first  a]>plied  in  the  Monitor  which 
defeated  the  Mcrrimat'  in  l!am|iton  Koads,  A'irLjinia.  March  t»,  1<S()1'.  His 
career  was  sij,'nalized  by  many  other  valuable  inventions, 

Alexander  Graham  Itell,  born  March  .'5.  1S4(),  besides  exploiting'  in  Anu-rica 
his  father's  valual)le  system  of  instruction  to  deaf  mutes,  typifies  the  inven- 
tive spirit  (d'  his  au'e  by  his  contribution  to  jaiblic  proj,'i('ss  throuijh  the 
material  side,  as  exemplilied  in  that  indis])en.sable  ai<l  to  modern  life,  the 
telephone,  with  the  invention  of  which  he  is  generally,  but  by  no  nn-ans 
undisputcdly,  credited. 

Thomas  .\lva  Kdison  (h.  February  11.  1.S47)  is  a  splendid  examjtle  (d'  the 
tireless,  acute.  :ind  ]iractical  scientific  inventoi'.  and  is  wtdl  named  the  elec- 
trical "wizard."  Aiuonti'  the  triumphs  of  his  skill  and  genius  are  the  auto- 
matic telegraphic  repeater:  the  duplex  telegraph,  afterwards  developed  into 
the  (luadruplcx  and  sextuplex  transmitter;  the  printing  telegraph  for  stock 
quotations;  the  carbon  telephone  transmitter;  the  aer(H>hone;  the  niega- 
]»hone  and  micro]dione;  the  phonograph  and  photometer;  the  incandescent 
lamp;  and  many  other  devices  for  eietttric  lighting. 

Nicola  Tesla  (born  iS-'tS).  a  former  \)\\\n\  and  assistant  of  Edis(m,  shares 
"with  his  nuister  the  hon)r  of  representing  the  world's  greatest  .'ind  most 
jiractical  of  scientific  inventors  and  discovt'rer.s.  His  most  noted  investiga- 
tions and  discoveries  have  l»cen  along  the  line  of  arousing  luminous  vibra- 
tions in  matter,  without,  at  the  same  time,  setting  in  action  heat-vibrations. 
He  has  made  the  remarkalile  discovery  that  I'OO.OOO  volts  nuiy  pass  harm- 
lessly through  that  body  whitdi  L'OOO  would  kill,  ;ind  is  ex])erimenting  to 
■|)roduee  ,'-$,0( >().(»()(»  vibrations  a  minute  in  matter.  He  has  also  shown  that 
both  motors  and  lights  can  bo  operated  on  one  wire  without  a  einuiit.  His 
rotary  motor  is  used  in  conveving  ])ower  from  the  great  jdant  at  Kiagara 
Falls^. 

NovKijsTs.  —  Sir  Walter  Scott,  of  Scotlarid  (b.  August  1.").  1771  ;  d.  Sep- 
tember 21. 1S,')L*).  exerted  a  pow(!rful  influence  on  the  literature  of  the  century 
through  the  medium  of  his  stirring  poetry  ami  delightful  fiction,  in  both  of 


nr 


EPOVIl-MAKKItS   OF  THE   VKNTUnV 


ns 


'\\\^  :i  cable 
iiiiphy  hiis 
aiul  jiiiWlio 

tiiliivU'il  ti) 
111(1  jicrsirtt- 
[  tfli'gniiili. 
I!  aiil  of  till! 
r.altinion'. 
his  iiioiiifiit, 
ly  Hattviiiii; 

iitoil,  or  Inst 
lofoiiiotivrs, 
lU",  anil  the 
imI  States  in 
cw  jiropt'lU't" 
lHr»4  hf  in- 
oiiitor  which 
,  l.SO'J.     His 

;^  in  Amt'iica 
ics  tlu'  iiivcn- 
throii;4li  thi! 
ih'rn  lift",  tlie 
by  no  moans 

iimi'lt'  ol'  tliP 
inu'd  tlu'  flfc- 
art'  the  auto- 
I'vclopftl  into 
Lph  tor  stock 
|e;  the  nn'i,'a- 


iucaiitU'scc 


_'iit 


Idison.  shares 
■it  and  most 
■d  invt'stiga- 


liiiinous  VI 


hra- 


it-vil)rations. 
ly  ])ass  harm- 
Iriiiu'iitin^'  to 


I)   s 

Icircu 


hown 


that 


it.     His 

lit  at  Kia};;n">' 

•1  ;  d.  Sep- 
Lf  the  century 
tm,  in  l)oth  of 


which  he  was  most  ready  and  prolific  His  numeroiis  works,  tcpininf^  witli 
Htrikiii},'  situations,  strong  and  n'»l)le  in  style,  are  models  of  literary  exrei- 
leiice,  and  are  as  ca[ttivating  to  readers  of  today  as  tiiey  wore  half  a  coiitiiry 

a^'o. 

.  (Jliarles  Dickons,  of  Knglaiul  (h.  Koiiruary  7.  ISlL';  il.  June  '.>,  l.S7t»),  alily 
exeiiiplilied  that  sciiool  of  novelists  who  paint  iioiiiely  social  life  with  all  its 
innocent,  chuiisy  ell'orts  at  humor;  its  sorrows,  vanities,  and  weaknesses;  its 
sellishness,  malice,  and  vice ;  its  wrongs,  siitterin},'s.  ami  goodnesses.    Tliough 


SIK   WAI.IKIt   ^(^)■n'. 


faulty  in  i>lot  and  style  and  ridiculous  in  tlitiir  exaggerations,  his  novels 
marked  a  new  era  in  literature,  and  no  hooks  ever  so  appealed  to  the  sym- 
pathies and  good  impulses  of  readers. 

James  Fenimore  Cooper  (li.  Septendier  1<".  17S<»;  d.  Soiitemher  14,  IS.")!) 
typifies  a  large  and  api)arently  enduring  class  of  fiction  writers  of  which  he 
was  a  remarkable  foreriinuer  ;  that  sdiool  of  m)velists  who  deal  with  stirring, 
bold,  and  healthful  adventure,  in  which  the  Anglo-Saxon  mind  particularly 
seems  to  find  tinfailing  delight.  I'.oth  at  home  and  abroad,  his  novels  at- 
tained a  wide,  sudden,  and  well-deserved  popularity.  And  to  this  day  no 
library  of  fiction  is  complete  without  them. 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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CHARLES  DICKENS. 


71G        TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX'"  CENTURY 

Nathaniel  llawtliorne  (b.  July  4,  1S04;  d.  May  18,  1804)  cxhihits  iu  his 
numerous  fictional  works  a  man's  breadtli  and  strengtli  of  imagiiuition  and 
a  woman's  (luiok  perception  and  spiritual  insight.  Almost  gloomy  in  color, 
ovei'liung  with  imjjending  late,  and  often  uncanny,  liis  stories  are  yet  always 
fascinating.  As  has  been  well  said,  one  catches  in  tliem  "gleaming  wit, 
tender  satire,  exquisite  natural  dfscription.  subtle  and  strange  analysis  of 

human  life,  darkly  passionate  and  weird." 

Count  Leo  (or  Lyoff)  Alekseevich  Tolstoi 
(b.  August  L'8,  1828)  is  a  Ivussian  aristocrat 
by  birth,  but  has  assumed  the  dress  and 
life  of  a  peasant,  the  better  to  exploit  his 
doctrines  respecting  non-resistance,  com- 
munism, labor,  religion,  politics,  govern- 
ment, and  society.  His  numerous  writings 
show  a  combination  of  keenness  of  realistic 
insight  and  wealth  of  poetical  imagination, 
of  a  womlerful  breadth  of  view  with  per- 
fect handling  of  minute  detail,  seldom  ri- 
valed in  all  literature.  AVhether  or  not  lie 
will  prove  to  be  the  forerunner  of  a  great 
revolution  in  the  world's  national  and  so- 
cial life,  there  is  no  disputing  his  genius 
and  pertinacity. 

Edward  George  Earle  Bulwer  (Baron  Lytton),  of  England  (b.  IVlay  25, 
1803;  d.  January  18,  1878),  was  novelist,  ])oet,  dramatist,  and  essayist,  and 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  versatile  and  classical  authors  of  the  century. 
Through  his  plays,  poetry,  and  novels  he  introduced  a  new  literary  era,  and 
was  the  leader,  if  not  actual  founder,  of  the  school  of  melodramatic  ro- 
mance. 

Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher  Stowe  (b.  June  14,  1811 ;  d.  July  1,  1896)  ac- 
quired great  fame  as  authoress  of  the  epoch-making  book,  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin."  It  proved  to  be  a  powerful  contribution  to  the  anti-slavery  cause, 
and  served  to  electrify  readers  in  twenty  different  languages.  In  dramatized 
form  it  has  delighted  millions  of  auditors.  The  authoress  represents 
woman's  efforts  for  the  overthrow  of  slavery;  efforts  she  put  forth  modestly, 
completely  unconscious  of  their  great  power  and  future  influence. 

George  Eliot,  pseudonym  of  Marian  Evans,  afterwards  Mrs.  Lewes,  then 
Mrs.  Cross,  of  England  (b.  November  22,  1819;  d.  December  22,  1880),  was 
one  of  the  ablest  of  the  world's  female  novelists,  and  had  but  few  equals 
among  men.  Siie  was  a  leading  epoch-maker  in  that  introspective  school 
which  always  with  astonishing  skill  uses  the  "  plot "  in  all  its  events,  environ- 
ments, and  circumstances  to  develop  each  character  in  strict  logical  accord, 
whether  for  good  or  evil. 

Victor  Hugo,  of  France  (b.  February  26,  1802;  d.  May  22,  1885),  was,  in 
his  day,  the  most  popular  author  who  has  ever  lived.  Few  poems,  no 
drama,  and  absolutely  no  novel  have  ever  produced  the  immediate  and 
tremendous  effect  of  his  earlier  poems,  his  "  Hernani,"  and  his  "  Les  Misc- 
rables."  Through  "  Hernani  "  lie  complete  !y  defeated  the  classic  school  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  romantic  school  of  revolutionary  individualists,  thus 


tY 

its  iu  his 
lation  and 
y  in  color, 
ret  always 
,iniiig  wit, 
.nalysis  of 
1  wcinl." 
ich  Tolstoi 
I  aristocrat 

dress  and 
exploit  his 
;ance,  coni- 
L's,  govern- 
as  writings 

of  realistic  • 
magination, 
v  with  per- 
,  seldom  ri- 
er  or  not  he 
r  of  a  great 
)nal  and  so- 
r  his  genius 

(b.  :May  25, 

fssayist,  and 

the  century. 

•ary  era,  and 

ramatic  ro- 

1,  1896)  ac- 
Jncle  Tom's 

avery  cause, 
n  dramatized 

represents 
•th  modestly, 

e. 

Lewes,  then 

2,  1880),  was 
t  few  equals 
jctive  school 
ents,  environ- 

wgical  accord, 

l885),  was,  in 
V\v  poems,  no 

fimediate  and 
is  "  Les  Misi-- 
lic  school  and 
Idualists,  thus 


EPOCH-MAKERS   OF  THE  CENTURY 


717 


creating  a  new  ei)ocli  iu  literature.  lie  invented  novelties  in  poetry  and 
prose  which  produced  strength,  varieiy,  delicacy,  liarmony,  aiul  richness  of 
imagery  and  coloring,  absolutely  unparalleled  and  original. 

ToKTs.  —  Lord  George  (iordon  Uyron,  of  England  (b.  January  22,  1788;  d. 
April  19,  1824),  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  a  poet  of  marvelous  natural 
powers,  mingling  good  and  evil  in  accordance  with  the  whim  that  t(Jok  him  ; 
yet  exhibiting  distinctly,  through  it  all,  evidences  of  a  great  soul  and  genius. 


i.onn  uvHON. 


He  created  an  epoch  in  the  world's  ])optic  literature.  Skeptical,  cynical, 
melancholy  even  to  sentimentality,  and  skillfully  manipulating  the  ])ublic 
side  of  his  affairs  to  keep  up  a  most  fascinating  air  of  romantic  mystery 
about  them  all,  he  succeeded  in  affecting  i)id)]ic  thought  with  these  character- 
istics to  a  Avonderful  extent.  As  a  result.  "  ]5yronism,"  for  a  time,  was  the 
absorbing  rage  in  all  i)rominent  circles,  literary  and  even  social. 

Henry  W.  Longfellow  (b.  Febr\iary  27.  1807;  d.  jMarch  24,  1882)  is  pos- 
sibly the  century's  finest  type  of  the  people's  poet.  Though  hy  no  means  a 
poet  of  great  imaginative  ov  creative  powers,  yet  few  reached  his  perfect 


718         TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS   OF  THE  XIX^"  CENTURY 


skill  as  a  painstaking  and  unerring  artist ;  while  none  have  ever  surpassed 
him  in  creating  that  atmosphere  of  subtile  beauty  Avhicli  always  seems  to 
surround  and  penetrate  his  verse.  As  an  epoch-maker  his  influence  extended 
even  to  Europe,  and  especially  to  England,  securing  liim  a  fame  wider  and 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  American  poet,  and  rarely  failing  to  win  the 
enduring  affection  of  all  kinds  of  readers. 

John  Greenleaf  Wliittier  (b.  December  17,  1807 ;  d.  September  7,  1892),  as 
an  editor  and  poet  contributed  no  little  to  the  cause  of  tlie  abolitionists. 
Together  with  Longfellow,  Holmes,  Lowell,  Hawthorne,  and  Enun-son,  he 
may  be  considered  an  epoch-maker  in  the  development  of  American  litera- 
ture as  guided  by  the  spirit  of  New  England.  He  tyi)es  the  sweet,  simple^ 
and  absolutely  sincere  poet  whose  verse  breathes  forth  a  strcing  patriotism,, 
and  is  redolent  of  the  healthful  home  life  of  the  Eastern  States. 

Sir  Alfred  Tennynon,  of  England  (b.  August  0,  1809 ;  d.  October  G,  1892), 
was  by  far  the  leiiding  representative  of  those  English  poets  who,  while  not 
wanting  in  the  Are  and  spontaneity  of  true  genius,  nevertheless  wrote  care- 
fully, after  long  reflection,  witli  calculation  and  toil,  as  to  diction,  polish, 
and  arrangement  of  sentences  and  thoughts.  His  highly-wrought  "  In  ;\[e- 
moriani "  and  his  excpiisite,  though  somewhat  sensuous  ''  Idyls  of  the  King  " 
were  absolutelj^  novel,  and  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  world's 
poetry. 

Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  (b.  1809;  d.  June  29,  18C1)  is,  without  doubt, 
the  greatest  poetess  of  the  present  century  and  probably  of  any  other.  She 
presents  an  extraordinary  instance  of  tlie  grasp,  comprehensiveness,  and  logic 
of  man's  intellect,  united  with  tlie  intuitions,  deep  emotions,  impidses,  and 
visions  of  woman.  Her  especial  contribution  to  the  progress  of  this  century 
is  not  only  to  the  wealth  of  its  jjoetry,  but  also  to  the  careful  and  discriminat- 
ing consideration  of  mau}^  of  its  social  problems. 

Robert  Browning  (b.  in  London,  ^lay  7,  1812 ;  d.  in  Venice,  December  12. 
1889)  was  the  foremost  of  psychological  poets.  Belonging  to  "  The  Romantic 
School,"  he  created  an  epocih  in  literature  by  carrying  liis  high  ideals  and 
wonderful  efforts  of  genius  over  into  what  became  known  as  '*  The  Spasmo- 
dic School." 

Actors.  —  Edmund  Keene,  of  England  (b.  1787 ;  d.  May  15, 1833),  was  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  popular  a(rtors  of  all  time.  He  typified,  and  greatly 
contributed  to  the  success  of,  that  school  of  actors  who  rely  almost  solely  on 
their  own  native  genius  and  actiuired  powers,  rather  than  on  the  aid  of 
externals.  He  has  been  called  both  the  "Byron"  and  the  "Napoleon"  of 
actors,  and  seemed  to  have  the  most  extraordinary  power  both  of  catching 
and  revealing  the  meaning  of  Shakespeare,  with  the  quickness  and  vividness 
of  the  lightning  flash. 

Edwin  Forrest  (b.  March  9,  1800 ;  d.  December  12,  1872)  was  a  tragedian 
of  the  robust  type.  His  success  upon  the  stage  was  signal,  owing  to  natural 
genius,  superb  form,  and  noble  presence.  For  more  than  a  generation  he 
rendered  effective  and  kept  ])opular  the  leading  tragedies  of  Shakespeare, 
and  others  suited  to  his  powers.  The  Actors'  Home  at  Philadelphia  was 
endowed  by  him,  and  stands  as  his  monument. 

Edwin  T.  Booth  (b.  November  13,1833;  d.  June  7,  1893)  stood  as  the 
exponent  of  the  refined  and  lofty  in  drama.     Through  his  rare  histrionic 


surpassed 
seems  to 
3  extended 
wider  and 
to  win  the 

^  1892),  as 
lolitionists. 
inerson,  he 
ican  litera- 
eet,  simple^ 
patriotism^ 

er  6,  1892), 

o,  while  not 

i  wrote  care- 
ion,  polish, 

;ht  "  In  Me- 

t'  the  King  " 
the  world's 

thout  doubt, 

other.     She 

ess,  and  logic 

npulses,  and 

this  century 

discriminat- 

(ecember  12. 
[he  lloraantic 
li  ideals  and 
[ihe  Bpasmo- 

833),  was  one 
[,  and  greatly- 
lost  solely  on 
li  the  aid  of 

lapoleon"  of 
of  catching 

[nd  vividness 

a  tragedian 

g  to  natural 

leneration  he 

Shakespeare, 

idelpliia  was 

[stood  as  the 
Ire  histrionic 


EPOCH-MAKERS  OF  THE  CENTURY 


719 


powers  he  became  a  reeogiiizod  interpreter  of  such  characters  as  Richard  III., 
Shylock,  Lear,  lago,  Othello,  ISrutus,  etc.,  but  he  never  appeared  to  better 
advantage  than  in  Hamlet.  His  ability  was  as  fully  recognized  abroad  as  at 
home.  He  expended  !il>17o,()00  in  establishing  the  Players'  House  and  Club 
in  New  York. 

Charlotte  S.  Cushman  (b.  July  23,  ISK! ;  d.  February  IS,  ISTG)  first  won 
her  histrionic  honors  in  opera.  Her  voice  failed,  and  then  she  began  her 
memorable,  career  as  actress,  her  most  famous  personations  being  Lady 
Macbeth,  liiancfa,  .Fulia,  JJeatrice,  Lady  Teazle,  (iueeu  Katharine,  and  Meg 
Merrilies.  She  readily  raiikiMl  with  the  great  dramatic  artists  of  the  century, 
and  her  skill,  native  and  actpiired,  divided  with  her  own  splendid  character 
the  admiration  of  the  general  public. 

Toinmaso  Salvini  (b.  January,  1830)  demonstrates  that  now  very  rare  and 
severely  tragic  school  of  the  stage  in  which  the  actor  appeals  to  the  public 
through  his  genius  and  art,  rather  tlian  through  his  environments  and  .acces- 
sories. He  thus  belongs  to  an  apparently  closing  era  in  the  history  of  the 
stage.  Powerful,  passionate  yet  self-controlled,  magniiicent  in  physiipie,  in 
elocution,  in  reading  and  in  deportment,  as  an  actor  he  really  belongs  to  the 
world,  although  Italian  in  both  spirit  and  training. 

Sir  Henry  Irving  (or  really  John  Henry  Uroadrib),  of  England,  was  born 
in  1838,  and  is  the  leader  of  that  modern  school  of  actors,  wlio  depend  not 
so  much  on  good  reading,  acting  and  general  elocution  as  upon  careful  atten- 
tion to  details  in  stage-setting  and  presentation.  As  an  epoch-maker  in  the 
history  of  the  modern  drama,  he  nnirks  that  point  where  the  actor  begins  to 
look  away  from  his  own  personal  art  to  that  displayed  in  his  surroundings 
and  accessories. 

Lyhk;  Dramatists. —  Ludwig  van  lieethoven,  of  Germany  (b.  December 
17,  1770 ;  d.  March  2(5,  1827),  is  widely  held  to  be  the  nu)st  colossal  of  musi- 
cal geniuses,  in  breadtli  and  grasp  of  intellect,  in  vastness  and  boldness 
of  imagination,  and  in  depth  and  tenderness  of  emotion.  His  one  opera, 
"  Fidelio,"  is  by  many  considered  to  be  unrivaled  in  the  realm  of  pur*"'  dra- 
matic music.  His  sonatas  and  chamber  music;  are  generally  conceded  easily 
to  lead  in  those  two  departments,  while  his  symphonies  are  universally  be- 
lieved to  have  reached  tlie  utmost  limit  of  development  which  is  possible  in 
the  field  of  orchestral  composition. 

Charles  F.  Gounod,  of  France  (b.  June  17, 1818 ;  d.  October  18,  1893),  is  an 
instance  of  a  composer  whose  permanent  fame  must  rest  on  but  one  work, 
the  opera  of  •'  Faust,"  in  which  he  reached  the  utmost  height  of  his  po\yers 
and  success.  No  opera  has  ever  had  such  instant,  universal,  and  constant 
popularity.  Eclectic  in  style,  and  faithful  and  enthusiastic  in  his  art,  he  did 
much  to  advance  the  progress  of  religious  and  operatic  music  in  France. 

Robert  Schumann,  of  Saxony  (b.  June  8,  1810 ;  d.  July  29,  ISoG)  was  one 
of  the  creators  of  the  romantic  school  of  nuisic.  He  was  not  a  piano  player, 
but  a  teacher  and  composer.  His  symphonies  have  been  accorded  a  rank 
next  to  those  of  IJeethoven,  and  for  their  deep  pathos,  fine,  intense  passion 
and  wild,  mournful  beauty  many  of  his  compositions  are  almost  peerless. 

Felix  Mendelssolin-l'.artholdy  (b.  February  5,  1809 ;  d.  November  4,  1847) 
was  as  lovely  in  character  as  in  works.  In  symphony,  song,  piano-forte, 
organ,  or  oratorio,  he  showed  himself  worthy  of  being  classed  with  the  great 


720 


TRIUMPHS  AND    WONDERS  OF  THE  XIX"'  CENTURY 


musical  masters.  His  compositions  suffered  eclipse  for  a  time  by  those  of  a 
stronger  school,  b\it  his  true  position  in  the  musical  world  is  once  more  be- 
coming recognized. 

Franz  Schubert,  of  Austria  (b.  January  31,  1797 ;  d.  November  10,  1829), 
lias  been  called  "the  imuKn-tal  melodist.'  His  fecundity  was  marvelous,  and 
he  is  best  known  by  liir  songs,  several  hundred  in  nunjber,  and  nearly  half  of 
which  have  immortal  (juality.  He  also  comi)osed  many  charming  sympho- 
nies and  operas.  His  chief  characteristics  are  the  freshness  of  his  delight- 
ful melodies  supported  by  harmonies  of  equal  interest. 

Anton  Gregor  iJubinstein.  of  Itussia  (b.  November  30,  1(S30;  d.  November 
20,  1894),  combined  the  brilliant  pianist  with  the  composer  of  genius.  Had 
he  not  been  preceded  by  Jiiszt  as  an  epoch  maker,  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  had  the  honor  of  being  first  of  all  great  pianists. 

Frederic  F.  ClK)pin,  of  J'oland  (b.  jMarch  1,  1809;  d.  October  17,  1849),  was 
one  of  the  first  of  pianists  and  musical  composers.  His  playing,  like  his 
music,  was  marked  by  a  strange  and  ravishing  grace,  and  he  was  the  great 
inter[)reter  of  the  music  of  his  native  country.  He  composed  concertos, 
waltzes,  nocturnes,  i)reludes,  and  mazurkas  abounding  in  poetic  fancy  and 
subtle  harmonic  effects. 

Jacques  Offenbjuih,  of  France  (b.  June  21,  1819;  d.  October  4,  1880),  was 
the  chief  creator  of  the  opera  bouffe,  and  was  an  astonishingly  prolific  com- 
poser. He  stands  for  the  clever,  tactful  musician,  shrewd  to  perceive  and 
quick  to  seize  what  catches  the  public  ear  for  the  time  being. 

Franz  Liszt,  of  Hungary  (b.  October  22,  1811 ;  d.  July  31,  188(5),  ranks  as 
one  of  the  world's  i)henomenal  pianists.  His  strength  and  technique  were 
prodigious,  his  magnetism  irresistible,  and  his  power  over  audiences  uu- 
equaled.  By  his  free,  fantastic!  comi)ositioiis  he  created  a  new  school  of 
composers.  He  gave  extraordinary  aid  and  inspiration  to  other  musicians, 
iind  in  reality  brought  Kichard  Wagner  into  iirominence  before  the  nmsical 
world. 

Richard  Wagner,  of  Germany  (b.  :May  22,  1813 ;  d.  February  13,  1883), 
^arly  abandoned  I'eethoven  as  an  operatic  model,  and  felt  that  a  new  era  in 
music  was  about  to  dawn.  His  nmsical  theories  Hrst  found  full  swing  in 
his  famous  opera  of  the  "Nibclungtni  King,"  with  which,  and  kindred  produc- 
tions, he  practically  created  the  modern  music-drama.  In  his  operas  he  was 
sole  author  of  their  wonderful  wealth  of  tnie  poetry,  stage  effects,  dramatic 
action,  and  endless  melody.  No  musician  has  ever  made  such  bitter  foes  and 
warm  friends,  and  none  ever  had  to  tight  his  way  so  stubbornly  to  recogni- 
tion. 

Giuseppe  Verdi,  of  Italy  (b.  October  9, 1813),  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
musical  composers  of  the  century,  in  the  resjtect  that  his  talent  has  not 
failed  with  age,  but  has  kcjit  jtace  with  the  great  changes  which  have  affected 
the  dramatic  stage  since  his  youth.  In  the  beauty  of  his  melodies  and  the 
intensity  of  his  dramatic  i)owers  he  is  unsurpassed.  Very  few,  indeed,  of 
his  numerous  productions  have  failed  to  hold  exalted  ])lace  in  public  estima- 
tion. His  best-known  works  are  ''II  Trovatore,"  "La  Traviata,"  "Rigoletto," 
"I'.allo  in  ^laschera,"  "Aida,"  "Otello,"  and  "Falstaff,"  the  latter  written  in 
1893,  when  the  author  had  reached  the  age  of  eighty. 

A.  Leffinowell. 


r// 


CENTURY 


a  tiine  by  those  of  a 
nkl  is  once  more  be- 

^'ovember  10,  1829), 
y  was  marvelous,  and 
iv,  and  nearly  half  of 
y  charming  sympho- 
hness  of  his  delight- 

I  1830;  d.  Xovember 

ser  of  genius.     Had 

would  undoubtedly 

tober  17,  1849),  was 
is  playing,  like  his 
d  he  was  the  great 
ioniposed  concertos, 
1  poetic  fancy  and 

itober  4,  1880),  was 
!ungly  prolific  com- 
kvd  to  perceive  and 
ng. 

31,  188(5),  ranks  as 
nd  technique  were 
)ver  audiences  un- 
i  a  new  school  of 
;o  other  musicians, 
before  the  musical 

ibruary  13,  1883), 
t  that  a  new  era  in 
nnd  full  swing  in 
id  kindred  produc- 
his  ojieras  he  was 
B  effects,  dramatic 
ch  bitter  foes  and 
bornly  to  recogni- 

'  most  remarkable 
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lich  have  affected 
melodies  and  the 
y  few,  indeed,  of 
in  public  estinia- 
ita,"  "Rigoletto," 
latter  written  in 


LEFFIN(avj:LL. 


